Transportation in Cell membrane:

1) Ions such as Na +, K+, and Ca2+ transport across a cell membrane and they use a special
channel.
2) There are 2 types of cell transport, they are active and passive transport.
3) Active transport requires energy to transport molecules from lower to higher concentrations.
4) Passive transport requires no external energy molecules directly moving from higher to lower
concentration.
5) There are three types of passive transport they are simple diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated
diffusion.
6) Cell membrane follows the facilitated diffusion type of transport, where membrane proteins
help in transportation by binding to the molecules on the surface.
7) Diffusion with the help of transport protein is known as facilitated diffusion.
8) Transport proteins transport the ions through the cell membrane.
9) Channel proteins help in making pores on the membrane and carrier proteins bind with specific
ions are examples of transport proteins.
Active Transport
Transportation is an essential, natural and the physiological process which occurs in all the
higher organisms including plants, animals, and humans. In order to sustain life, this process is
important as it functions by constantly transporting, different essential materials to and from all
parts of the body including cells, tissues, and organs.

The essential materials mainly include water, hormones, gases, mineral nutrition, organic
material, etc. The different means of transport in a living organism are:

 Diffusion
 Facilitated diffusion
 Active transport
 Passive transport.
Let us have a detailed overview of Active transport.

What is Active Transport?

“Active Transport is defined as a process that involves the movement of molecules from a
region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration against a gradient or an
obstacle with the use of external energy.”

During the process of active transport, a protein pump makes use of stored energy in the form of
ATP, to move molecules

The below diagram shows the process of active transport, which uses an external energy ATP for
the movement of the molecules.

Active Transport
The uptake of glucose in the intestine of the human body and also the uptake of minerals or ions
into the root hair cells of the plants are some of the examples of active transport.

Types of Active transport

There are two types of active transport namely – Primary active transport and secondary active
transport.

Primary active transport

In this process of transportation, the energy is utilized by the breakdown of the ATP – Adenosine
triphosphate to transport molecules across the membrane against a concentration gradient.
Therefore, all the groups of ATP powered pumps contain one or more binding sites for the ATP
molecules, which are present on the cytosolic face of the membrane. Basically, the primary
active transport uses external chemical energy such as the ATP.

Sodium-potassium pump, the most important pump in the animal cell is considered as an
example of primary active transport. In this process of transportation, the sodium ions are moved
to the outside of the cell and potassium ions are moved to the inside of the cell.

Secondary active transport

Secondary active transport is a kind of active transport that uses electrochemical energy. It takes
place across a biological membrane where a transporter protein couples the movement of an
electrochemical ion (typically Na+ or H+) down its electrochemical gradient to the upward
movement of another molecule or an ion against a concentration or electrochemical gradient.

Electrochemical Gradient
Electrochemical gradient exists whenever there is a net difference in charges. The positive and
negative charges of a cell are separated by a membrane, where the inside of the cell has extra
negative charges than outside. The membrane potential of a cell is -40 to -80 millivolts.

The cell has higher potassium concentration inside the cell but lower sodium concentration than
the extracellular fluid. The sodium ions will move inside the cell based on the concentration
gradient and voltage across the membrane. The voltage across the membrane facilitates the
movement of potassium into the cell, but its concentration gradient drives it out of the cell. The
combination of voltage across the membrane and the concentration gradient that facilitates the
movement of ions is called the electrochemical gradient.

Active Transport in Plants

Like humans and animals, plants also require transport systems which are mainly involved in the
transport of materials, such as water, minerals, and necessary nutrients to all parts of the plant for
its survival.

Active transport is a mode of transportation in plants, which uses stored energy to move the
particles against the concentration gradient. In a plant cell, it takes place in the root cells by
absorbing water and minerals. Active transport always leads to accumulation of molecules are
ions towards one side of the membrane. This mode of transportation in plants is carried out by
membrane proteins and transports the substance from the lower concentration to higher
concentration.

Examples of Active Transport

Some of the best examples of active transport include:

 Phagocytosis of bacteria by Macrophages.

 Movement of Ca ions out of cardiac muscle cells.
2+

 Transportation of amino acids across the intestinal lining in the human gut.
 Secretion of proteins like enzymes, peptide hormones, and antibodies from different cells.
 Functioning of the White Blood Cells by protecting our body by attacking diseases
causing microbes and other foreign invaders.
Passive Transport
Transportation is the process of movement or distribution of different materials or goods from
one place to another. In general, we humans make use of different means of transportation.
Similarly, the living system, including plants, animals, and humans has an amazing network of
transportation systems, involved in circulating food, minerals, hormones, oxygen, carbon
dioxide, waste products, etc.

There are two types of transportation in our body- Active and Passive Transport, which help in
the transportation of biochemical nutrients like water and oxygen to the cells.

 Active transport: It is the biological process of movement of the molecules against the
concentration gradient. Thus, it requires chemical energy to transport the components
from an area of lower concentration to an area of higher concentration.
 Passive transport: It is the biological process of movements of the biochemical across
the cell membranes and tissues.
Passive transport is a natural phenomenon, which does not require any external energy.

Let us explore more about Passive transport, its types and other related examples.

Table of Contents

 Passive Transport
 Types

 Simple Diffusion

 Facilitated Diffusion

 Filtration

 Osmosis

 Examples

What is Passive Transport?

Passive transport is the fundamental movement of ions and other molecular substances within the
cells along the concentration gradient, without any external energy. It is also known as passive
diffusion.
 Passive Transport

Types Of Passive Transport

There are four types of passive transport:

1. Simple Diffusion
2. Facilitated Diffusion
3. Filtration
4. Osmosis

Simple Diffusion

Types of Passive Transport – Simple Diffusion

Diffusion is the movement of substances from a region of higher concentration to a lower

concentration. The difference in the concentration of the two areas is termed a concentration
gradient and the process of diffusion continues until this gradient neutralizes. Diffusion occurs
in liquids and gases because their particles move randomly from one place to another. It is an
important process in living things required for different life processes. The substances move in
and out of the cells by simple diffusion.

Also Refer: Diffusion

Facilitated Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion is the passive transportation of ions or molecules across the cell membrane
through specific transmembrane integral proteins. The molecules, which are large and insoluble
require a carrier substance for their transportation through the plasma membrane. This process
does not require any cellular or external energy.

Glucose transporter, ion channels and aquaporins are some examples of facilitated diffusion. The
cell membrane is permeable only to a few molecules that are smaller in size and non-polar.
Therefore, facilitated diffusion with the help of transmembrane proteins is important.

Also Read: Facilitated Diffusion

Filtration
Filtration is the process of separating solids from liquids and gases. The selective absorption of
nutrients in the body is an example of filtration. This process does not require any energy and
takes place along the concentration gradient. The kidneys are an example of a biological filter.
The blood is filtered by the glomerulus and the necessary molecules are reabsorbed.

In the process of filtration, the cell membrane permits only those substances which are soluble
and could easily pass through its pores.

Osmosis

Passive transport represented by the process of osmosis

In the process of osmosis, water and other molecules pass through a selectively permeable
membrane in order to balance the concentration of other substances.

Osmosis is affected by the concentration gradient and temperature. The greater the concentration
gradient, the faster the rate of osmosis. Also, the rate of osmosis increases with the increase in
temperature.

There is a theory of conflict about the process of osmosis. Few biologists suggest that osmosis is
an active transport and not passive transport.

Also Read: Osmosis

Examples Of Passive Transport

Following are some examples of passive transport:

1. Ethanol enters our bodies and hits the bloodstream. This happens because the ethanol
molecules undergo simple diffusion and pass through the cell membrane without any
external energy.
2. Reabsorption of nutrients by the intestines by separating them from the solid waste and
transporting the nutrients through the intestinal membrane into the bloodstream.
3. When a raisin is soaked in water the water moves inside the raisin by the process of
osmosis and it swells.
Also Read: Difference Between Active And Passive Transport

For more information on passive transport, its types and examples, keep visiting BYJU’S
website or download BYJU’S app for further reference.
Difference Between Active And Passive Transport
Following are the important difference between active and passive transport:

Active Transport Passive Transport

Requires cellular energy. Does not require cellular energy.

It circulates from a region of lower concentration to a It circulates from a region of higher concentration to a
region of higher concentration region of lower concentration

Required for the transportation of all soluble molecules,

Required for the transportation of all the molecules such
including oxygen, water, carbon dioxide, lipids, sex
as proteins, large cells, complex sugars, ions, etc.
hormones, etc.

It is involved in the maintenance of the equilibrium

It transports various molecules in the cell.
level inside the cell.

Active transport is a dynamic process. Passive Transport is a physical process.

It is highly selective. It is partly non-selective

Active transport is a rapid process. Passive transport is a comparatively slow process.

Transpires in one direction. Transpires bidirectionally.

Active transportation is influenced by temperature. Passive transportation is not influenced by temperature.

In active transport, carrier proteins are required In passive transport, carrier proteins are not required

This process reduces or halts as the oxygen content level This process is not affected by the level of oxygen
is reduced. content.

Metabolic inhibitors can influence and stop active Passive transportation is not influenced by metabolic
transport. inhibitors.

Different types of Active Transport are – Different types of Passive Transport are – Osmosis,
Exocytosis, endocytosis, sodium-potassium pump diffusion, and facilitated diffusion
Trans membrane potential

Membrane potential (also transmembrane potential or membrane voltage) is the difference in electric
potential between the interior and the exterior of a biological cell. That is, there is a difference in the
energy required for electric charges to move from the internal to exterior cellular environments and vice
versa, as long as there is no acquisition of kinetic energy or the production of radiation. The
concentration gradients of the charges directly determine this energy requirement. For the exterior of
the cell, typical values of membrane potential, normally given in units of milli volts and denoted as mV,
range from –80 mV to –40 mV.
Electric Characteristics of Cell Membrane:

Cell membrane has charges on either side and that there is an ion current flowing through the
membrane, the cell membrane can be regarded as an electric circuit.

As with any electric conductor, there will be electric resistance and capacitance to identify.

1. Membrane Resistance:

The membrane forms a resistance for each of the ions passing through it. The membrane
resistance is defined as the inverse of the conductance. The conductance is in fact a function of
the ion concentration and the ion flow. If the conductance for one individual ion channel is Gi ,
the total resistance of the membrane of one single cell involves all the N individual channels
summarized as follows:

The conductance is related to the permeability but is not interchangeable. Since the resistance,
R, is defined as the reciprocal of the conductance, the value can now be recalculated as,

The unit for resistance is Ohm (Ω).

2. Membrane Capacitance:

Since there are different concentrations of positive and negative ions on both sides of the
membrane, the membrane acts as a capacitor with a resulting electric potential.
The capacitive membrane potential is described as follows:

Where
the constant C is the capacitance.
dV is the electric potential gradient of the cell membrane (the capacitor).
dQ is the differential element of the charge residing in the membrane.
E is equal to −1.6022 × 10−19C.
Cell Membrane’s Equivalent Electric Circuit
Action Potential:
An action potential is defined as a sudden, fast, transitory, and propagating change of the resting
membrane potential. Only neurons and muscle cells are capable of generating an action potential; that
property is called the excitability.

Phases or Steps:
 Hypopolarisation: The initial rise in membrane potential to the threshold potential is known as
hypopolarisation.

 Depolarisation: A significant influx of sodium ions is produced when the threshold potential
activates voltage-gated sodium channels. This period is known as depolarisation.

 Overshoot or Peak Phase: As the cell depolarizes, the inside of the cell becomes increasingly
electropositive, approaching the electrochemical equilibrium potential of sodium, which is +61
mV. This phase of intense electropositivity is the peak phase or overshoot phase.

 Repolarisation: Following the action potential firing, the potassium ion channels that remove
this cation from the cell open, and the sodium ion channels close. The voltage-gated potassium
channels are opened when the cell potential overshoots, which results in a significant potassium
outflow and a reduction in the electropositivity of cells. This is the repolarisation phase, and its
main objective is the restoration of the resting potential of the membrane.

 Hyperpolarisation: This phase possesses more electronegativity in the membrane potential than
in the usual resting membrane potential.

 Refractory Period: The duration after a nerve impulse that a neuron must travel before it can
fire again is referred to as the refractory period. Every action potential is preceded by a
refractory period, further subdivided into an absolute and a relative refractory period.
Ref. Book.

1. As the cell is stimulated by an external factor, the rising potential difference across the cell
membrane (due to the stimuli) initially activates and opens a large number of sodium ion
channels. The opening of the sodium channels, or equivalently the sharp increase in the
permeability or conductance of the membrane for the sodium ions, causes an avalanche that
sharply increases the sodium influx. This process that makes the inside of the cell more positive
is called depolarization. The reason this stage is called depolarization is the fact that in the rest
condition preceding depolarization, the cell potential is negative and the depolarization changes
the polarity of the voltage across the membrane. The depolarization stage continues until the
maximum positive potential is reached after which the cell starts a stage called “repolarization.”

2. Specifically, at the end of depolarization stage, the positive potential opens a number of
potassium channels that allow the potassium ions residing inside the cell leave the cell. This
process reduces the potential difference continuously. At a certain point in time, so many
potassium ions have left the cell that the potential difference becomes negative, i.e., the cell
repolarizes. The changes in permeability of the sodium channels are also shown in Figure 8.4. A
cycle of depolarization and repolarization processes causes the cell potential to undergo a pulse-
form variation, which is called an action potential.

3. After the repolarization process, the cell undergoes a short phase called the absolute refractory
period in which no other stimuli can stimulate the cell. This absolute refractory period lasts for
approximately 1ms. During this period, the cell membrane does not respond to any stimulus no
matter how strong these stimuli might be.

4. After this absolute refractory period follows a relative refractory period, which will allow a
stimulus to initiate a depolarization, however, at a higher threshold.

minimum positive potential is needed to depolarize the membrane.

Electric Data Acquisition:
Action potentials can be measured with the help of conductors called electrodes. Such electrodes can be
placed in contact with the cell membrane, inside the cell, or even at the surface of the organ that
envelops the sources of action potentials.

All biological media have an ample supply of ions throughout the entire tissue to conduct the currents
resulting from electric potentials anywhere in the tissue. Electrodes measure the potential of every point
in the tissue against a ground electrode or even a conveniently chosen reference point on the body itself.
Propagation of Electric Potential as a Wave:

Propagation of electric potential as a wave in biomedical signal processing refers to the transmission of
electrical signals along the membrane of neurons, particularly in the context of action potentials. When a
neuron is stimulated, an action potential is generated, characterized by a rapid depolarization followed
by repolarization of the cell membrane. This depolarization wave travels along the axon of the neuron,
allowing for communication between different parts of the nervous system.

The process can be conceptualized as a wave propagation phenomenon. Initially, the depolarization of
one section of the membrane exceeds the threshold potential, triggering an action potential. This
depolarization then spreads along the length of the axon, akin to a wave traveling through a medium. As
the wave progresses, adjacent sections of the membrane are depolarized, leading to the propagation of
the signal.
Practical Considerations on Biomedical Electrodes:

Practical considerations in the use of biomedical electrodes are crucial for ensuring accurate recording of
cell electric signals and the reliability of conclusions drawn from this data. Two main issues affect the
accuracy of recorded signals and the usefulness of the data: the contact surface and electrode
compatibility.

 Contact Surface:
The skin's outer layer, the epidermis, consists of a mixture of live and dead cells. Dead cells
do not conduct electricity effectively due to the lack of cytoplasm and charge carriers.

Skin may excrete fat, which is also a poor conductor, while sweating can improve conduction
due to its salt content.

Measures such as skin preparation, degreasing, and exfoliation can improve conductivity by
removing dead cells and fatty substances. These measures can significantly lower skin-
electrode impedance.

Exfoliation, for instance, can lower impedance by a factor of up to 250, while combined
measures can lower impedance by approximately 2000 times.

 Electrode Compatibility:
Electrodes need to maintain electric stability to ensure reproducible measurements. They
should be easy to apply and have a large surface area to limit current density.

An ideal electrode should conduct alternating signals effectively, even if it doesn't need to
measure a steady-state potential.

Materials like gold, silver, or platinum are preferred for electrodes as they don't dissolve
easily.

Electrodes should be designed with a connection to a high-impedance amplifier input to

control total current.

 Capacitive and Inductive Impedance:

The dermis can contribute to capacitive impedance due to the poor conduction of the
epidermis, the abundance of ions in the dermis, and the presence of free electrons in the
electrode.

Some inductive impedance may also arise from the tissue structure.

In summary, practical considerations for biomedical electrodes include optimizing skin contact,
improving conductivity through preparation techniques, ensuring electrode compatibility for stable
measurements, and managing capacitive and inductive impedance effects. These considerations are
essential for obtaining reliable and accurate data from recorded cell electric signals in biomedical
applications.
Notes