Unit#7

Alman Ahmed
SURVEY
Surveying in the construction industry refers to the process of analysing and documenting the
characteristics of a geographical area span to aid in the preparation of a plan or map for the layout
of a building site.

Surveying is the act of establishing the relative position of a point on the earth's surface by using
linear and angular measurements to determine its location, either above or below it. Points are
defined, and horizontal and vertical distances between objects are calculated using angular and
linear measurements, respectively. It may also be used to measure angles between lines, estimate
line direction, and create points based on angular and linear measurements.

Fundamental techniques used for Surveying are:

Triangulation: Angles may be obtained from a surveying station using this method, which involves
joining and overlaying several triangles.

Trilateration: The same procedure as in Triangulation is used in this example, with the addition of
an Electronic Distance Meter to measure the distance between locations (EDM).

Traverse: Angles and distances are calculated using this approach by connecting a large number of
lines with pre-measured lengths at right angles.

Leveling: This approach is used to compute the height difference between two points on a
landscape, and it use graded rods to accomplish so.

Radiation: This process generates radiating lines from a focal point to predefined boundaries,
which are subsequently converted into a small-scale surveying sheet. Surveying across a broad
variety of industries yields a plethora of industrial applications. It is regarded as an essential
component of the Civil Engineering Discipline.

Categories of Surveying are:

Geodetic surveying is the process of performing large-scale surveys with the use of control networks
that cover huge geographic areas.

Plane survey: Plate surveying is a kind of survey in which the earth's surface is regarded as a plate
and is used for short distances. Plane surveys are used for many different things, including road
construction and building surveys.

Cadastral Surveying: Land surveys are conducted to discover who owns what land and where the
boundaries are.

Topographical Surveying: Surveys are conducted on a regular basis to determine the land
structure and elevation changes.

As Built Surveying: Following the completion of construction, surveys are conducted to determine
whether or not there have been any deviations from the original building design.

Photogrammetry (Aerial Surveying): Following the completion of construction, surveys are

conducted to determine whether or not there have been any deviations from the original building
design.
LiDAR (Aerial Surveying): Surveys are accomplished out using remote sensors and laser light
reflected from targets to compute distances between locations.

Plain Surveying Vs Geodetic Surveying

Plain Surveying
 The term "plain surface" refers to and characterises the earth's surface.
 The curvature of the earth is not taken into consideration in this scenario.
 An unbroken line is one that connects any two locations along its length.
 The plain triangle is the simplest of all triangles, made by any three points.
 The angles of a triangle are all called "simple angles," and they are all the same.

Geodetic Surveying
 The term "Curved Surface" refers to the curved nature of the earth's surface.
 This is taken into consideration since the earth is curved.
 A spherical line is a straight line that links any two points in any direction.
 Any three points in any direction may be used to form a spherical triangle, which has the
following definition:
 The angles of a triangle are referred to be spherical angles in this context, and vice versa.

Classification of surveying
Surveys may be categorised under topics that specify the uses or purposes of the maps that are
produced as a consequence of the survey.

Classification based upon the nature of the field survey

Land Surveying
Topographical Surveys: Linear and angular measurements are used to determine the horizontal
and vertical positions of given points on a map. This is done to assess a country's natural
characteristics, such as rivers, streams, lakes, woodlands, hills, and other natural elements, as well as
manmade features, such as roads, trains, and canals, as well as cities and villages, in order to design
a city or village in a certain site.

Cadastral Surveys: A cadastral survey is one that is conducted in connection with the formation of
property boundaries, the calculation of land area, or the transfer of land ownership from one owner
to another. They are also used to establish municipal boundaries, as well as the boundaries of state
and federal administrations. City surveyors are relied upon to undertake surveys in connection with
the building of highways, water supply systems, sewers, and other infrastructure.

Marine or Hydrographic Survey: The process of measuring bodies of water for navigation, water
supply, harbour construction, and calculating mean sea level is referred to as hydrographic survey,
sometimes known as marine or hydrographic survey. Among other things, job tasks include
monitoring stream flow, conducting a topographic survey of shorelines and banks, finding soundings
to assess water level, and recording tidal changes. Astronomers take a look at the night sky. An
astronomical survey can identify any point on Earth's surface to its exact position on the globe, and
every line may be pinpointed to its exact location and direction on the globe, both with pinpoint
accuracy. Making observations of celestial phenomena such as the sun or any fixed star, among
other things, and documenting those observations, is what this implies.
Classification based on the object of survey
Engineering Survey
A survey is required in order to determine numbers or provide suitable information for the design of
engineering works such as highways and reservoirs, as well as those connected to sewage disposal
or water supply systems.

 Military Survey: This is used to identify key locations of significance in a specific area. This
is used to identify key locations of significance in a specific area.
 Mine Survey: With the help of this instrument, mineral richness exploration may be carried
out.
 Geological Survey: Stratigraphy is a method for identifying the many layers of the earth's
crust.
 Archaeological Survey: Excavation of antiquity-related artefacts takes place with the use
of this technique.

Classification based on instruments used: It is possible to develop a different categorization

system depending on the tools or procedures used, with the following major types:

 Chain survey
 Traverse survey
 Photogrammetric survey
 Tachometric survey
 Plane table survey
 Theodolite survey
 Triangulation survey

Advantages and disadvantages of local points:

Advantages Disadvantages
 Cost-effectiveness  Unsatisfactory coordinate level
 Data Collection that is Convenient  There is a high likelihood of mistake.
 Statistical Significance that is  It is challenging to guess the
satisfactory coordinates.
 There is little or no subjectivity on the
part of the observer.
 Results that are precise
 Design that is too rigid is not
appropriate for contentious issues.

Advantages of National points

 With the use of GPS, we can derive national points from the information.
 With correct coordinates, you can be certain that your project will be completed with the
greatest degree of precision.
 Depending on the circumstances, the new surveyor may be able to resume work exactly
where the former surveyor had left off.
Discuss other control networks e.g., Primary controls, first and second
order.
Primary control:
Using the greatest degree of accuracy possible, a professional surveyor constructs permanent
control points that surround the worksite and link them to the Design Benchmark and Property Line
in order to guarantee that the jobsite is correctly aligned. A control structure, which is often made of
concrete, metal measuring pegs, and targets that are placed on natural landmarks or neighbouring
structures, is used to keep the peace. There are rigorous rules regarding the use of hubs, wooden
poles, and other temporary markings. More than 1':50,000' in traverse accuracy must be achieved,
and the level loop (circuits) accuracy must be of first order to be considered successful.

Secondary control:
Secondary control, which is located next to primary control, surrounds or supports certain structures
while remaining autonomous in terms of accuracy, enabling it to bring the best elements inside its
own structure together. Control should be maintained until the slab of the structure has been
erected, after which it should be transitioned to the slab of the building. It is not suggested to use
temporary markers for secondary control while doing secondary control. When it comes to
precision, the system will have an accuracy of a.01'.

Different methods of marking control points

In general, control surveys are concerned with points that have already been established. These
points must be noted by the surveyor in order for the survey to be accurate and precise. Certain
points are made permanent, while others are just temporary for a certain amount of time,
depending on the situation. Whenever a line will be in use for an extended period of time, it is
possible to mark the ends with either a bronze disc buried in concrete or a center-punched metal
rod pushed flush with the ground to indicate where the lines ends are. Control points that are less
permanent in nature may be constructed by utilising wooden stakes or hubs with nails, shiners, and
laggings to create control points that are less permanent in nature.

 Driven When markers are placed, they must be perfectly vertically aligned with the spot that
they are designed to signify. A slanting drive will cause the top of a marker to be incorrectly
positioned, resulting in the point not being appropriately located. First, align the stake or hub
vertically; next, with each blow of a sledgehammer or other driving weapon, hit the flat end of
the stake or hub, driving it vertically into the earth.
 Reposition the transit and repeat steps 3-8 as needed until horizontal angles occur between all
of the control points.
 Use the bull-point method to start drilling a hole for a stake or hub in frozen or otherwise tough
terrain. Always keep in mind that the stake or hub will be positioned along the line of the bull-
aperture point's to make a solid connection. If the bull-point is not pushed vertically, the stake or
hub will not be driven vertically; conversely, if the bull-point is not pushed vertically, the stake or
hub will not be driven vertically.
 When a point or station must be retained permanently for future reference, the term
"Monument" refers to a permanent item or structure used in surveying to do so. To create a
statement, it may be as simple as chiselling a prominent point into the side of a ledge rock
outcrop.

Bearing: Bearings are horizontal angles created by lines intersecting with reference directions, and
they are measured in degrees.
Types of Bearing: The measurement of a line's bearing in relation to a meridian at any point on
the circle is used to designate it as whole circle bearing (WCB). It has a value ranging from 0 to 360
degrees, with the value increasing clockwise as the rotation advances. The north direction is
represented by zero degrees, the east direction by 90 degrees, the south direction by 180 degrees,
and the west way by 270 degrees. The acronym WCB stands for whole circle bearing, and it refers to
the bearing of a line at any point with relation to a meridian in this example. It has a value ranging
from 0 to 360 degrees, with the value increasing clockwise as the rotation advances. The north angle
is zero degrees, the east angle is ninety degrees, the south angle is one hundred and eighty degrees,
and the west angle is two hundred and seventy degrees. (Bearings are measured in the reference
bearing (RB) system in the east or west, beginning from the north or south, respectively. As a result,
angles are measured in degrees ranging from 0 to 90. (See Figure 13.2). This kind of bearing is
employed, and it is denoted by the letters N or S at the beginning of the bearing to show whether it
is coming from the north or south, respectively. A letter E or W displayed immediately after the
angle that the bearing was read indicates that the bearing was read in an east or west direction.
Converting a bearing from one system to another is as simple as sketching a figure with the letters
WCB or RB to designate the system being converted, as shown in Fig. 13.4. There are many methods
to determine whether the following conversion table has been created:

Traverse: Using traversing, you may create a set of places that are connected by a straight line. This
is a kind of geometrical surveying that is used for mapping. This is shown in the figure.

Types of traverses:
There are two types of traverses:
Open traverse: The open traverse is a traverse in which the locations at the start and end are not
connected in any way. The following is how it is defined:

Close traverse: A near traverse is a form of traverse in which the starting point and ending point are
both linked; this type of travel is also referred to as a related traverse.
Discuss about height and coordinates of our project:
To conform to well-accepted norms and techniques, we began our survey work at the site, using the
base point as a local control point, and then began the survey from the base of the local control
point. For consistency, the surveyor placed some random coordinates before beginning the survey
work, so we placed some random coordinates and the back site first, shifted the total station
through an angle, and set a percent mark on both points back and for side, and we checked the
accuracy of the coordinate before we started. After that, we moved it to a new area and inspected
the rear site, which had a 2.45 percent accuracy. We were able to replace the equipment on a
continuous basis while also constantly validating the back end. Using this method, changes were
made to the position and coordinates of a surveying machine owned by a private surveying
company.

Method of earth work

There are of two method of earth work.

 Method of collimation on a single line.

 Method of rising and falling.

Rise and fall method:

The following measurements were taken with a level and a 4-meter staff with B.M 100: 0.578, 0.933,
1.768, 2.450, 2.005, 0.567, 1.888, 1.181, 3,679, 0.612, 0.705, 1.810, and the instrument was moved
after the 5th and 9th measurements. The following measurements were taken with a level and a 4-
meter staff with B.M 100:

Station B.S I.S F.s Rise Fall RL Remarks

1 0.578 100

2 0.933 0.355 9 9.6 45

3 1.768 0.835 98.81

4 2.450 0.682 9 8.5 73

5 0.567 2.005 0.445 97.2

6 1.888 1.321 9 7.9 59

 7 0.612 3.679 2.498 9 5.3 68

8 0.705 0.093 9 4.2 63

9 1.810 1.105

10 1.181 0.707 9 5.4 61

Collimation method or Height of Instrument

method:

Station B .S I.S F.S H.I R .L Remarks or B.M

1 0.578 100.578 100 100

2 .933 99.645

3 1.768 98.81

4 2.450 89.128

5 0.567 2.005 99.14 98.593

6 1.888 97.252

7 1.181 97.959

8 0.612 3.679 96.073 95.461

9 0.705 95.368

10 94.263

Accuracy of the coordinates with the help of manual double check method.

Surveillance is often used to identify the relative position or the location of points on or near the
surface of the Earth's surface.

Accuracy reached during close traverse:

We collected some points which are given below:
• While examining the terrain, we drew some lines to mark the boundaries. In this particular
example, we determined that one point was a station point.
• With the use of a level, we were able to align our complete station machine with the station
point.
• Turn on the machine once you've placed the bubble in it.
• We started the survey right away and concluded our work on time as promised.

Effect of precision checkpoints on topography survey:

During the survey, certain inaccuracies were discovered and corrected. There are several
typographical mistakes, which are listed below:
  Instrumental
 Personal

Natural Instrumental:
A survey mistake might arise as a result of a defect or incorrect adjustment of the equipment used to
measure the survey's findings. A tape measure may be overly lengthy in certain circumstances, while
measuring equipment for angles may be misaligned or out of line in others. This kind of gaffe is
referred to as a "instrumental error."

Personal:
Another probable cause of failure is the difficulty of accurately monitoring human vision, as well as
the need for touch when manipulating equipment. It is easy to make a clerical or mathematical error
while taking the reading or reading the degree and angle on a theodolite circle. Individual errors are
referred to as "personal mistakes."

Natural:
Additionally, variations in natural phenomena like as temperature, humidity, gravitational force,
wind, magnetic refraction, and refraction have the potential to produce inaccuracies in surveying
and mapping. It is possible that the findings of the tests will be incorrect if the samples were not
gathered appropriately. At 200 degrees Celsius, for example, a tape may be 20 metres long;
nevertheless, its length may vary if the field temperature is different.

Accuracy with the help of shifting instrument:

To be successful in the survey, we must understand that we must continually verify our back-sight
points to determine whether they are right or inaccurate. To determine the accuracy of the rear
sight point, we first place our machine on the first point, which is known as the station point. Then
we take the second point measurement and place our machine on that second point to ensure the
accuracy of the second point measurement. So, after this was accomplished, the machine sent us to
the right regions inside the machine, and we repeated the operation on each point until we had
completed an exact survey.

Write about the accuracy achieved during shifting the instrument

D uring our survey w e ha ve chang e th e to tal station 3 tim e so as w e ha ve m ade five

perm an ents points
S/no. Northing easting elevation A ccu ra cy remarks
1 3690638.991 704119.625 634.269 .097 Sub 2nd from
first
2 3690629.827 704119.635 634.172
3 3889585.218 702528.699 632.520 .30
4 3889585.217 702528.696 632.517
5 3688687.761 700669.766 668.952 0.692
6 3688694.714 700668.526 669.260

Topographic Survey
Survey report:
Let me tell you about the report of our survey that how we’ve done our project.
Objective
The purpose of our survey was to read the area level, which will assist us in the design of the project
and will also allow us to acquire survey experience.

So here is the explanation of our project that how we done our project.

We (my colleagues and I) conducted a thorough inspection of the area and found three permanent
locations, which we labelled with descriptive titles such as CP1, CP2, and so forth. Because of this,
we put the machine on CP1, finished the centering procedure, and then focussed on getting CP2
readings before repositioning the machine to CP2 and repeating the process until CP1 was once
again in sight in order to verify the accuracy of the operation. Using the same coordinates, we
followed CP3's foresight and logged the coordinates in the total station; this is how we finished our
survey by moving the machine five times and reading the coordinates. CP3's foresight allowed us to
complete our survey in a timely manner.

Codes we used in our survey:

We've surveyed a road where we haven't used many codes, some are given below that we've
used:

• The letter R was originally used to denote a road.

• Previously, a computer-generated curve was shown.
• The tree was represented by TR, the electric poll was represented by EP, and the end of the
curve was represented by PT.

Data exchange process:

Once upon a time, R was used to denote the direction of a route

An earlier computer simulation showed a curve.

TR was used to symbolise the tree, EP was used to represent the electric poll, and PT was used to
indicate the point at which the curve terminated.

We can covert files into DXF, DAT, DWG, TXT, CSV format and start working on it.

Converting DXF file into DWG file:

The letter R was originally used to designate a route.

Previously, a curve was shown on a computer screen.

TR represented the tree, EP represented the electric poll, and PT represented the end of the curve.
Cut and fill

I have given you the coordinates of a building in the table above, which was provided to us by the
structural engineer of our organisation. It is necessary to put the layout of the building, which we
have done accurately because we set the total station on a point and entered the coordinates and
took the back site, and then enter the given coordinate which we were to place on a piece of ground
where the foundation of the building was to be placed, and so forth.

What is setting-out?

Because of this, it is often referred to as the inverse of surveying, which is a term that is used to
describe it. Thus, while surveying is the process of creating a plan or map of a given region, laying
out is the process of beginning with a plan and ending with a specific engineering project being
properly placed in that region. Because it indicates the polar opposite of going out and surveying,
this remark may be difficult to understand. However, this is wrong.

Setting out of our project:

I'd like to share some information with you about our project's construction site, which is around 50
feet from the road and has a total building area of 12157,52 SM, with the structure being
constructed entirely out of the station. This is in accordance with my design arrangement. I'd like to
share some information with you about our project's construction site, which is around 50 feet from
the road and has a total building area of 12157,52 SM, with the structure being constructed entirely
out of the station. This is in accordance with my design arrangement.

Starting out of our project as per drawing:

A drawing is given below:

It shows both close and open traverse

Accuracy achieved during layout:

When it comes to establishing an ideal layout, it is essential that the area coordinates are accurate,
and that the data transformation operation has been completed properly inside the system before
proceeding. When you are finished, the computer will provide you with the angle and distance from
your station point, which you provided into the total station when you entered the coordinates into
it. When the angle distance is zero, you must take the point into account and permanently record it
so that the builder may use it in the future to complete his assignment.

Different accuracy techniques used for topographic survey:

The topographic survey employs a range of different technologies to do its task. To elaborate, please
allow me to say that, in addition to geographic information systems (GIS), we made substantial
contributions to the mapping movement. Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS), you may
integrate numerous layers of digital data from different sources, modify and investigate the
interactions between those layers, and even create new layers of data from scratch. In the process
of converting three-dimensional topographic maps to digital format, which is completed via the use
of CAD-based technologies such as AutoCAD, rastering to vector conversion is performed on each
map layer.
It is recommended that when it comes to terrain surveying, LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging)
equipment be used since they can generate very exact terrain elevation models (even when
measuring ground height through trees) and because they are relatively affordable, simple, and
efficient. Additionally, aerial LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) sensors are a commonly available,
simple, and effective method of doing terrain surveying and mapping. They have the ability to build
extraordinarily accurate terrain elevation models (even when measuring ground height through
trees).

When using this method, stereographic pairs of images are utilised to measure places on the ground
indirectly, and then measurements of points and changes in elevation are calculated using the
information gathered from the photographs.

Different accuracy techniques used for setting out survey:

Methods of Setting Out Survey

• Buildings are laid out according to coordinates.

• Verifying the verticality of a structure
• Using a theodolite to measure distances

Setting Out Building by Coordinates:

It is possible to build a structure from the ground up using a model that has already been created
and described. It may also be possible to uncover a survey of strange constructions or buildings with
difficult geometrical qualities by using the same strategy. Using the baseline as a starting point, a
grid line may be drawn around the whole construction, including the corners.

Checking Verticality: In order to determine the verticality of locations inside a structure, the
following surveying tools may be used:

• Bob Plumb (for buildings below 20 m in height).

• Optical plummet (To test verticality of high buildings, a transparent plastic sheet is used as
the target).
• Theodolite

Setting out with theodolite:

By rotating the horizontal circle with theodolite in this direction, you may get the circle to read null
in this direction. Once the direction has been established, the telescope is rotated by an angle in
order to calculate in that direction in order to approximate the position of the point. The words
"angle determination" and "distance determination" are used to describe this procedure.
Putting out equipment and materials:
Alidade Graphometer Ramsden surveying Tellurometer Suspension
instruments theodolite

Alidade Ranging rod Surveyor's chain Theodolite Non-transit theodolite

table

Cosmolabe Groma (surveying) Tachymeter (surveying) Half theodolite Traveling theodolite

Dioptra Laser scanning Tape (surveying) Plain theodolite Transit theodolite

Dumpy Level staff Prismatic compass (angle Plain theodolite Seconds theodolite
level measurement)

Engineer's Measuring tape Prism (surveying) (corner Simple theodolite Electronic theodolite
chain cube retroreflector)

Geodimeter Plane table Pole (surveying) Great theodolite

Technical things during our control survey:

Control point survey:
We believe that the survey conducted on the basis of national control points is more accurate than
the survey conducted on the basis of local control points because the vertical and horizontal
coordinates obtained from the survey conducted on the basis of control points are different from
those obtained from the survey conducted on the basis of local control points.

Keywords
1. National survey
2. Bench mark
3. Geodetic survey
4. National geodetic survey
5. Vertical control

Report on easting and checkpoint northing errors:

In Cartesian geographic coordinates, for example, the easting and northing of coordinates are two
entirely separate things. It is known as easting when referring to the distance measured to the east
(or the x-coordinate), whereas northing refers to the distance measured to the north when referring
to the easting (or the y-coordinate). We are working on behalf of a group, and we have been tasked
with conducting a topographical survey that includes a close traverse. The fact that we have changed
our systems five times indicates that we have identified our five control points, which are as follows:

Causes of error during survey checks:

Many errors can impact survey control and all of them are described below:

• Systematic error
• Random error

Systematic error.
Systemic error (also known as systemic bias) is a kind of mistake that occurs over a long period of
time and is caused by failing equipment or a poorly designed experiment. In certain circles, this is
referred to as systemic prejudice. The majority of the time, such mistakes are caused by measuring
equipment that have been wrongly calibrated or that have been used in an unsuitable manner.
Random error.
There is no logical explanation for a random mistake (also called unsystematic error, system noise or
spontaneous variation). One minute may not be enough time for you to complete your readings. Is it
possible that they'll be too high the following time? It is hard to predict mistakes at random, and
mistakes are virtually always inevitable in the course of business.

Error during topographic survey:

When it comes to measurement mistakes, a variety of variables might come into play, each with its
own relevance. Naturally occurring errors, instrument-induced errors, and human mistakes are the
three categories of errors that might occur.

Human errors:
As a result of physical constraints of the surveyor, as well as uneven patterns of setup and
observation, human errors are more common than they should be. To give a few instances, minor
errors might occur as a consequence of misalignment or failure to keep the target rod totally plumb,
or as a result of misalignment or failing to maintain the target rod completely plumb. Because of this
kind of inaccuracy, each observation still has a certain amount of error.

Natural error:
Thermal, humidity, gravitational and wind forces, magnetic decay, and refraction are all examples of
natural variables that may lead to inaccuracies in surveying, as can oscillations in surveying
equipment. When measurements are made, it is conceivable that the results will be incorrect if the
measurements are not properly checked after they are collected.

Instrument errors:
The physical limitations of the surveyor, as well as inconsistencies in the surveyor's setup and
observation patterns, are the most common sources of human error. To give a few instances, minor
errors might occur as a consequence of misalignment or failure to keep the target rod totally plumb,
or as a result of misalignment or failing to maintain the target rod completely plumb. Because of this
kind of inaccuracy, each observation still has a certain amount of error.

Report on errors of easting and northing of control points:

What we mean of Northing and Easting in our survey:

As we go through the process of learning the coordinate system, we reach the intermediate level, in
which the two axes that cross each other at a 90-degree angle create a coordinate system, with the
X-axis value denoted as north and the Y-axis value denoted as easting in surveying, respectively.

Now we will talk about the value of the Northing and Easting during survey

Think about it: you've got a park's topography on your hands, and each section of the park has its
own set of coordinates that are distinct from one another because of the unevenness of the surface
of the planet. Because of the unevenness of the earth's surface, as shown in the table below, there is
a significant discrepancy in the coordinates of various sites under consideration throughout the
surveying process.
Table of coordinates

FAREED BOOK 1

Accuracy:
Solution:
As we can see that we have error of .72 in northing and .32 in easting.

The error may be divided by the total number of station points and then added to each northing
value. Similarly, if we're solving the easting, the error can be divided by the entire number of station
points and then added to each easting value.

Current sheet

Common causes of error during survey

There are several errors which can affect our work and they are given below:

• Human error
• Wind error
• Systematic error
• Natural error

Causes of error during control survey:

There are various errors which can affect control survey and all of them are discussed below:

 Systematic error
 Random error

Systematic errors
In surveys, systematic error refers to error that arises as a consequence of a malfunction in the
instrument. It might come as a result of the survey machine's calibration being incorrectly calibrated,
or it can occur as a result of the survey machine's calibration being disrupted by a strong shock.

Although some systematic errors are difficult to detect, the surveyor must recognize the conditions
that cause such errors. The following list includes several examples of systematic errors:

• It is necessary to utilise temperature and/or pressure readings that are imprecise.

• When the curvature and refraction constants are not taken into consideration
• When using the incorrect instrument and/or goal heights, errors might occur.
• Using an incorrect prism offset to achieve results.
• Using a piece of equipment that has been badly tuned.

Random errors
It is possible to have a survey inaccuracy if the weather conditions, temperature, and air pressure
are not perfect. For example, if the temperature rises over 40 degrees Celsius, the accuracy of the
survey may be impaired since Mercury is employed in the instrument level system, and its
characteristics may fluctuate as a result of temperature fluctuations. Even though they are referred
to as random errors, they may occur at any moment and are often triggered by factors beyond of
the surveyor's control.

Error during topographic survey:

When it comes to measurement mistakes, a variety of variables might come into play, each with its
own relevance. Naturally occurring errors, instrument-induced errors, and human mistakes are the
three categories of errors that might occur.

Human errors:
As a result of physical constraints of the surveyor, as well as uneven patterns of setup and
observation, human errors are more common than they should be. To give a few instances, minor
errors might occur as a consequence of misalignment or failure to keep the target rod totally plumb,
or as a result of misalignment or failing to maintain the target rod completely plumb. Because of this
kind of inaccuracy, each observation still has a certain amount of error.

Natural error:
Thermal, humidity, gravitational and wind forces, magnetic decay, and refraction are all examples of
natural elements that may create mistakes in surveying, as can variations in surveying equipment.
Even when accurate measurements are obtained, there is a chance that the results will be incorrect
if they are not adequately checked.

Instrument errors:
Human errors are due to the physical limitations of the surveyor and to incoherent patterns of setup
and observation. For example, minor errors occur due to misalignment of the telescope. crosshairs
on the target or inability to hold the target rod perfectly plumb. Such errors are still to some extent
present in each observation.

Causes of error during topographical survey:

It is possible for a mistake to arise during a topographical survey for a number of different causes;
the three-man types of such errors are as follows:

 Natural error
 Machine error
 Human Error

Natural errors
Variations in natural phenomena such as temperature, humidity, gravity, wind, refraction, and
magnetic declination may be caused by faults in surveying as well as by human error, according to
the National Weather Service. When measurements are conducted, if the findings are not
adequately monitored, the results will be incorrect.
Instrument errors
Inaccuracy or improper adaptation of the equipment that is being used to produce the measurement
in issue might result in a survey error. For example, a tape that is excessively long or angle measuring
equipment that does not have an adjustment for the angle are both examples of poor design.
Instrumental errors are the kind of errors that fall within this category.

Human errors
A mistake (sometimes called as a massive mistake) is a large, unplanned error that occurs as a
consequence of human error and which often leads in considerable inequalities. The majority of the
time, errors are the consequence of carelessness, misunderstanding, frustration, or poor judgement
on the part of the individual. The following are some instances of survey errors that are often made:
• incorrectly adjusting the survey instrument's levelling

Causes of error during setting out on our survey

The bearing out is one of the most important things that the surveyor should properly investigate as
part of the survey assignment that has been assigned to him. Due to a prior mistake, we omitted to
check the bearing out, which resulted in a mistake in our survey project, which we discovered the
hard way.

Bearing out
When the instrument's bearing is not properly aligned, it is nearly guaranteed that an error will
occur throughout the course of operation. The result will be a fluctuation in your coordinates from
one spot to another, making it hard to produce a precise layout in the process.

Following the guidelines provided below and keeping them in mind for the future will assist us in
reducing the repercussions of all three kinds of errors (control, topography, and setting out).

 Check to verify that the survey instrument is correctly levelled and that the survey site is
properly targeted before proceeding.
 Make sure that the foresight and backlight observations are on the same level as one
another.
 The data collector is equipped with the right environmental characteristics by configuring
the data collector's configuration with the proper instrument heights, rod heights, targets
heights, and prism offset values, among other things.
 On a regular basis, the surveying equipment must be adjusted and calibrated to ensure
proper operation.

Causes of error during data transformation:

This is the most important phase in the whole process since, without it, a designer would be unable
to develop anything at all.

And there are two main reason of errors

• Software problem
• Unit setting
• Corrupt file
• Low quality cable for data transfer from the instrument

Techniques being used for accurate survey:

Ways to Reduce Measurement Error
• Everything is submitted to a triple precision inspection before being used.
• It's a good idea to look for the correct formulae at least twice.
• Take steps to ensure that the testers and others who will be taking the measurements have
received adequate instruction.
• Allow for calculations to be carried out using the most exact equipment available at the time
of the computation.
• It is necessary to do these measures under the guidance of a skilled specialist.

Test your measurement devices with a pilot. For example, you might set together a focus group and
ask them how simple or difficult it was to grasp the questions.

• Precision should be double-checked on all of the measurements.

• Making a second check on your formulas will ensure that they are correct.
• Check to verify that all observers and measurement takers have received proper training
before starting the experiment.
• Calculate using the most precise tool available.
• To get the best results, take the measurements in circumstances that are being attentively
scrutinised.

How to Prevent Errors during Setting Out of Building?

Following are the different types of control that should be carried out to prevent any errors during
setting out building plan on ground:

• Good practice in office

• On site control
• Equipment and staff
• Checks
• Marking the ground
• Use of grid offset
• Properly marking the control points
• Skills full helper
• Writing of every control point coordinate on the note book
• Setting of the machine in open areas
• Having extra batteries for the machine

In our first survey, we used Rawalpindi's coordinates as a reference point for the local point, and in
our second survey, we used a national point as a reference point for the local point, after which we
conducted a traverse, and we discovered that both types of surveys were correct, and that the
accuracy was excellent, with the accuracy being.0093 in both types of surveys. Because there was a
little amount of error in the local point, it is feasible to utilise both local and national points;
nevertheless, the optimal technique of conducting surveys is to use national points, which may be
acquired from a Pakistani survey. Please view the attachments for the readings. Thank you for your
cooperation.

References:

https://civiltoday.com/surveying/13-definition-and-importance-of-surveying

https://www.scb.se/contentassets/ca21efb41fee47d293bbee5bf7be7fb3/methods-of- behavior-
coding-of-survey-interviews.pdf
https://www.qualtrics.com/experience-management/research/survey-errors/
https://www.buildingpointsoutheast.com/achieving-layout-accuracy-setting-new-standard/