Notes: (Topic 3.

13) Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

If we wanted to travel from one location to another location, there are several different methods we could use to travel:
walking, biking, driving, flying, boating, etc… Each method has its own advantages and disadvantages. If we were
driving, we would have to stay on the roads, which are generally in a rectangular grid. If we were flying, we would be
able to fly in a direct path to our destination---provided there was an airport.

Plotting points in space and defining functions is not much different. There are several ways to define points and
functions in space, each with their advantages and disadvantages. Up until this point, the only system you have learned
has been the rectangular coordinate system. This system uses an , and points are described using an

ordered pair . This rectangular coordinate system (also called the Cartesian plane) is very similar to a road grid,
where we have to go over and then up to define a point in space.

An alternate way to describe a point in space is the polar coordinate system. With polar coordinates, we do not use
and values to define points. The polar coordinate system is much more like flying an airplane. To define a point, we
only need to state the angle of the point in standard position and the signed
distance of the point from the origin. In other words, we simply rotate until we
are facing the point and then draw a line directly to the point from the origin. The
polar coordinate system can be very useful, especially when working with circles,
trig functions, and conics.

Polar Coordinate

In polar coordinates, the point A is defined by where represents the

radius of the circle on which point A lies, and represents the measure of an
angle in standard position whose terminal ray includes point A.

One really cool result of using polar coordinates is that the same point
can be represented many different ways!

Example 1: Plot (and label) the following polar coordinates on the

polar coordinate grid at right.

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

Example 2: Plot (and label) the following polar coordinates on
the polar coordinate grid above.

Example 2 illustrates how a single point in polar coordinates can

be expressed in many different ways. In fact, there are infinitely
many ways that we could express any given point using polar
coordinates!

Example 3: Plot the point with polar coordinates

on the polar grid. Then, write the polar

coordinates for the point two different ways.

Connecting Rectangular and Polar Coordinate

Systems

Rectangular Coordinates Polar Coordinates Connecting Polar and Rectangular

The image on the far right above allows us to see connections between polar and rectangular coordinates. Using this, we
can quickly find relationships that allow us to convert between polar coordinates and rectangular coordinates.
Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates
 Converting from Polar to Rectangular Coordinates

Using trigonometry, we know that and .

This leads to the following two identities:

and

Tip: Whenever you are converting coordinates from one

system to another, always sketch out the point first and check
that your answer makes sense!

Example 4: Convert the following points from polar coordinates to rectangular coordinates.

a) b) c)

Converting from Rectangular to Polar Coordinates

Using the Pythagorean Theorem, we have .

Using trigonometry, we know that , which can be

used to find the value of .

Tip: Whenever you are converting coordinates from one

system to another, always sketch out the point first and check
that your answer makes sense!

Example 5: Convert the following points from rectangular coordinates to polar coordinates.

a) b) c)

Complex Numbers

Previously, we have written complex numbers using the form where are constants.

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

A complex number can be understood as a point in the complex plane and can be determined by its corresponding
rectangular or polar coordinates.

When the complex number has the rectangular coordinates it can be expressed as

The complex number can be represented as the point in the rectangular coordinate system.

Earlier in these notes, we learned that and Using these identities, we can also express a complex
number in the polar coordinate system.

When the complex number has polar coordinates it can be expressed as

Example 6: A complex number is represented by a point in the complex plane. The complex number has the rectangular

coordinates What is one way to express the complex number using its polar coordinates

Example 7: A complex number is represented by a point in the complex plane. Using polar coordinates, the complex

number can be expressed as Express the complex number using its rectangular coordinates

Notes: (Topic 3.14) Polar Function Graphs

Now that we have learned and explored how polar coordinates work, it is only natural that we would begin to explore the
concept of polar functions and their graphs. For polar functions, the inputs are given by (independent variable), and the
outputs are given by (dependent variable). On the AP Precalculus Exam, questions may use the phrasing below to
introduce a polar function.

“The graph of the polar function where is shown in the polar coordinate system for
”

Graphing Polar Functions

Creating a table of values is always a good strategy when attempting to graph a new or unknown function. We will utilize
this strategy to help us create a graph of a polar function.

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

Example 1: Let where be a polar function in the polar coordinate system for

Sketch the graph of on the axes below.

Note: It is very common for polar functions to display symmetry. We can use our understanding of symmetries to help
us construct polar graphs quickly and easily. On the AP Precalculus Exam, polar functions will only appear in multiple
choice questions. This means that students will NOT be required to sketch a polar function by hand on the AP Exam.
However, students will be expected to understand polar functions, their graphs, and what portion of the graphs exist with
various domain restrictions.

When working with multiple choice questions involving polar functions, it is advantageous to evaluate the function at
several values of . Utilizing the multiple-choice options can be helpful when determining which values of to
consider.

Example 2: The figure shows the graph of the polar function

for in the polar coordinate system. Which of the following

could be an expression for

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

Example 3: The figure shows the graph of the polar function for
in the polar coordinate system. Which of the following could be

an expression for

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Example 4: A portion of the

graph of the polar function where is shown

in the polar coordinate system for If which
of the following could be the values for

(A) (B)
(C) (D)

Example 5: A portion of the graph of the polar function where

is shown in the polar coordinate system for

If which of the following could be the values for

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Example 6: The figure shows

the graph of the polar function

where in the polar coordinate system for

There are four points labeled If the domain

of is restricted to the portion of the given graph that

remains consists of two pieces. One of those pieces is the portion of the
graph in Quadrant III from Which of the following describes the
other remaining piece?

(A) The portion of the graph in Quadrant I from

(B) The portion of the graph in Quadrant I from

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

(C) The portion of the graph in Quadrant II from

(D) The portion of the graph in Quadrant III from

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

Notes: (Topic 3.15) Rates of Change in Polar Functions

In this section, we will learn ways that we can describe characteristics of the graph of a polar function.

Given a polar function we know that represents the “signed radius” of the function. We use the phrase
“signed radius” because can be a positive or negative value.

As we trace the graph of a polar function, we are interested in whether the graph of is getting closer to the
origin or further from the origin over a given interval.

Changes in the Distance from r =f ( θ ) to the Origin

is positive
and increasing
The distance between
and the origin is increasing
is negative
and decreasing

is positive
and decreasing
The distance between
is negative and the origin is decreasing
and increasing

Example 1: The graph of is shown below for Use the graph below to complete the given
table with the appropriate intervals.
Description of f ( x ) Interval(s)

is positive and increasing

is positive and decreasing

is negative and increasing

is negative and decreasing

In the polar coordinate system, the graph of above becomes , as shown in the table
above. The labeled points A, B, C, and D correspond to the intervals found in Example 1.

Points on From A to B From B to C From C to D From D to C From C to A

Interval

positive and positive and negative and negative and positive and
is increasing decreasing decreasing increasing increasing
Distance between
increasing decreasing increasing decreasing increasing
and the origin is
Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates
AP Exam Tip: It is often helpful to sketch the graph of a given function in rectangular coordinates when attempting to
describe the behavior of a polar function.

Example 2: Consider the graph of the polar function where in the polar coordinate
system for Which of the following statements is true about the distance between the point with polar

coordinates and the origin?

(A) The distance is increasing for , because is positive and increasing on the interval.

(B) The distance is increasing for , because is negative and increasing on the interval.

(C) The distance is decreasing for , because is positive and decreasing on the interval.

(D) The distance is decreasing for , because is negative and decreasing on the interval.

Example 3: The graph of where is shown in

the rectangular coordinate system. If the polar function where

is graphed in the polar coordinate system for

on which of the following intervals is the distance between the point with polar

coordinates and the origin decreasing?

(A) (B)

(C) (D)

Relative Extrema and Polar Functions

Another characteristic that arises when we study polar functions are relative extrema (minima and maxima). For polar

functions, if changes from increasing to decreasing (or from decreasing to increasing), then the function has a
relative extremum on the interval corresponding to a point relatively closest to or farthest from the origin.

Example 4: Consider the graph of the polar function where in the polar coordinate

system for Which of the following statements is true about the graph of
(A) The graph has a relative minimum on the interval (B) The graph has a relative minimum on the interval

because changes from because changes from

negative to positive. decreasing to increasing.

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

(C) The graph has a relative maximum on the interval (D) The graph has a relative maximum on the interval

because changes from positive because changes from

to negative. increasing to decreasing.

Average Rate of Change

In previous units, we learned about the average rate of change of a function in rectangular coordinates. In the polar
coordinate system, we will find the average rate of change of with respect to over a given interval of .

Average Rate of Change of a Polar Function

For the polar function the average rate of

change of over the interval is given Geometrically, the average rate of change indicates the
rate at which the radius is changing per radian.

by the expression

Example 5: Consider the graph of the polar function where in the polar coordinate

system. What is the average rate of change of over the interval

Example 6: The figure shows the graph of the polar function

where for in the polar coordinate system.

On which of the following intervals is the average rate of change of

equal to zero?

(A) (B)

(C)

(D)

Example 7: In the polar coordinate system, the graph of a polar

function is shown with a domain of all real values of

for On this interval of the graph has no holes,
passes through each point exactly one time, and as increases, the

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

graph passes through the labeled points A, B, C, and D, in that order. On which of the following intervals is the average
rate of change of with respect to least?
(A) From A to B (B) From B to C
(C) From C to D (D) From D to A

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates

Estimating Values of r =f ( θ ) Using the Average Rate of Change

For a given interval, we can use the average rate of change of over the interval to estimate other values of

inside the given interval.

Recall: The point-slope form of a line is given by , where is a known point on the line and
is the slope of the line.

We can utilize this concept and create a linear function that will help us approximate a given polar function. We will use
the average rate of change of with respect to as our slope, and we can use a point at either end of the given interval
as our given point. This leads us to the following

where is a known point on the graph of , and the average rate of change of with respect

to over the interval is given by .

Example 8: The table above gives values of the polar function at selected values of . Use the average rate

of change of over the interval to approximate

Notes: Topic 3.13 to 3.15 Trigonometry and Polar Coordinates