SJPO Training 2018

– Summary of Topics –

Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

Hwa Chong Institution

May 7, 2018

The following summary is based on the SJPO 2018 Syllabus. Not all bullet points in the syllabus
have been elaborated upon. The complete syllabus has been uploaded onto Google Drive.

Good luck
Don’t Panic

Contents

1 Mechanics of Particles 3
1.1 Kinematics – position, displacement, velocity, acceleration, vectors . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Motion of point mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Motion in 1-dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.3 Motion in 2-dimension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.4 Vector description of motion of a point mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.5 Relative velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.6 Motion with constant acceleration (e.g. free fall, projectile motion) or with
variable acceleration (e.g. car on straight road) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.1.7 Motion in a circle (involving centripetal acceleration) . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2 Dynamics – inertia, momentum, impulse, forces, energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.1 Newton’s laws of motion/Application of Newton’s laws . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Motion affected by dissipative forces (e.g. friction, fluid resistance) . . . . 5
1.2.3 Elastic, friction, normal, gravity including Newton’s law of gravitation,
electric and magnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Conservation of energy, conversion of energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.1 Work Done, Power, Potential Energy (PE), Kinetic Energy (KE) . . . . 7
1.4 Impulse and Momentum / Conservation of Linear Momentum . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.1 Collisions/explosions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.4.2 Coefficient of Restitution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4.3 External and internal forces for a system of particles, centre of mass . 8

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

2 Mechanics of Rigid Bodies 9

2.1 Statics – equilibrium, stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2 Kinematics – angular position, angular displacement, angular velocity, angular accel-
eration, vector products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.1 Rotation with constant angular acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Relationship between linear and angular quantities . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Dynamics – moment of inertia, torque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.1 Angular momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3.2 Rotational KE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

3 Fluid Mechanics 11
3.1 Fluid statics – Density, pressure, buoyancy, surface tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.1.1 Pascal’s law, Archimedes’ principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.2 Fluid Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2.1 Bernoulli’s principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

4 Oscillations and Waves 13

4.1 Simple Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2 Mechanical, Electrical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.1 Frequency, Period, Phase Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.2.2 Qualitative understanding of damping and resonance . . . . . . . . . . 13
4.3 Waves: Mechanical (Sound, String, Fluid), Electromagnetic . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3.1 Polarization, Malus’ law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3.2 Principle of superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
4.3.3 Standing waves, interference, diffraction, beats . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.4 Geometric Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

5 Electric Charge and Electric Field 16

5.1 Motion of charged particles in an electric field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.2 Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
5.3 Conservation and quantization of charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

6 Current and Magnetic Field 18

6.1 Current, impedance, and potential difference in DC and AC circuits . . . . . . 18
6.1.1 Circuits containing non-ohmic devices with known V-I characteristics 18
6.2 Magnetic field and Magnetic Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3 Electromagnetic induction and inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3.1 Self-Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3.2 Mutual Inductance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

7 Thermodynamics 20
7.1 Laws of Thermodynamics and Absolute Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.2 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
7.3 Thermal properties of Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.3.1 Thermal Conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.3.2 Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
7.4 Thermodynamic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7.4.1 Thermodynamic efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

1 Mechanics of Particles

1.1 Kinematics – position, displacement, velocity, acceleration, vectors

Position Position is described by displacement vector ~

x from a fixed point, origin
d~
x d~
v
Velocity ~
v= Acceleration ~
a=
dt dt

1.1.1 Motion of point mass

When considering translational motion, we can consider all forces acting on an object to be
acting through its centre of mass.

1.1.2 Motion in 1-dimension

These equations are derived by integrating a constant acceleration, a, using the limits where
ti = 0, tf = t, vi = u, vf = v. Clearly define the coordinate system ie which direction is
positive before use.

1
s = ut + at2 v 2 = u2 + 2as v = u + at
2

1.1.3 Motion in 2-dimension

Motion in more than one dimension can be uniquely separated into its dimensions as long
as they are orthogonal (perpendicular) to one another. Each dimension has its own set of
independent kinematic equations.

1.1.4 Vector description of motion of a point mass

The motion of a point mass can be uniquely defined when its position and momentum (velocity)
is known.

1.1.5 Relative velocity

In an inertial frame travelling at ~

v1 relative to a rest frame, the velocity of an object travelling
at ~
v2 in the rest frame appears to be

~ v2 − ~
vapparent = ~ v1

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

1.1.6 Motion with constant acceleration (e.g. free fall, projectile motion) or with variable
acceleration (e.g. car on straight road)

Motion with constant acceleration is parabolic/quadratic.

Consider graphical methods when the velocity of an object changes multiple times in a ques-
tion.
A general rule-of-thumb of integration is that any

polynomial function, when integrated, will
have its power increased by 1. e.g. x2 → x3 .1 Similarly, any
polynomial function, when
differentiated, will have its power decreased by 1. e.g. x3 → x2 .

1.1.7 Motion in a circle (involving centripetal acceleration)

For an object to undergo circular motion, the net force acting on the object must be

v 2
~net = m~
F acentripetal = m = mrω 2
r
in the radial direction.
Note: Centripetal force isn’t a physical force, rather it is a condition for the net force acting
on an object that is undergoing circular motion.

1.2 Dynamics – inertia, momentum, impulse, forces, energy

Inertia A property of matter by which it continues in its existing state of rest

or uniform motion in a straight line, unless that state is changed by an
external force. Related to the mass of an object
Impulse J~ = ∆P
~ =F
~avg ∆t = m∆~
v

Forces ~ = d~
F
p
=m
d~
v
(for constant mass) aka Newton’s second law
dt dt
~avg = m~ ∆v
F aavg = m
∆t

1


Note that this does not apply to 1
x
= ln x + C

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

1.2.1 Newton’s laws of motion/Application of Newton’s laws

Newton’s first law states that every object will remain at rest or in uniform motion in a straight
line unless compelled to change its state by the action of an external force. This is normally
taken as the definition of inertia. The key point here is that if there is no net force acting on an
object (if all the external forces cancel each other out) then the object will maintain a constant
velocity. If that velocity is zero, then the object remains at rest. If an external force is applied,
the velocity will change because of the force.
The second law explains how the velocity of an object changes when it is subjected to an
external force. The law defines a force to be equal to change in momentum (mass × velocity)
per change in time. Newton also developed the calculus of mathematics, and the “changes”
expressed in the second law are most accurately defined in differential forms. (Calculus can also
be used to determine the velocity and location variations experienced by an object subjected to
an external force.) For an object with a constant mass m, the second law states that the force
~ is the product of an object’s mass and its acceleration ~
F a:

~ = m~
F a

For an external applied force, the change in velocity depends on the mass of the object. A force
will cause a change in velocity; and likewise, a change in velocity will generate a force. The
equation works both ways.
The third law states that for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite reac-
tion. In other words, if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts an equal
force on object A. Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects. The third law can be
used to explain the generation of lift by a wing and the production of thrust by a jet engine.
https://www.grc.nasa.gov/www/k-12/airplane/newton.html

1.2.2 Motion affected by dissipative forces (e.g. friction, fluid resistance)

Kinetic friction is constant and acts in the opposite direction of motion Fkinetic = µk N .
Other kinds of resistance are proportional to the v or v 2 of the object and act in the opposing
direction. The resultant motion is exponential decay for the former while the latter is similar
in shape but has a sharper decrease.

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1.2.3 Elastic, friction, normal, gravity including Newton’s law of gravitation, electric
and magnetic

Elastic Force Felastic = −kx

fstatic ≤ µs N
Friction
fkinetic = µk N
Normal Contact Force Normal force occurs between two surfaces and is perpendic-
ular to the surface
Fg = mg near surface of Earth
Gravity
GM m
F = towards each other
r2
1 q1 q2
Coloumb’s law · 2
4πε0 r
Force by an electric field ~E = q E
F ~

Magnetic Force ~B = q~
F ~
v×B

1.3 Conservation of energy, conversion of energy

Energy is always conserved in a closed system in an inertial frame. Energy can be converted
to other forms by cannot be destroyed.

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

1.3.1 Work Done, Power, Potential Energy (PE), Kinetic Energy (KE)

Work Done W = F ~ · d~ Work done by an object through a force is

equal to the product of the magnitude of the force acting
parallel to the direction of motion.
dW
Power P =
dt
Elastic PE EPE = 12 kx2
Work done against Friction Wf = f~ · d~
GPE = mgh (for small values of h at the surface of earth)
Gravitational PE
GM m
GPE = − (in general)
r  r1
EPE = q∆V = q e dr
Electric PE r0
1 q1 q2
EPE = · for two particles in free space
4πε0 r
Kinetic Energy KE = 12 mv 2

1.4 Impulse and Momentum / Conservation of Linear Momentum

Momentum p v is conserved in any closed system due to newton’s third law.

~ = m~

1.4.1 Collisions/explosions

There are two types of collisions: Inelastic and elastic. For elastic collisions, both energy and
momentum is conserved. This leads to the condition that the velocity of approach must be
equal and in opposite direction to the receding velocity:

u1 − u2 = −(v1 − v2 )

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1.4.2 Coefficient of Restitution

e is the ratio of the final to initial relative velocity between two objects after they collide, usually
a positive, real number between 0 and 1:

e=0 This is a perfectly inelastic collision. The objects do not move apart after the
collision, but instead they coalesce. Kinetic energy is converted to heat or
work done in deforming the objects.
0<e<1 This is a real-world inelastic collision, in which some kinetic energy is dissi-
pated.
e=1 This is a perfectly elastic collision, in which no kinetic energy is dissipated,
and the objects rebound from one another with the same relative speed with
which they approached.

1.4.3 External and internal forces for a system of particles, centre of mass

Internal forces cannot be detected from outside the system. They do not cause a change in
total momentum or energy of a system. The resultant force of an internal force acts on another
object in the system.
External forces causes a change in the total momentum and energy of a system and its resultant
force acts on an object outside the system.
COM is the weighted average of the displacement of the masses
1 X X
xCOM = mi ri where M = mi
M
i i

For continuous distribution: 

1
xCOM = r dm
M

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2 Mechanics of Rigid Bodies

2.1 Statics – equilibrium, stability

Static equilibrium is attained when the net forces acting on an object is zero.
Rotational equilibrium is attained when the net torque acting on an object is zero.
Stable equilibrium is attained when a small disturbance from its position is met
with a restoring force.
Dynamic equilibrium is attained when a small disturbance from its position causes
a net force acting in the same direction.
Neutral equilibrium is attained when the system experiences not net force after a
small disturbance.

2.2 Kinematics – angular position, angular displacement, angular velocity, angular acceleration,
vector products

θ Angular displacement relative to an angle

~
dθ
Angular Velocity ω
~ =
dt
d~
ω
Angular acceleration α
~ =
dt

The direction of angular displacement/velocity/acceleration is given by the right-hand-rule.

2.2.1 Rotation with constant angular acceleration

Akin to kinematic equations:


Moment of Inertia I= r2 dm
1
Displacement θ = ωt + αt2
2
Velocity ωf2 = ωi2 + 2αθ
.. ..
. .

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

2.2.2 Relationship between linear and angular quantities

~ r×ω
v=~ ~ ~ r×α
a=~ ~

2.3 Dynamics – moment of inertia, torque

~
τ = Iα
~ =~ ~
r×F

2.3.1 Angular momentum

~ =~
L r×p
~ = mvr sin θ n̂

Angular motion is conserved in a closed system. It remains constant if no torque is acting upon
the body.
For circular motion, L = mvr.

2.3.2 Rotational KE

1
Rotational KE = Iω 2
2

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

3 Fluid Mechanics

3.1 Fluid statics – Density, pressure, buoyancy, surface tension

F M
Pressure P = = ρgh in a fluid where ρ =
A V

Buoyancy Force Buoyancy force is equal to the weight of fluid displaced caused
due to difference of pressure between the top and body of an
object.

Surface tension σ = γl where γ is a constant based on the property of the fluid

and l is the length of surface exposed to the liquid. For a film,
the total surface tension is double since there are two surfaces.

3.1.1 Pascal’s law, Archimedes’ principle

Pascal’s Law Pascal’s law (also Pascal’s principle or the principle of transmis-
sion of fluid-pressure) is a principle in fluid mechanics that states
that a pressure change occurring anywhere in a confined incom-
pressible fluid is transmitted throughout the fluid such that the
same change occurs everywhere. (i.e the pressure of a fluid at a
height is always equal.)

Archimedes’ principle Archimedes’ principle states that the upward buoyant force that
is exerted on a body immersed in a fluid, whether fully or par-
tially submerged, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body
displaces and acts in the upward direction at the center of mass
of the displaced fluid.

Fu = ρVdisplaced g = ρVg

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

3.2 Fluid Dynamics

3.2.1 Bernoulli’s principle

Bernoulli’s principle states that an increase in the speed of a fluid occurs simultaneously
with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid’s potential energy.

v2 p
+ gz + = constant
2 ρ
where:
v = Fluid flow speed at a point on a streamline
g = Acceleration due to gravity
z = Elevation of the point above a reference plane, with the positive z-direction pointing
upward – so in the direction opposite to the gravitational acceleration
p = Pressure at the chosen point
ρ = Density of the fluid at all points in the fluid
The following assumptions must be met for this Bernoulli equation to apply:
• the flow must be steady, i.e. the flow parameters (velocity, density, etc…) at any point
cannot change with time
• the flow must be incompressible – even though pressure varies, the density must remain
constant along a streamline
• friction by viscous forces must be negligible

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

4 Oscillations and Waves

4.1 Simple Harmonic Motion

The general form of a SHM is as follows:

A = A0 sin(ωt + φ)

Solution of the SHM equation:

 2
2π
a = −k~
~ x where k = ω =2
T

4.2 Mechanical, Electrical

4.2.1 Frequency, Period, Phase Difference

Frequency f Number of oscillations that occur per second

Period T Time taken for an oscillation to occur, the inverse of frequency
Phase Difference ∆φ The difference in the phase angle between two oscillating sys-
tems ie how much one system is leading another
If they are in phase, the phase difference is equal to 2π and the
two systems reach their maxima and minima at the same time.
If they are out of phase, the phase difference is π and the maxima
of one system occurs at the minima of another system.

4.2.2 Qualitative understanding of damping and resonance

Damping occurs when a force opposes a system’s change, it is modelled as proportional to

the system’s rate of change i.e drag force. There are three types of damping:

Lightly Damped
Still sinusoidal but the amplitude is contained in an
exponential decay envelope.
Overdamped
Never passes the origin, tends towards equilibrium
Critically Damped
May pass through the origin at most once. Reaches
the origin in the fastest possible time.

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4.3 Waves: Mechanical (Sound, String, Fluid), Electromagnetic

For a wave traveling in the positive x, k > 0, it has a general equation:

y = A sin(ωt − kx + φ)

Attenuation The loss of energy of a wave over a distance.

Wavelength λ The distance of space over which a wave repeats
Wave Speed v The speed at which a wave propagates. v = fλ
Amplitude A, Intensity I I ∝ A2
Transverse Waves Transverse waves oscillate in the plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation.
Longitudinal Waves Longitudinal waves oscillate along the direction of propagation.

4.3.1 Polarization, Malus’ law

Polarized light occurs when the vibrations only occur along a single plane.
Malus’ law states that the intensity of a beam of plane-polarized light after passing through a
rotatable polarizer varies as the square of the cosine of the angle through which the polarizer
is rotated from the position that gives maximum intensity:

I = I0 cos2 θ ⇐= A = A0 cos θ

4.3.2 Principle of superposition

The net displacement of the sum of waves at a point is equal to the sum of the displacements
caused by each wave separately. (i.e. waves can be added on each other)

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4.3.3 Standing waves, interference, diffraction, beats

Standing waves Standing waves occur when two waves travelling in opposite
directions interfere and form a wave where the nodes and antin-
odes have fixed positions.
Interference Interference occurs when two waves in the same medium super-
pose.
Constructive interference occurs when the waves are in phase.
Destructive interference occurs when the waves are exactly out
of phase.
Diffraction Diffraction occurs when waves bend around corners of an object
or aperture into the geometrical shadow of the obstacle.
Beats Beats occur when two waves interfere. It results in a sinusoidal
pattern where the amplitude is controlled by another sinusoidal
pattern.

More at http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/sound/Lesson-3/Interference-and-Beats.

4.4 Geometric Optics

Reflection θincident = θreflected

c
Refraction Optical Density of medium η =
vlight in medium

sin θi ηi
=
sin θr ηr
Refer to hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/Tables/indrf.html for
common refractive indices.
Total Internal Reflection From medium with greater optical density to a lower one:
1 ηi
θi > θc where =
sin θc ηr

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5 Electric Charge and Electric Field

1 q1 q2
Coulomb’s Law · 2
4πε0 r
P
1 i qi 1 X dq
Electric Field E= · =
4πε0 r2 4πε0 r2

Electric Flux 
Φ= ~ · dA
E ~=E
~ ·A
~
⇒ Analogous to the number of field lines cutting
through a surface per area
P
1 i qi 1 X dq
Electric Potential V = · =
4πε0 r 4πε0 r

Electric Potential Energy U = qV

Electric Force on a Charged Particle in an E Field F = qE

1 X qi qj
Work done to assemble a system of charges
4πε0 r2
i6=j

Work done to bring a positive charge in the direction of electric field lines is negative.
Work done to bring a positive charge against the direction of the electric field lines is positive.

5.1 Motion of charged particles in an electric field

The motion of charged particles in an electric field is affected by the electric force, which is
given by:
~E = q E
F ~

5.2 Capacitance

Capacitance is the ratio of charge stored between conductors to potential difference. Capaci-
tance is only dependent on the geometrical factors of the capacitor. Doubling the magnitude
of charge on each conductor will double the charge density, electric field and also the potential
difference.

Q
Capacitance C=
V  −1
X 1
Equivalence Capacitance of a system of capacitors Cseries = 
Ci
i
X
Cparallel = Ci
i

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Electric Potential Energy stored in a capacitor is defined as the work done to charge a ca-
pacitor, which is to separate opposite charges and place them on different conductors:

Q
dW = V dq = dq
C

1 Q2 1 1
W = q dq = = CV 2 = QV
C 2C 2 2

E 0.5CV 2 1
Electric Energy Density U= = = ε0 E 2
Vol Ad 2
"
Gauss Law (for symmetrical continuous charge distributions) ~= Q
~ · dA
E
ε0

5.3 Conservation and quantization of charge

Charge is a conserved quantity. The minimum unit of charge is e = 1.60 × 10−19 C, the charge
of an electron or proton.

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

6 Current and Magnetic Field

6.1 Current, impedance, and potential difference in DC and AC circuits

Ohm’s Law V = IR

V l
Resistance R= =ρ
I A
dQ ne nev
Current I= = =
dt t L

V2
Power P = VI = I 2R =
R
Impedance Impedance extends the concept of resistance to AC cir-
cuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike re-
sistance, which has only magnitude.
Kirchoff’s Loop Rule The sum of voltage drops across all circuital elements (in
a loop) is zero.
Kirchoff’s Junction Rule At any point where there is a node formed by the junction
of various current carrying branches, by current conser-
vation, the sum of the currents going into the node must
equal to the sum of the currents going out of the node.

6.1.1 Circuits containing non-ohmic devices with known V-I characteristics

Semiconductors The resistance at a point is equal to the potential dif-

ference across the semiconductor divided by the current,
NOT necessarily the slope at the point

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

6.2 Magnetic field and Magnetic Forces

Magnetic Force (f. wire) ~ = IL

F ~ ×B
~
 
Lorentz Force (f. moving point charge) ~ =q E
F ~ +~ ~
v×B

µ0 I d~l × ~r
Biot-Savart Law (f. wire) ~ =
dB 3
4π |r|
v×~
µ0 q ~ r
Biot-Savart Law (f. moving point charge) ~ =
dB 3
4π |r|

Magnetic Dipole Moment µ = N I~ × A

~

Ampere’s Law ~ · d~l = µ0 I

B

6.3 Electromagnetic induction and inductance

Magnetic Flux ~ ·A
φ=B ~

dφ
Faraday’s Law ε = −N
dt
Lenz’s Law ↑ accounts for negative sign

dI
Inductance V =L
dt

6.3.1 Self-Inductance

Consider a circuit consisting of a switch, power source and wires.

Initially, current flows in the wire. When the switch is turned off, the current in the wire does
not instantaneously drop to zero but slowly falls to zero. According to Faraday’s Law, this effect
results in the induction of a magnetic field to oppose this change. This induced magnetic field
is in the opposite direction of the magnetic field of the original current. This property of the
loop in which its own magnetic field opposes any change in current is called self-inductance.

dI Nφ
εback = −L where L =
dt I

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

6.3.2 Mutual Inductance

Consider two coils placed near to each other.

Suddenly, a current flows in the first coil (with N turns and current IA ) which gives rise to
a magnetic field. Some of the magnetic field lines through coil A will also pass through coil
B. This results in an increase in magnetic flux linkage through coil B. By Faraday’s Law, an
induced emf occurs in coil B.
dφB dIA NB φ
NB =M where M =
dt dt IA

7 Thermodynamics

7.1 Laws of Thermodynamics and Absolute Temperature

0th If two systems are in thermal equilibrium with a third system, they are in thermal
equilibrium with each other.
1st Increase in internal energy of system is sum of heat absorbed by system and work
done on system.
∆U = Q + Won

Absolute temperature (unit: Kelvin) is defined with reference to absolute zero. At absolute
zero, particles have zero vibrational motion. For reference,

∆1 ◦C = ∆1 K and 0 ◦C = 273.15 K

7.2 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas

Ideal gas equation: For a monatomic gas particle:

r s
3kT 3RT
P V = nRT = N kT vrms = =
m Mmolar
3 3
Ek = N kT = nRT
2 2
where:
P Pressure T Absolute Temperature
V Volume k Boltzmann Constant
n No. of moles of gases N Number of particles
R Ideal gas constant Mmolar Molar mass of the gas (in kg mol−1 )

Note: 1 mol = 6.023 × 1023 particles. This number is called the Avogadro’s number NA .
Note: We usually measure Mmolar in g mol−1 . In this unit, it is numerically equal to the atomic
mass of a gas particle/molecule.

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

7.3 Thermal properties of Materials

Heat Capacity c Q = mc∆θ

Latent Heat Q Q = mL where L is the process’s specific latent heat

Latent heat is thermal energy released or absorbed, by a body or a thermodynamic system,

during a constant-temperature process (e.g. boiling).
Note: Heat capacity is different for different materials at different states. You will mostly be
using the specific heat capacity c of an object, and not C = mc, the heat capacity of the object.
Note: Q is heat energy in joules.

7.3.1 Thermal Conductivity

In an isotropic medium the thermal conductivity is the parameter k in the Fourier expression
for the heat flux q ~ , where q
~ = −k ∇T ~ is heat flux (amount of heat flowing per second and per
unit area), and ∇T the temperature gradient.
~

In a one-dimensional case, it reduces to:

dT
H = −kA
dx
H dQ
where q = =⇒ H = qA = .
A dt
H is thus the amount of heat flowing per second through a surface with area A.
If the temperature difference is small, k can be taken as constant. The equation thus reduces
to:
TH − TL
H = kA
L

7.3.2 Thermal Expansion

Linear Expansion Area Expansion Volume Expansion

∆L ∆A ∆V
= α∆T = 2α∆T = 3α∆T
L0 A0 V0

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SJPO 2018 Summary of Topics Prepared by Lor Jun Heng, Sun Yudong

7.4 Thermodynamic Processes

The 1st Law of Thermodynamics is relevant to many Thermodynamics Processes.

For any process, the work done by an expanding gas Wby = −Won is given by:

Wby = P ∆V ⇐= dWby = P dV

We assume, for the following P-V graphs, that the arrow points towards the positive-V direc-
tion.

Isobaric Constant Pressure Won < 0 , ∆U > 0

Isochoric Constant Volume Won = 0 , ∆U > 0
Isothermal Constant Temperature Won < 0 , ∆U = 0
Adiabatic Thermally Insulated Won < 0 , Q=0
Cyclic Start and end at the same state ∆U = 0

Work is done by the gas when expanding;

Work is done on the gas when contracting.
The internal energy U is the microscopic kinetic energy Ek of the particles. For a monatomic
particle
3
U = nRT
2

7.4.1 Thermodynamic efficiency

The thermal efficiency ηth is given by:

Wout Qin − Qout Qout

ηth ≡ = =1−
Qin Qin Qin

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