Unit 2

Alman Ahmed
Distinguish between residential, commercial, and industrial structures. Distinguish between
Structures of various types are represented, including residential, commercial, and industrial.

Structures with a low, a medium, or a high rise:

Residential buildings, as defined by the United States Census Bureau, include single-family homes,
duplexes, apartments, and condominiums. They are, by definition, habitations. Commercial buildings
are defined as workplaces, offices, storefronts, or other distinctive structures used by and for
businesses, commerce, or other sorts of trade or industry. Industrial buildings are often industrial or
warehouse facilities used to produce or store commodities for commercial usage. From a different
perspective, residential constructions have certain common elements, such as kitchens, bathrooms,
and bedrooms, among others. They might be multiple structures or as simple as a single-family
dwelling. The layout of a commercial building is determined by its intended use; some buildings have
conference rooms and exhibition floors, while others contain offices and retail space in addition to
loading docks and other facilities. Commercial building regulations vary from residential building
codes in that they include a maximum occupancy restriction and requirements for fire escape plans,
fire extinguishers, fire alarm systems, and lighting, among other features that are not normally
needed in residential buildings. Industrial buildings are generally massive, open-plan constructions
resembling warehouses. They typically include production floors with operational equipment,
supervisory office space, break rooms and bathrooms, as well as storage sections and spaces. In
general, both adhere to the same essential fire prevention and life safety standards.

Buildings are structurally distinct in the following ways:

As a consequence of their lighter weight, homes have lower foundations. Commercial structures, on
the other hand, are constructed differently due to their considerable weight and stress. Columns and
beams are utilised in commercial constructions because they safely transport weight from beams to
columns, which then safely transfer load to the ground.

The differences between residential, commercial, and industrial buildings are as

follows:
For Residential:
Purpose:
 Used for homes and family residence
 E.g 5, 10 or kanal houses, apartments etc.

Cost required:
 Less than commercial and industrial projects
 Generally, they are constructed for living purposes and are less costly.

Required materials:
 Simple materials like as bricks, tiles, and cement are employed.
 Construction Period Typically takes between 8 and 15 months

When it comes to designing residential structures in Pakistan, students often use less technology. It
is vital to engage a straightforward contractor and employees. Structures of many sorts are
available, including concrete frame buildings, brick masonry load-bearing or non-load-bearing
structures, R.C.C. frame structures with partition walls, and wooden/timber frame structures. The
bulk of structures are one, two, or three stories tall. In the case of a commercial: This material is
intended for use in the construction of office buildings, such as those used by banks, real estate
offices, educational institutions, and similar businesses.

Costs to be expended include the following: Residential projects are more costly, whereas
industrial projects are less expensive.

The components listed below are required: To construct purpose-built campuses, it is required to
utilise both basic and complex materials such as gypsum ceilings, carved bricks, tiles, and cement, as
well as software. Construction Time Typically takes between one and two years to finish. It is
determined by the nature of the business venture. Advanced technology is used, such as software
for essential drawings such as autocad, Revit, and BIM. There are several sorts of structures,
including those with a concrete frame, those with a steel frame, and those with a medium to high
rise. Industrial buildings include manufacturing facilities, industrial plants, warehouses, and other
huge structures. A structure or facility in which different kinds and quality of things or materials are
manufactured, assembled/processed, stored, or distributed

Costs that must be incurred: The costliest projects are residential and industrial, whereas the most
expensive projects are large-scale. Special materials are needed for the structure's construction. To
construct purpose-built buildings, basic and sophisticated materials such as gypsum ceilings, carved
bricks and tiles, and cement must be used, as well as computer-aided design (CAD) software.

Temporary Structures
Investments are often made over an extended period of time, such as 4-5 years. This varies
according on the nature of the project. Applied technology encompasses the application of modern
technology such as drafting software such as autocad, Revit, and BIM. Advanced and specialised
construction technology is available, as is equipment such as highway engineering for highway
construction, total station GPS, and so on. There are several sorts of structures, including those with
a concrete frame, those with a steel frame, and those with a medium to high rise.

INTRODUCTION TO CONSTRUCTION TERMINOLOGY:

Excavation: Whether for a residence, an office building, or a public construction project such as a
road bridge, excavation on construction sites may be a difficult task in the Bay Area and elsewhere at
times. Soil conditions may be an issue, and being next to other constructions may provide logistical
challenges. Additional impediments to building might originate from a number of sources.

PCC/RCC:
To begin, PCC is an acronym for "Plain Cement Concrete," whereas RCC is an abbreviation for
"Reinforced Cement Concrete." As their names imply, one contains reinforced steel, while the other
does not and is referred to as plain steel.

There is one key distinction: Plain Cement Concrete does not include the term "Steel," but
Reinforced Cement Concrete does. The phrase "brickwork" refers to masonry that is constructed
with bricks and mortar by a bricklayer. To create a structure, such as a brick wall, rows of bricks
called courses are often built in a pattern on top of one another.

The size of bricks and blocks may be used to differentiate them.

It is a waterproofing substance such as asphalt or waterproof cement that is applied to the outside
of a structure to protect it against floods. To keep out water, walls are constructed over the damp
proof course. You can prevent surface water from rising into your walls by installing a damp proof
course. Dampness erodes the walls' structural integrity and leads to unclean living conditions.
Additionally, it affects the paint and plaster, increasing the cost of maintenance. When a plinth
beam is employed, no damp proofing layer is required since the plinth beam already acts as a damp
proofing layer.

THE PLINTH BEAM'S CONSTRUCTION: The kind of plinth beam utilised is determined by
the type of building construction and the soil type. It adds additional stability to a structure in the
case of settlement or damage caused by an earthquake, among other things.

RCC SLAB: RCC is an acronym for reinforced cement concrete.

Since a consequence, an RCC slab is reinforced with steel rods that have been carefully constructed
to provide the structure with tensile strength, as concrete is mainly intended to sustain compression
loads and is very weak when subjected to tensile stresses. THE FLOORING IS THE SURFACES ON
WHICH WE CONDUCT THE MAJORITY OF OUR ACTIVITIES. Flooring is installed over the plinth filling
on the first and second storeys, as well as on subsequent floors. While flooring may be made of a
number of materials, it is vital that the dirt underneath the floor is compacted correctly. By installing
flooring, you prevent moisture from rising to the surface and provide a stable foundation that can be
kept hygienic and clean.

PLASTER: Gypsum plaster/powder is a kind of building material that is used for a number of
functions, including wall and ceiling protection and decorating, as well as moulding and casting
decorative elements.

WORK IN THE HEATING AND A/C SYSTEM:

HVAC is an acronym for a variety of things, including heating, ventilation, and air conditioning. This
system is capable of meeting the heating and cooling requirements of a residential or commercial
facility. HVAC systems are found in a wide range of environments, from single-family homes to
submarines, and are responsible for environmental comfort. These systems, which are becoming
increasingly prevalent in new construction, circulate outside air throughout the structure to
maintain a healthy indoor environment. Ventilation is the act of replenishing or exchanging air inside
a place. The letter V in HVAC stands for ventilation. This enhances the indoor air quality by
eliminating moisture, smoke, odours, heat, dust, airborne bacteria, carbon dioxide, and other
contaminants, as well as regulating the temperature and replenishing oxygen. MEP refers to a
system that consists of all three of these components (mechanical, electrical, and plumbing). MEP
systems are a critical component of a building's services and are capable of performing a broad
variety of functions. Because mechanical, electrical, and plumbing (MEP) systems are often built by
professional consultants and contractors, they may provide complex coordination and detailing
challenges. They must adhere to a variety of objectives and criteria during the project's design,
installation, commissioning, operation, and maintenance stages.

Several of the obstacles that must be overcome include the following:

Coordination of spatial activity; avoiding collisions, both violent and soft. A system is made up of
multiple components that operate cohesively as a whole. Time-consuming and demanding
installation, testing, operating, and maintenance procedures.
Load-bearing walls and non-load-bearing walls:
What is a load-bearing wall exactly?

A load bearing wall (alternatively called a bearing wall) is a wall that transfers the weight of a load
resting on it to a foundation structure. Concrete, block, and brick are the most often used materials
in the building of load-bearing walls in large constructions. Loads supported by a load bearing wall in
a building structure include floors, machinery, furniture, and people. Non-load bearing walls, as
contrast to load bearing walls, are capable of sustaining just their own weight. This kind of wall is
used to seal a steel or concrete frame building. It is sometimes referred to as a panel wall due to the
fact that it is supported by supports at each floor, which are commonly steel shelf angles. A curtain
wall is a wall that is supported purely at the base and requires no further support. A partition is often
a thin inside wall that is used to divide the space within a building into rooms or regions of varying
sizes. In the majority of circumstances, partition walls are incapable of supporting any weight.
Structure stability is a field of mechanics that studies how structures behave when compressed.
When a structure is subjected to a sufficiently strong compressive force (or stress), it loses stiffness,
undergoes a perceptible change in geometry, and becomes unsteady and unstable. Stability of the
structure in the face of change Demolition and deconstruction of structures - Critical issues include
surveying and evaluating the structure, preventing structural collapse, planning for destruction, and
coordinating with building control authorities. Structural stability in excavations refers to ensuring
that no one is harmed by the collapse of the excavation, by debris falling on them, or by falling into
the excavation.

Thermal expansion and contraction: Thermal movement and expansion are principally generated
by the structure's fabric expanding and contracting in response to hot and cold weather,
respectively. When the masonry is heated, it expands, creating compressive pressures that the
masonry can handle due to its high compression strength; but, when the masonry is cooled, it
contracts, generating tensile forces that result in breaking. This cycle is continued indefinitely, and
little cracks eventually expand into massive fissures. Durability is described as the resistance of
commodities, materials, buildings, and other built assets against degradation over time. This may be
a difficult trait to judge in certain situations; for example, although a tough material may feel robust
to the touch, it may also be non-durable if it decomposes or erodes rapidly, as steel does. Weather
and moisture resistance: The Structure Regulations demand that walls be capable of keeping
moisture from entering the structure. Moisture is defined as both water vapour and liquid water.
Moisture may seep into a wall by the absorption of water from the ground next to the foundation
walls or through the penetration of raindrops falling on the wall. It is necessary to establish a
continuous horizontal layer of an impermeable material inside a wall to prevent water absorbed
from the ground by foundation walls from rising to a point where it may affect the interior of the
construction. Aesthetics The aesthetics of a structure is one of the most important considerations in
architectural design. The combined effects of a structure's form, scale, texture, colour, balance,
unity, movement, emphasis, contrast, symmetry, proportion, space, alignment, pattern,
ornamentation, culture, and context are referred to as "aesthetic appeal," which is defined as "the
appeal of a building."

Fire resistance: There are many advantages to using fire resistant architecture.
 It makes use of noncombustible materials.
  Compared to other building classes, it allows for more height and area.
 Utilizes load-bearing parts or assemblies that are resistant to fire damage

 Buildings that are fire resistant have a variety of drawbacks.

 Construction and upkeep are quite expensive.
 Offers the appearance of security yet is not true
 Fundamental Principles of Sound Insulation and Soundproofing Design

When it comes to effective transmission control, two key design considerations are
necessary:
Increase the quantity of dead space that is sealed. Acoustic energy is squandered when sound
travels across space, and as a result, the intensity or "volume" of the sound decreases. As a
consequence, we generally cannot hear someone speaking to us from a distance. On the other hand,
short distances need the reduction of sound transmission via the air, which may be done by
eliminating open penetrations in the walls, floors, and ceilings. This method is quite effective in
soundproofing existing rooms. Increase the bulk. Items that vibrate generate sound by causing
pressure waves to spread through the air. Additionally, sound may cause objects to vibrate,
regenerating pressure waves at a new location on the object. This will, however, result in a loss of
acoustic energy throughout the process. The mass of an object determines the amount of energy
required to force it to vibrate, and hence the amount of energy available to renew a sound.

Two critical qualities are heat loss and thermal transmission resistance.
Thermal resistance may be quantified by determining how resistive a substance is to the passage of
heat through it. The R-value of a material indicates its resistance to heat. In general, the higher the
R-value of a substance, the more effective it is as an insulator. When applied to a unit area, thermal
resistance is defined as the temperature differential between two specified material surfaces that
results in a unit heat flow rate across a unit area. It is often referred to as thermal energy's inverse.
The transmittance of a substance is governed by its thermal conductivity and thickness. On a
dimensional level, coordination and homogeneity. Dimensional coordination is shown to be a
valuable strategy for integrating previously constructed components into a coherent whole, as well
as for boosting the application versatility of these items. It is defined as the end goal of dimensional
coordination and is accomplished by modular coordination.

Sustainability: By constructing buildings to be repurposed rather than demolished, we can reduce

the amount of rubbish disposed of in landfills and the number of raw materials used in aggregate.
Fortunately, innovative approaches to improving sustainability in the construction sector continue to
be investigated.

 Construction may be on-site or off-site.

 Construction on-site
 Construction off-site

On-site construction encompasses a broad range of tasks in the field. It is often at the heart of any
project and encompasses all tasks that must be conducted on-site, such as construction,
maintenance, and property management. Off-site construction is a method of construction in which
prefabricated and standardised components/modules are made in a controlled industrial setting (on-
or off-site), then transported, erected, and assembled into the on-site structure.
Buildability
Buildability may be defined as the degree to which the design of a structure facilitates its
construction. It is a matter of determining whether or not the architectural design can be realised.
However, there are a range of factors that might jeopardise a project's success, including design
oversights and omissions.

Considerations for health and safety:

Employees on the working site, bystanders, supervisors, and managers, to name a few, are all
engaged at different phases of the health and safety process. To guarantee healthy and safe working
conditions, it is vital to manage all activities properly and to ensure that all site staff are certified.
Competent EHS experts should complete the following steps prior to starting work: Create a list of
dangers and a risk management strategy.

Assure that staff get site- and job-specific training.

Observe, inspect, and report on the implementation of agreed-upon safe work practises on a site-
wide basis. Supply chain management entails comprehending the breakdown and traceability of
goods and services, organisations, logistics, people, activities, information, and resources used to
change raw materials into a final product suitable for its intended use. Unlike the automobile
business, the construction sector has the unique challenge of each building being unique, created by
a team of consultants, contractors, and other suppliers who have never worked together before and
may never work together again. In the built environment, the phrase 'life cycle' refers to the whole
life of a product, building, or service. For instance, in the case of a building, this would cover the
design, construction, operation, and disposal of the structure.

 Utilizes fire-resistant load-bearing elements or assemblies

 There are a number of drawbacks to fire resistant construction.
 Building and maintaining a structure is an expensive proposition.
 Provides the appearance of security yet is false
 Fundamental Design Principles for Acoustic Insulation and Soundproofing

There are two key design aspects to consider when it comes to sound transmission regulation:
Increase the quantity of dead space that is blocked off. Acoustic energy is lost when sound travels
across space, and as a result, the sound's intensity or "volume" decreases. As a consequence, we
often are unable to hear someone speaking to us from a distance. On the other hand, short
distances need the removal of sound transmission via the air, which may be done by closing open
penetrations in the walls, floors, and ceilings. This technique is quite effective in soundproofing
existing rooms. Increase the bulk by a certain percentage. The vibration of objects generates sound,
which propagates pressure waves through the air. Additionally, sound may cause objects to vibrate,
regenerating pressure waves at a new location on the object. However, this procedure will result in a
loss of acoustic energy. The mass of an object determines the amount of energy required to cause it
to vibrate and hence the amount of energy available to produce a sound.

Two critical qualities are heat loss and thermal transmission resistance.
Thermal resistance may be quantified by determining how resistive a substance is to heat passage
through it. A substance's resistance to heat is determined by its R-value. In general, the higher the R-
value of a material, the better it is at insulating. When applied to a unit area, thermal resistance is
defined as the temperature differential between two specified material surfaces that results in a unit
heat flow rate across that unit area. The term "thermal energy's inverse" is often used to refer to it.
  A material's transmittance is governed by both its thermal conductivity and thickness.
 On a three-dimensional level, coherence and homogeneity

Dimensional coordination is shown to be an effective strategy for integrating previously constructed

components into a coherent whole and for boosting the application versatility of these items. It is
defined as the ultimate objective of dimensional coordination and is accomplished by modular
coordination.

Sustainability: By designing buildings to be repurposed rather than demolished, we may help

reduce the amount of rubbish disposed of in landfills and the number of raw materials used in
aggregate. Fortunately, innovative approaches for increasing sustainability in the construction sector
continue to be investigated.

 On-site and off-site construction are both possible.

 Building on-site
 Constructing off-site

On-site construction encompasses a broad range of activities performed on-site. As a general rule, it
is central to any project and encompasses all tasks that must be accomplished on-site, such as
construction, maintenance, and property management. Off-site construction is a method of building
in which prefabricated and standardised components/modules are made in a controlled industrial
setting (on- or off-site), then transported, erected, and assembled into the on-site structure.

Buildability
Buildability may be defined as the extent to which a structure's design facilitates its construction. It
is a matter of realising the architectural design. However, there are other factors that might
jeopardise a project's success, including design oversights and omissions.

Considerations for health and safety

At different phases, the health and safety process involves employees on the work site, bystanders,
supervisors, and managers, among others. It is vital to guarantee that all activities are handled
correctly and that all site staff are qualified in order to provide healthy and safe working conditions.
Prior to the start of employment, competent EHS experts should complete the following tasks:
Create a list of potential dangers and a risk management strategy.

 Assure that staff get training that is site- and job-specific.

 Observe, inspect, and report on the site-wide use of agreed-upon safe work practises.

Supply chain management entails comprehending the breakdown and traceability of goods and
services, organisations, logistics, people, activities, information, and resources that change raw
materials into completed products suitable for their intended use. Unlike the automobile business,
the construction sector has the unique challenge of each building being unique, created by a team of
consultants, contractors, and other suppliers who have never worked together before and may
never work together again.

In the built environment, the phrase 'life cycle' refers to the whole life of a product, building, or
service. For instance, in the case of a building, this would cover the design, construction, operation,
and disposal of the structure.

Undisturbed soil samples preserve the earth's underlying integrity and have a high rate of mending
inside the sampler, but disturbed soil samples do not. It is difficult to gather an entirely undisturbed
sample, and samplers may also retain a little quantity of undisturbed soil at the top and bottom of
the test length.

We will do a site research, programme formulation, construction cost analysis, and value
engineering throughout the pre-design phase of our project, to mention a few tasks. Water supply is
a critical service for a building since it enables water to be supplied to various parts such as the
kitchen, washrooms, and other areas that need water. The The organisation and distribution of soil
and rock strata, as well as the breadth of their coverage. The composition and structure of the soil
and rock formations, as well as their engineering properties. The location of groundwater and its
level variation. Programming is the process of determining a project's user requirements.
Programming include categorising the needed locations and equipment, as well as functional
relationships. The construction cost analysis generates a construction budget for the capital
improvement budget, as well as a cost plan to assist in explaining the budget and guiding project
management during the construction phase. Government financing is essential for our proposed
government girls high school to operate as a functioning entity. Aspects of pre-design investigations,
such as soil testing, are also critical. No work can begin without first testing the soil. Additionally, its
compaction should be between 95 and 98 percent after soil testing. On our construction site, I and
my group members conducted the following duties.

 To ascertain the soil's carrying capacity.

 To ascertain the location's suitability.
 To ascertain the kind of foundation and its depth.
 To ascertain the depth of the subsurface water table.
 To ascertain the soil's suitability and the requisite degree of compaction.
 The goal of this examination is to determine if further special measures are required to
increase the soil's bearing capacity.

The many methods of soil testing are as follows:

Soil testing may be categorised as follows:

It is possible that if soil is not thoroughly examined, it may develop fractures in the future and
collapse in due course. There are several types of tests that may be used to ascertain the surface
qualities of soil, and few of them are covered briefly below:

Moisture content test: - This test is performed to detect the amount of moisture and water present
in a soil sample. There are a variety of processes available, including the Calcium Carbide Method,
the Oven Drying Method, the Sand bath Method, the Radiation Method, and the Alcohol Method.

Provide specifics for the gravity test: - This test offers information on the degree of saturation of the
soil as well as the void ratio of the soil. The void ratio is defined as the relationship between the
volume of voids and the volume of solids contained in the soil.

With the weight of the soil samples, the density test may be used to divide the soil into three types:
loose (low density), medium density, and dense (high density). The lower the density of the soil, the
more stable the foundation.

The Atterberg limits test is used to determine the essential water content of a soil's water content.
There are three types of limits: the plastic limit, the liquid limit, and the shrinkage limit, each of
which demonstrates the characteristics of fine-grained soil under distinct situations.
Proctor's test, which is the most widely used compaction test, assesses the compaction properties of
soil by minimising air spaces via densification and is the most regularly used compaction test.
Compacted soil is subjected to this test in order to determine its maximum dry density and optimal
water content.

The influence of soil on foundations:

The foundation is the first and most critical element in the construction process; even a little mistake
or damage may cause the structure to fail or collapse completely. The foundation serves as a
guardian for the structure, protecting it from any physical pressures that may come from the subsoil.
It contributes to the long-term stability and maintenance of the load bearings from the building to
the ground.

The soil should have all of the necessary physical and chemical qualities to support the weight of the
structure when it is constructed. Using soil testing and analysis, you can figure out how quickly your
soil is settling and how much weight it can support. These tests also aid in the determination of the
length and depth of the pillars that will be used to build the foundation.

Soil testing is the only way to determine the amount of water present in the soil, which helps to
regulate the degree of humidity inside the foundation. Keeping track of soil movements, as well as
its responses to water, is essential. As a rule, soil movement is greater in clay soils than it is in sandy
soils.

Demonstrate the functional qualities and design criteria for the major and secondary parts of a
building's foundation and superstructure by providing examples.

The primary components are as follows:

What exactly is a superstructure?

The superstructure of a building is that portion of the structure that is mostly above ground level, as
opposed to the substructure, which is primarily below ground level.

Parts of the Superstructure have been identified. The Floor is now open.

The floors of a building's superstructure are responsible for separating the various levels of a
structure. Of course, it is also the space where you walk about, where you arrange furniture, and
where you keep a variety of things.

The Roof is a good example.

Every building must have a roof because it protects the floors underneath it, as well as the rest of
the superstructure, from the weather elements. As far as roofing alternatives are concerned, there is
no "one size fits all" answer; thus, depending on the location of the structure you are constructing,
you may choose from a variety of various roof kinds. When it comes to the plains, flat roofs are most
often employed, whereas slanted roofs are better when it comes to mountains or areas where there
is a lot of snow.

The Lintel is a structure that was built in the middle of a field.

In architecture, the lintel is the region above any doors or windows, and it is there to provide
support for the wall above bigger openings. It is typical for lintel beams to be constructed of
reinforced cement concrete, although they may also be constructed of concrete and bricks. The
breadth of the lintel is typically the same dimension as the width of the wall it is attached to. When it
comes to thickness, however, the lintel should never be less than four and a half inches in thickness
at any time. However, it should never be thicker than the breadth of the object.

The Parapet is a protective barrier around a building.

Parapets are the outside walls of a building that extend beyond the slab of the roof. The goal of this
section of the superstructure is to prevent water from flooding into the building's entrance while
also providing a safe landing area for individuals who are on the roof.

The Sun's Protection

The sun shade is installed in conjunction with the lintel, and it provides protection for both doors
and windows from the sun and rainfall.

The Beams are a kind of beam.

Beams are horizontal structural components that can bear any vertical loads that are applied. Those
vertical loads sustain all of the weight at the extremities of the beams, with the remainder of the
weight being transmitted to the columns or the beam supports.

The Columns
Columns are vertical constructions that are capable of supporting a great deal of weight. Whenever
more weight is placed on top of any columns that have not been correctly installed, the columns will
collapse. Of course, all of that weight is transferred from the columns to the foundation when it is
built.

The Fortresses
Without the presence of walls inside a structure or a residence, we would all have access to big,
open areas. However, since none of us wants our bedroom to be directly next to the kitchen, walls
are usually built to separate the two spaces.

Enclose particular portions of structures using walls or other barriers The majority of walls are
constructed of concrete or masonry, and they bear the weight of the roof, slabs, and even the
beams above them.

The openings such as doors, windows, and other openings.

It is also regarded to be part of the superstructure if all of the doors, windows, and other openings in
a home or building function properly. The number of doors, windows, and other openings in a
building or home will be determined by the size of the structure or residence. Stairs, ramps, lifts, and
other vertical transportation structures are included in this category. A section of the superstructure
is comprised of all of the vertical transportation structures that may be found in buildings and
dwellings. While stairs and ramps are sometimes the only items to be found in houses, buildings will
almost always have escalators and elevators to help people go about. When I was working with my
group members, we found the following locations for the windows, doors, and stairs on our building
site;

The Position of the Window

The size and quantity of windows should be chosen in consideration of essential considerations such
as the distribution of light, the management of ventilation, and the privacy of the building's
inhabitants. The placement of a window should also be compatible with the practical needs of the
space, such as interior décor, furniture layout, and so on. In order to create cross-ventilation, a
window should be placed in the opposite wall, facing a door or another window. A window should
be placed on the northern side of a room in order to maximise the amount of fresh air that enters
the space. A window should be placed towards the direction of the prevailing wind, if possible, in
order to maximise the amount of fresh air entering the room. The sill of the window should be
situated around 70 to 80 cm above the floor level of the room, depending on its size.

The location of the door

In order to avoid causing obstructions and increasing the amount of energy used in circulation, the
number of doors should be maintained to a bare minimum. An appropriate position for a door
should be determined based on the functional requirements of the space. It should not be
positioned in the middle of the length of a wall, for example. A door should be placed at the corner
of a room, around 20cm away from the corner, if at all possible. The doors of a room should be
placed on opposing walls, facing each other, if there are two of them. This will ensure that the rooms
have enough ventilation and open air circulation.

Location of the Staircase: The staircase should be situated close to the building's main entrance.
They should be easy accessible to the occupants of the building without disturbing the privacy of the
rooms. They should be located in well lighted and ventilated area. There should be spacious
approach.

Everything from the finishing touches to the final product

The majority of people are unaware that the superstructure of a building or a house includes all of
the finishing touches on the interior. Trim, flooring materials, drapes, shades, and even the heating
and conditioning equipment are included in this category.

The following are secondary elements:

Construction of foundations: Foundations are used to support structures by shifting their weight to
layers of soil or rock that have adequate bearing capacity and settlement characteristics to sustain
the structure in question.

Justifications for the establishment of a foundation A foundation should achieve the

following goals:
 Provide a vast amount of soil underneath the building to distribute the weight of the
structure.
 Avoid unfair settlements at all costs.
 Prevent the building from moving to the left or right.
 Increase the structural stability of the building.

Foundations may be classified into the following categories:

The importance of solid foundations:
When constructing on sand or other soft soil that will not be able to withstand the weight of the
building, deep foundations are necessary to support the structure. Alternatives include digging down
deep below or even underwater to construct a foundation that will be in touch with more solid
strata of the soil, rather than above ground.

Bridges, piers, and dams, for example, must be built on foundations that are submerged in water
while maintaining structural stability. Deep foundations become more important in the building of
huge structures at this point in time.
Foundations that are too thin
A shallow foundation is one that is broader than it is deep, which is the most common kind. Shallow
foundations are often referred to as spread footings or open footings.

For obvious reasons, shallow foundations are the more economical of the two types. They don’t
require much in the way of digging or boring into the earth and for that reason, they are the most
common. Shallow foundations are useful when the building isn’t exceedingly heavy and the soil can
bear. A significant amount of weight at a shallow depth.

Describe techniques used for remediating the site prior to construction commencing. Site
remediation:

Site-remediation is the process of removing polluted or contaminated soil, sediment, surface water,
or groundwater, to reduce the impact on people or the environment. A polluted site can have a
serious impact on human health, water supplies, and eco-systems and even on building structures,
which is why there are various safeguards now in place to deal with contamination issues.

De-watering
De-watering is the removal of water from solid material or soil by wet. Classification, centrifugation,
filtration, or similar solid-liquid separation processes, such as removal of residual liquid from a filter
cake by a filter press as part of various industrial processes. Construction dewatering, unwatering, or
water control are common terms used to describe removal or draining groundwater or surface
water from a riverbed, construction site, caisson, or mine shaft, by pumping or evaporation. On a
construction site, this dewatering may be implemented before subsurface excavation for
foundations, shoring, or cellar space to lower the water table.

Soil contamination
Soil contamination is when the concentration of pollutants in the soil are higher than would be
naturally, specifically due to the impact of past activities that were undertaken on the site and have
consequentially impacted on the underlying soil.

Contamination management:
Contaminated sites can pose a significant risk to public health and the environment. Many different
insitu or ex-situ remediation technologies have been developed throughout the years to mitigate the
risk imposed by soil contamination. These technologies may be contaminant and site specific.
Remediation can be achieved by contaminated soil removal, contaminant removal, containment,
stabilization/solidification, transformation, or different combinations of Soil remediation; stone
piling Soil liquefaction and associated ground failures have been a major source of damage during
the past earthquakes. The risk of liquefaction and associated ground deformation can be reduced by
various ground-improvement methods including the stone column (gravel drain) technique. This
study presents the results of laboratory testing of sedimentary rocks under point loading as well as
in uniaxial and triaxial compression N. From the statistical analysis of the data, different conversion
factors relating uniaxial compressive and point loading strength were determined for soft to strong
rocks. Soil remediation; vibro-compaction. For over 60years depth vibrators have been used to
improve bearing capacity and settlements characteristics of weak soil. Vibro compaction is probably
the oldest dynamic deep compaction method in existence. Vibro Compaction is an established
ground improvement method for stabilizing granular soils such as loose sands, gravels and some
hydraulic fills. The technique is primarily used for seismic mitigation and in-situ densification of loose
sands up to 30m deep.
Vibro-compaction for ground improvement:
Vibro-compaction is a ground improvement technique that can be used to transfer structural loads
to suitable levels in poor ground conditions. The effect of vibration consolidates and strengthens the
ground, helping to compact non-

Cohesive soils such as sand that would otherwise be unsuitable for construction. Since cohesive soils
don’t respond to vibration, this process is not suitable for those ground conditions.

Describe the many kinds of substructure work that civil engineers are responsible for. Work on the
substructure:

The substructure of a building is responsible for transferring the weight of the building to the ground
and isolating it from the ground horizontally. This comprises foundations and basement retaining
walls, as well as other structural elements. He or she is distinguished from the superstructure (or
structure). It protects the structure from the effects of the wind. Uplift, soil pressure, and so forth. In
order to create the superstructure, it is necessary to have a level and stable surface. It also avoids
uneven or differential settlement and guarantees the structural stability of the structure against
sliding, overturning, and undermining caused by floodwater or burrowing animals, among other
things.

Basement construction: A storm cellar, often known as a basement, is at least one storey of a
building that is completely or partially below the ground level. In most cases, it is used as a utility
house for a building, where items such as a kettle, water warmer, breaker board or wire box, Auto
Park, and air-molding device can be found; additionally, administrations such as an electrical
distribution device and a link Television distribution point are found there. A storm cellar is a good
location for a gaming room or homegrown recreation centre in metropolitan regions with high
property expenses. A basement expands your living area and provides you with rooms that are
independent from your main living district, allowing you to experiment with alternative ideas. To a
few, the purchase of a cellar is actually justified, despite any inconvenience, if only for the amount of
capacity you get by escaping the arrangement.

Culverts: A culvert is a closed conduit or tunnel that is used to transport water from one location
to another, often from one side of a road to the other side of the road. Culverts are often box-
shaped, spherical, or elliptical in cross section, depending on the use. Waterways are often pre-
fabricated and can be constructed from pipes, reinforced concrete, or other materials that are
embedded within the surrounding landscape to create a bridge-like structure that allows water to
flow safely and properly under an obstacle such as a road, and can help to reduce flooding and
erosion. Culverts may also be to divert rainfall runoff along, under, or away from roadways,
depending on their configuration.

Reinforced concrete is used in construction.

It is sometimes referred to as reinforced cement concrete (RCC). Reinforced concrete (RC), also
known as reinforced cement concrete (RCC), is a composite material in which concrete's low tensile
and ductility are compensated for by the presence of reinforcement with greater tensile or ductility.

Describe the supply arrangements for primary services.

Primary services are those that are both basic and vital to the daily running of a building, such as
water supply, drainage and plumbing (this includes sustainable urban drainage systems), lighting,
security and alarm systems.
Primary services:
The following are the key services provided by a building.

Drainage and plumbing systems:

Drainage is the process of removing water from the surface and subsurface. Sustainable urban
drainage systems (SUDS) are systems that are meant to effectively manage surface water drainage in
metropolitan areas.

Plumbing is a broad term that encompasses any system that facilitates the transportation of fluids,
which often includes pipes, valves, plumbing fixtures, tanks, and other devices.

 Plumbing systems may be utilised for the following purposes: heating and cooling.
 Elimination of waste.
 Supply of potable cold and hot water. Systems for water recovery and treatment.
 Drainage of rainwater, surface and subterranean water. Piping for fuel gas.

Electricity: electricity is a critical service provided by buildings in today's society; therefore, electricity
installation is a critical component of building management. It connects each junction, braker, water
motor and light, and fan to create the aesthetic appearance of a building. Therefore, all of this
should be done under the supervision of an electrical engineer.

The following are the primary components of an electrical installation:

When the point and wire for AC are distinct from those for normal wiring, it signifies that a high-
quality cable is utilised.

Water pump: the water pump's location should be set so that it does not interfere with the major
and secondary structural components of the structure.

Refrigeration requires additional protection, which is why a thick cable should be used and the
location of the refrigerator should be well-ventilated and dry.

Lights
The word 'lighting' refers to apparatus whose principal function is to generate light. Typically, this is
some kind of light. However, lighting may also refer to the process of illuminating an area with
natural light.

Gas connection: Are the most critical services of a building, and special care must be taken during
installation; any fault could result in a fire in the building, and it is the building manager's
responsibility to guide the plumber in properly installing the gas point in the kitchen and other
heating areas.

Accommodation services:
Services relating to sanitation:
WC pan must be at least 500 mm from the next wall to allow for unhindered wheelchair transfer.

WC pan seat raised 480 mm from the floor. The seat should be made of a sturdy and stiff material.

WC cistern flush lever or push button should be located at a maximum height of 1,200 mm above
the floor. Toilet paper dispenser should be located on the next neighbouring wall and easily
accessible.
Set the rim of the wash basin between 720 and 740 mm above the floor and within reach of a user
sitting on the WC pan.

While a towel dispenser is okay, an automated warm air hand dryer with a maximum air
temperature of 35 °C is preferred. 800 to 1,200 mm above the floor.

Disposal of sanitary items in a WC cubicle Sanitary facilities

Quarter-turn lever-operated basin taps or photoelectric cell-operated automated basin taps. Water
temperature is adjusted to a maximum of 35 °C using a thermostatic mixing valve.

Suspended emergency alarm cord near to the wall and unobstructed. Two different 50 mm diameter
red bangles mounted 100 mm and between 800 and 1,000 mm above the floor. A typical unisex WC
compartment has the following amenities.

Distribution of services: Water that is both hot and chilly

Water supply is a critical service for a building since it connects water to different sections such as
the kitchen, washrooms, and other locations that need water. Water connection is determined by
the construction and size of the site. In certain areas, the temperature is very cold, necessitating the
use of both hot and cold water.

Electricity:
The way electricity is connected in a structure varies according to the kind of building, such as a
commercial building, a residential building, or an industrial building. It is dependent on the load of
power and how it is used in industrial buildings since there are heavy machines that demand a high
load. In tiny business or residential buildings, a very basic power distribution system is provided. The
utility will run the transformer, which will be located outside the building on a pad or attached to a
utility pole. The transformer reduces the voltage from 13.8kv to 120/240 or 120/208 volts and then
routes the electricity to a metre held by the utility that keeps track of energy use. After the
electricity leaves the metre, it is transferred inside the building, at which time all wiring, panels, and
equipment become the property of the building's owner. The meter's energy is sent by cables to a
panel board, which is often positioned in the basement or garage of a home. In small commercial
buildings, the panel may be installed in a utility closet. On the panel board, there will be a primary
service breaker and a number of circuit breakers that regulate the flow of electricity to various
circuits throughout the home. Each branch circuit will be served by a single device (certain
appliances need huge loads) or a group of devices such as convenience outlets or lights. Due to the
fact that large buildings have a much greater electrical demand than small ones, the electrical
equipment must be larger and heavier. Due to the lower cost, owners of big buildings may also
purchase power at high voltages (in the US, 13.8kv). In this case, the owner may provide and control
his own step-down transformer, which reduces the voltage to a more useful level. This transformer
may be installed on a pad outside the building or within a transformer room. The electricity is then
sent to the switchgear by means of this device. The switchgear's job is to transfer energy throughout
the building in a safe and efficient manner to the different electrical closets and other locations.
There are various safety mechanisms built into the system, including circuit breakers, which turn off
the electricity. This may occur as a result of a malfunction or issue, but it can also be done on
purpose in order to enable technicians to operate on certain branches of the power system. It
should be recalled that in particularly big buildings or buildings with intricate electrical systems,
there may be several transformers feeding various pieces of switchgear, which should be taken into
consideration. We are keeping this essay brief by just covering the fundamental principles. The
distinction between a single phase electrical connection and a three phase electrical connection.
Another notable difference between three-phase and single-phase electricity is the consistency of
power distribution between the phases. A single-phase power supply does not give the same degree
of stability as a three-phase power supply due to the peaks and dips in voltage that occur. A three-
phase power supply provides an uninterrupted, constant-rate power source. When single-phase and
three-phase electricity are compared, three-phase power sources are much more powerful. A three-
phase power supply can convey three times the amount of power sent by a single-phase power
supply with only one additional cable (that is, three wires instead of two). As a consequence, three-
phase power sources, regardless of whether they include three or four wires, need less conductor
material to transport a fixed quantity of volts. Three-phase power supplies require less conductor
material than single-phase power supplies when transmitting a given amount of electrical power.

Electrical wiring installation

Wiring installation types Electrical work may be grouped into the following categories based on the
methods and materials used to create various types of electrical circuits:

Sheathed and insulated cable

The insulated cable is enclosed in conduit, which comes in three distinct configurations: slip jointed,
threaded, and heavy gauge threaded. Additionally, conduit is offered with black enamelled or hot
dipped galvanised mineral insulated cable.

Central air conditioning ductwork

Two copper pipes link the two systems. The smaller pipe that flows into the building to absorb heat
is charged with a high-pressure liquid refrigerant. Additionally, the larger pipe transports a
refrigerant that is combined with a low-pressure gas that is expelled from the building to dissipate
heat.

Evaporator.
Effective air conditioning performance requires that the refrigerant be heated in the evaporator. This
boiling occurs as a consequence of warm air passing over the evaporator coils, forcing the cold
refrigerant to boil off and escape into the atmosphere through a gas compression system.

The next procedure is to exhaust the refrigerant gas's heat to the outside environment. On the other
hand, taking the refrigerant and passing it via an outside coil is not a possibility. This, however, will
cause the refrigerant to heat up, enabling it to absorb further heat. Compressors are the solution to
this dilemma.

In general, building services are systems installed within a structure to meet the demands of the
occupants who live and work there. These systems contribute to the building's efficiency, safety,
functionality, and occupant comfort. Primary services include water supply, drainage and plumbing
(which includes sustainable urban drainage systems), lighting, security, and alarm systems, among
others. Along with energy supply systems such as solar and geothermal energy, information and
communication systems, and escalators, there are a range of secondary services that a building may
operate without. Water, electricity, and gas are first brought from the outside of the structure
before being dispersed throughout the structure using a number of methods that differ by
construction. For the purposes of this study, I shall outline the supply arrangements for major
services inside a building structure.

A structure is just a building with a roof and walls. It has stayed indefinitely in place. While the basic
function of a structure is to provide shelter for its residents and occupants, this should not be
understood as the sole major function of the structure. "Building services" enhance the quality of life
by streamlining the building process. A building's architecture must provide an inviting environment
in which people may feel at ease while working, living, and flourishing. 'Building Services' refers to
any services supplied within a structure that are required to make it safe and enjoyable. A building
must fulfil its purpose, which involves not just providing shelter but also providing a safe and
pleasant environment for its people. Building services contribute to a building's maintenance, long-
term viability, and general functioning.

 Classification of building services is based on their purpose.

 Building services are often classified as construction, maintenance, and repair.
 Mechanical Devices Mechanical systems include HVAC systems, drainage, gas input,
plumbing, and fire safety procedures.
 Automation and Control Systems for Buildings Provision of electricity Building Management
Systems
 All of these aspects are crucial throughout the conceptualization, design, and construction
phases of a structure.