Neuropsychology Review, Vol. 4, No.

1, 1994

Four Neuropsychologists 1
Arthur Benton 2

The achievements of Henry Hdcaen, Oliver Zangwill, Hans-Lukas Teuber, and

Norman Geschwind are reviewed. Each made an enormously significant con-
tribution to the form and content of the field of neuropsychology as we know
it today.
KEY WORDS: neuropsychology; neurology; psychology.

INTRODUCTION

When Hal KlCve did me the honor of asking me to give a talk on

some aspects of the history of neuropsychology at this anniversary meeting,
I accepted his generous invitation with sincere appreciation and much
pleasure. When I came to consider the choice of a topic, I thought that a
sketch of the evolution of our discipline, charting the major achievements
and the development of influential concepts since Broca made his momen-
tous discovery in the 1860s, would be an appropriate theme. However, on
further reflection, I concluded that this celebratory occasion called for an
account that was more personal in nature and one that was closer to home.
I therefore decided (not unwisely, I hope) to consider the achievements of
four of our fellow neuropsychologists, each of whom made an enormously
significant contribution to the form and content of the field of neuropsy-
chology as we know it today. Their names are familiar to all of us. Many
of us knew one or more of them personally. Some of us were their close
friends. They are Henry H6caen, Oliver Zangwill, Hans-Lukas Teuber, and

IAdapted from a lecture at the 1987 meeting of the International Neuropsychological Society,
Washington, DC, to commemorate the 15th anniversary of the emergence of the society as
a major organization. The style of the original oral presentation has been retained.
2Department of Neurology, University of Iowa Hospitals, Iowa City, Iowa 52242.

31
1040-7308/94/0300-0031507.00/0 O 1994 Plenum PublishingCorporation
32 Benton

Norman Geschwind. I intend to review their careers, evaluate their work

and influence, and consider the debt that we owe to them.
Three of them (the exception being Geschwind) began their careers
as neuropsychologists during the years of World War II. A brief look at
the status of human and clinical neuropsychology in 1939 may be useful
as a backdrop against which to assess their contributions.
It was a field that engaged the interest of only a few neurologists,
psychiatrists, and psychologists. Kurt Goldstein had elaborated his distinc-
tive concepts of the nature of brain-behavior relationships, and Karl Kleist
had published his monumental volume on wartime brain injuries. Gold-
stein's ideas had gained some currency abroad but were largely rejected in
Germany. Kleist's localizationist approach was accepted in Germany but
was practically unknown outside of that country. In any case, given the
antilocalizationist bias generated by the findings and conclusions of Franz,
Lashley, and Head, it probably would not have received a warm reception
in the United States or Britain. Carlyle Jacobsen's observations on the ef-
fects of prefrontal ablation in monkeys and the introduction of prefrontal
leucotomy by Moniz had aroused intense interest in the question of the
behavioral significance of the frontal lobes. The field of aphasia was still
dominated by the controversy between the "holists" (Jackson, Marie, Head)
and the "diagram makers" (Wernicke, Bastian, Dejerine) about the nature
and neurological basis of the aphasic disorders. In the United States and
Britain, at least, there had been a definite waning of interest in the
anatomic aspects of aphasia. The concept of complementary hemispheric
specialization had yet to be taken seriously (cf. Benton, 1972). The men
whose lives and achievements are the subject of this presentation made
decisively important contributions to the enhanced understanding of each
of these issues.

HENRY HECAEN

Henry H6caen was born in Brittany in 1912. He was a true Breton,

independent, strong-willed, stubborxr--traits that on more than one occa-
sion caused him to be at odds with the French medical establishment. After
taking the M.D. degree in Bordeaux, he went to Paris for training in neu-
rology and psychiatry where his chief mentor was Jean Lhermitte, one of
France's most distinguished neurologists of that period. A productive clini-
cal researcher and prolific writer, Lhermitte himself had significant neurop-
sychological interests that were reflected in his studies of aphasia,
constructional apraxia, disorders of the body image, and visuoperceptive
disabilities. H6caen always spoke of him with respect and admiration and
Four Neuropsychologists 33

no doubt Lhermitte's interest in brain-behavior relationships influenced the

direction of H6caen's future work as it did that of his fellow student, Julien
de Ajuriaguerra, who later was his close collaborator.
An early paper (C6nac and H6caen, 1943), written during the stressful
years of World War II, when H6caen was engaged in private practice and
at the same time was also participating actively in the French Resistance
against the Nazi occupation, dealt with the neuropsychological significance
of systematic reversal of right-left orientation in children. It was a pioneer
study of the topic that I discovered some 15 years later when I encountered
the same phenomenon (Benton, 1958).
The end of World War II freed H6caen to devote his energies to the
practice of neurology and to neuropsychological research. He and Aju-
riaguerra set out to write a monumental volume on the cerebral cortex
with major emphasis on the cognitive, perceptual, and emotional changes
associated with brain disease (Ajuriaguerra and H6caen, 1949). The book,
which was dedicated to Jean Lhermitte, provided a comprehensive sum-
mary of what was then known about brain-behavior relationships in health
and disease. Its influence on the direction of research in neurological cen-
ters in France was quite evident. As Martin Albert (1984) has written, "It
opened the field of neuropsychology before the term existed" in that coun-
try. The book went through several printings and a second edition was pub-
lished in 1960. Regrettably, it was not translated into English; an English
version would have been of enormous value as a stimulus and a guide to
American and British neurologists and psychologists in the 1950s as they
embarked on research in neuropsychology. A monograph on disturbances
of the body schema authored by H6caen and Ajuriaguerra appeared in
1952. Presenting a detailed analysis of the diverse defects in perception
and action associated with this concept, it provided a useful framework for
further research. In 1956, H6caen and Ajuriaguerra again collaborated in
a study of the mental changes associated with brain tumors.
Valuable as these monographic contributions were, H6caen's research
on hemispheric cerebral dominance during this period surpassed them in
importance. In the 1940s and 1950s, at a time when the prevailing concept
of hemispheric dominance was that it meant simply the "dominance" of
the left hemisphere in the mediation of language, praxis and abstract
thought, he and his co-workers generated an irrefutable mass of evidence
that the right, supposedly "minor," hemisphere played a crucial role in the
mediation of visuoperceptual and visuoconstructional processes (H6caen
and Ajuriaguerra, 1945; H6caen et aL, 1951; H6caen et al., 1956). As we
shall see, Oliver Zangwill in Britain was concurrently pursuing the same
line of research and advancing the same conclusion. In any case, if H6caen
had done nothing further in the field, his demonstrations of the functional
34 Benton

properties of the right hemisphere would have earned him an enduring

place in the history of neuropsychology for they left an indelible mark on
subsequent formulations of the organization of cerebral function.
His work continued and steadily expanded in scope. With his co-work-
ers and students, he explored almost every aspect of neuropsychology. He
continued his investigations of hemispheric cerebral dominance, which re-
sulted in a comprehensive definition of the distinctive constellation of defi-
cits preferentially associated with disease of the right hemisphere. There
followed a series of studies involving hundreds of patients with focal brain
lesions that sought to identify the locus of the lesions associated with di-
verse cognitive and perceptuomotor defects such as topographical disori-
entation, dyspraxia for dressing, acalculia, body schema disturbances,
constructional apraxia, and impairment in writing (cf. Galtier, 1984). His
analyses led to useful classification of types of disability as, for example,
his division of the acalculias into spatial, aphasic, and anarithmetic types,
each type being predominantly associated with lesions at particular sites
and having distinctive behavioral correlates (Hrcaen et al., 1961).
Hrcaen undertook many studies in the field of aphasia and he was
a pioneer in the linguistic approach to the analysis of the aphasic disorders.
For the most part, his work was published in various neurological, neurop-
sychological, and linguistic journals, but at least some of it was summarized
in a monograph on language pathology (Hrcaen and Angelergues, 1965)
and in his book, Human Neuropsychology, co-authored with Martin Albert,
which appeared in 1978. His paper on prosopagnosia (Hrcaen and Angel-
ergues, 1962) went a long way toward convincing American clinicians that
this odd complaint reflected a genuine neuropsychological disability and
was not, as some maintained, an hysterical phenomenon. Finally, one must
mention his interest in laterality and the neuropsychological implications
of left-handedness. He and Ajuriaguerra wrote a monograph on left-hand-
edness (Hrcaen and Ajuriaguerra, 1963), a theme to which he returned 20
years later (Hrcaen, 1984).
One factor that permitted Hrcaen to undertake so many large-scale
studies was the circumstance that he was the attending neurologist at the
large neurosurgical unit of the Hrpital Sainte-Anne in Paris and thus had
access to the material from that unit as well as from the neurological clinic
at Sainte-Anne. In addition, as his expertise became known, physicians
throughout France and abroad referred patients to him for evaluation, and
some of these proved to be particularly interesting for research purposes.
However, the beginning of his own unit was very modest indeed. In
1950, when he received a half-time appointment as a neurologist in the
neurosurgical clinic (the other half-time being taken up with private prac-
tice), he was a one-man show. But his unit grew steadily in size and impor-
Four Neuropsychologists 35

tance, and in due course, he was able to give up private practice and devote
almost full time to research, writing, and editing. As everyone knows, he
was the founder and editor of Neuropsychologia. His research program at-
tracted many students on both the predoctoral and postdoctoral levels, as
well as many visiting scientists. He directed at least a score of doctoral dis-
sertations. Among the neurologists who worked with him were Martin Al-
bert, Gilbert Assal, Jason Brown, Carlos Mendilaharsu, and Athanase
Tsavaras. Among the neuropsychologists who spent extended periods of time
in his unit were Harold Goodglass, Malcolm Piercy, and myself.

OLIVER LOUIS ZANGWILL

Oliver Zangwill was a quite different sort of person---quiet, gentle,

and given to understatement. He was born in Sussex in 1913 and studied
psychology under Frederic Bartlett at the University of Cambridge where
he took the B.A. and M.A. degrees. Following the example of an older
generation of English scholars (including Bartlett), he saw no necessity to
work for the Ph.D. degree.
From 1935 to 1939, Zangwill held an appointment as a research stu-
dent in the Cambridge laboratory. During this period, he published a num-
ber of detailed experimental studies on memory and learning designed to
evaluate competing theories about the basic processes involved in recogni-
tion and reproduction. The reports disclose a first-rate mind at work as
experimental findings are compared to different theoretical formulations,
as well as a remarkably detailed knowledge of the history of psychological
thought. This last characteristic was especially evident in his lengthy review
in the British Journal of Psychology of Charles Spearman's two-volume his-
tory, Psychology Down the Ages, in which the young man showed a masterful
grasp of the basic philosophic issues with which psychology has had to grap-
ple over the centuries. That Bartlett, who was editior of the journal, en-
trusted this important and delicate assignment to a 24-year-old student
indicates how highly he regarded Zangwill.
In these early years, Zangwill was concerned primarily with experi-
mental-theoretical questions that had little bearing on neuropsychological
issues. One exception was a lengthy critical analysis by Oldfield and Zang-
will (1942-43 a,b) of the concept of schemata as applied by the neurologist,
Henry Head, to somatosensory and somatoperceptual performances. R. C.
Oldfield, a fellow student and close friend of Zangwill, was the senior
author of this paper that pointed out the ambiguities inherent in the con-
cept of schemata and its limited value for explaining the somatoperceptual
deficits shown by patients with brain lesions. Frederic Bartlett had adopted
36 Benton

Head's concept in his own studies and had postulated the operation of
schemata in the processes of learning and remembering. Thus, to a degree,
Oldfield and Zangwill were also criticizing the formulations of their mentor.
But this was nothing new. As it happens, when, in his earlier experimental
work, Zangwill had concluded that Bartlett's formulations were less than
adequate, his mentor raised no objections. Later, Zangwill (1978) was to
write about Bartlett's "strong, yet gentle, personality and his exceptional
tolerance and modesty."
World War II transformed Zangwill into a clinical neuropsychologist.
Working in the Edinburgh Brain Injury Unit of the British military services,
he was called upon to evaluate hundreds of patients with traumatic brain
lesions. It was here that he made his first contributions to the field. Finding
that some patients with undoubted defects in learning and memory never-
theless performed adequately on the conventional digit span test, he de-
vised a supraspan test requiring the patients to learn a series of digits longer
than his span and found this test to be a more sensitive measure of short-
term learning (Zangwill, 1943). Thus, he originated the serial digit learning
procedure (supraspan) that was adopted by clinical investigators decades
later (cf. Drachman and Arbit, 1966; Hamsher et al., 1980).
A second, more basic, contribution was his demonstration of the close
association between visuospatial impairments and lesions in the posterior area
of the right hemisphere (Paterson and Zangwill, 1944), a study that proved
to be the precursor of a major program of clinical research undertaken after
the war. Still another study described and evaluated the application of the
Rey-Davis test of nonverbal learning in the assessment of brain-lesioned pa-
tients (Zangwill, 1946a). A final study dealt with verbal learning in some 200
patients with diseases or traumatic injury of the brain (Zangwili, 1946b). Once
again, he found digit span performance to be generally adequate in nonapha-
sic patients, including those with frank amnesic syndromes. In contrast, digit
span was impaired in apparently fully recovered aphasic patients. Confirming
the World War I results of the German neurologist, Max Isserlin, he found
defects in verbal learning to be extraordinarily frequent in nonaphasic pa-
tients and practically universal in those with a history of aphasic disorder.
The paper concluded with a discussion of the implications of the results for
both diagnostic evaluation and rehabilitation planning.
After the war, Zangwill went to Oxford as a lecturer and assistant
director of the Psychological Laboratory. In 1952, he was called to Cam-
bridge to succeed Bartlett as Professor of Psychology and Director of the
Psychological Laboratory. At the same time, he established an association
with the National Hospital for Nervous Disorders, Queen Square, where
he served as a visiting psychologist. Working at Queen Square and other
London hospitals, he initiated a series of studies of the cognitive defects
Four Neuropsychologists 37

associated with focal brain disease. In the 1950s and 1960s, the Zangwill
group, which included George Ettlinger, John McFie, Malcolm Piercy,
Elizabeth Warington, and Maria Wyke, generated a substantial body of in-
formation on the nature of the perceptual and cognitive consequences of
brain disease that significantly advanced the development of the emerging
field of clinical neuropsychology.
Of course, his research extended beyond the issue of the deficits as-
sociated with unilateral brain disease. A persisting interest was the role of
cerebral dominance and handedness in acquired aphasia and developmen-
tal learning disabilities. He was among the first investigators to show that
hemispheric specialization for speech in left-handers did not conform to
the then accepted rule of right hemisphere dominance. His 1960 mono-
graph, Cerebral Dominance and its Relation to Psychological Function, sum-
marized his own observations, as well as the pertinent literature in the area.
In it, he judiciously assessed the significance of left-handedness and incom-
plete hemispheric dominance as risk factors in developmental dyslexia. He
investigated the role of familial left-handedness in the production of
crossed aphasia in right-handed patients and from time to time presented
critical analyses of the question (cf. Zangwill, 1981).
Still another area of interest was reflected in his studies of the am-
nesic syndromes, which perhaps can be viewed as the clinical application
of his early experimental studies of memory processes. Finally, he was a
sensitive and astute student of the aphasic disorders. For example, a 1964
paper demonstrated that some severely aphasic Wernicke patients who
talked nonsense and whose understanding of oral speech was grossly de-
fective were nevertheless, capable of abstract reasoning as reflected in their
performances on the Raven Matrices. His superb scholarship was evident
in his trenchant analyses of famous controversial cases in the literature that
can still be read with profit (cf. Zangwill, 1967).
Oliver Zangwill was the founder of neuropsychology in Britain. His
students, and now their students, carry on his work.

HANS-LUKAS TEUBER

Hans-Lukas Teuber was born in Berlin in 1916. After completing sec-

ondary school in Berlin, he studied at the University of Basel. He emigrated
to the United States in 1941 and enrolled as a graduate student in psy-
chology at Harvard University where his fellowship stipend was in the field
of personality and social psychology and where his mentor was Gordon
Allport. Entering the U.S. Navy in 1944, he had the good fortune to be
assigned to the Naval Hospital in San Diego where he worked with the
38 Benton

neurologist, Morris Bender. A productive collaboration in research on per-

ceptual disorders in brain-diseased patients developed and continued for a
number of years after the war. Teuber's bibliography includes 16 papers
and a monograph by Bender and himself on a variety of topics, among
them visual field defects and visual extinction, visuospatial disabilities, per-
formances on complex visual tasks, disorders of the body schema, and im-
pairment in weight discrimination.
In passing, it may be noted that Teuber was as responsible as anyone
for the current usage of the term, "Neuropsychology," which was the title
of a presentation he made at the 1948 APA convention. His presentation
was subsequently published in a book on diagnostic psychological testing
(cf. Teuber, 1950).
Having established a Psychophysiological Laboratory at New York's
Bellevue Hospital in the late 1940s (where Bender was a senior neurolo-
gist), Teuber embarked on a large multifaceted study of the perceptual and
cognitive defects caused by penetrating brain injury, the subjects being
World War II and (later) Korean War veterans. He gathered round him
a team of gifted young researchers and students, among them Lila Ghent,
Mortimer Mishkin, Rita Rudel, Josephine Semmes, and Sidney Weinstein.
Devising ingenious tests for the purpose, the team addressed a multitude
of empirical and theoretical questions about the visuoperceptual, somatoper-
ceptual and audioperceptual capacities, the learning abilities, and the in-
tellectual status of the patients. Their studies offered analyses of the basic
nature of the observed performance deficits, as well as dealing with ques-
tions of lesional localization.
Even a brief account of the contributions made to these several fields,
e.g., Semmes et al. (1956, 1963) on spatial orientation, Weinstein's (1954,
1955) studies of tactile performances, and the Teuber-Mishkin (1954) in-
vestigation of patients' judgments of verticality, would consume to much
time. I will mention only the monumental study of somatosensory impair-
ments in patients with unilateral injuries that was described in a monograph
by Semmes et al. in 1960. This study showed that bilateral and ipsilateral
sensory defects were a fairly frequent consequence of unilateral brain dis-
ease; that these defects occurred more frequently after left hemisphere in-
jury; that the cerebral representation of somatosensory function was more
diffuse in the right hemisphere than in the left; and finally, that the patterns
or combinations of sensory defect were different in the two hands. Thus the
study modified traditional concepts of contralateral innervation, and at the
same time, demonstrated hemispheric asymmetry in the mediation of soma-
tosensory performance. These basic findings, which were in the main con-
firmed by later investigators, had a profound impact on thinking in this field.
Four Neuropsychologists 39

In 1960 Teuber moved to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology

as Professor of Psychology with the mandate to establish a Department of
Psychology, a formidable task in view of MIT's history of unsuccessful past
attempts to do so (cf. Held, 1979). Within a few years, he had organized
a vigorous department with an active research program.
Teuber's research and scholarly work expanded in scope in the 1960s
and 1970s, and in some respects, assumed a more theoretical character.
Concerned with the problem of the true implications of the behavioral de-
fects observed in association with focal brain lesions, he advanced the con-
cept of double dissociation of symptoms as a reasonable methodological
approach to interpretation. Wrestling with the unresolved question of the
nature of the agnosic disorders, he invoked the principle of corollary dis-
charge from central motor to central sensory systems as a mechanism un-
derlying normal perception and disorders of which could lead to incomplete
information processing and, hence, to faulty recognition. He once again
turned his attention to developmental neuropsychological questions and,
for example, studied the course of cognitive growth in children with con-
genital or early acquired unilateral brain lesions.
Possessing a prodigious knowledge of psychology, physiology, and
clinical neurology, Hans-Lukas Teuber was, above all, a superb synthesizer.
His review papers and chapters in handbooks were masterpieces of inte-
gration that brought together information from diverse areas to elucidate
specific questions. He was an inspiring mentor of a generation of students
at MIT. His untimely death in 1977 at the height of his career was a major
tragedy.

NORMAN GESCHWIND

Norman Geschwind was born in 1926 in New York. After taking the
M.D. degree at Harvard in 1951, he trained in neurology at the National
Hospital, Queen Square, and at the Boston City Hospital under Derek
Denny-Brown. He then spent two years in neurophysiological research at
MIT. In 1958 he joined the staff of the neurological service of the Boston
Veterans Administration Hospital. It was there that two older neurologists,
Fred Quadfasel, who was chief of the service at the hospital, and Paul Joss-
mann, who was on the staff of the VA Mental Hygiene Clinic in Boston,
introduced him to the concepts of the nature of aphasia and apraxia of
the German neurological school, as exemplified in the work of its dominant
representatives, Carl Wernicke and Hugo Liepmann. Geschwind whole-
heartedly accepted their formulations as basically valid and proceeded to
refine and modify them in the light of modern anatomical and psychological
40 Benton

knowledge and as indicated by his own clinical observations (cf. Geschwind

and Kaplan, 1962).
He presented his ideas in a now classic paper, "Disconnexion Syn-
dromes in Animals and Man," which was published in 1965. This compre-
hensive analysis, some 100 pages in length, presented the concept of
disconnection and illustrated its far-reaching implications. Its impact was
immediate and far-reaching. In a real sense, it brought neuroanatomy back
into the fields of aphasia, apraxia, and agnosia, and it provided a fruitful
approach to the understanding of these types of disorder, as well as other
behavioral manifestations of brain disease. Today, when we undertake to
analyze the mechanisms underlying aphasic disorders, amnesic syndromes,
perceptual defects, and visuomotor disabilities, we think in terms of dis-
connections-not simple disconnections, to be sure, but rather of distur-
bances of progression and interactions in information processing that are
based on the destruction of specific pathways. This mode of approach is
the legacy of Norman Geshwind.
In the 1960s, Geschwind's faith that anatomy had to play a central
role in the description and operation of complex mental functions led him
to an important discovery. Despite the traditional view that the cerebral
hemispheres of the human brain were morphologically equivalent, he was
convinced that asymmetry of hemispheric function, as reflected in the domi-
nance of the left hemisphere for speech, must have an anatomic basis. He
decided to reexamine the question. With a young colleague, Walter Levit-
sky, he studied the gross morphologic features of the left and right hemi-
sphere of 100 brains and determined that indeed there was a strong trend
toward a larger auditory association cortex in the left hemisphere, a finding
that was in accord with theoretical expectations (Geschwind and Levitsky,
1968). Their findings were confirmed and led to a paradigmatic shift in
thinking on the topic as well as to a continuing search for morphologic
disparities that might be correlated with functional differences. This also
is a legacy of Norman Geschwind.
In 1968 he was appointed Professor of Neurology at the Harvard
Medical School and Chief of the Harvard Neurological Service at the Bos-
ton City Hospital. Subsequently, he moved the service to Beth Israel, where
he established a Behavioral Neurology Unit. The broad scope of Gesch-
wind's interests and investigative activity is indicated by his studies on di-
verse subjects: the neuropsychological and psychiatric aspects of temporal
lobe epilepsy, linguistic aspects of aphasia, disturbances in attention, and
the apraxic disorders. In addition, he made important contributions to
mainstream neurology.
His last major effort was, by all criteria, the most original and daring.
On the basis of his own observations and data in the literature, he postu-
Four Neuropsychologlsts 41

lated relationships between variations in brain development, uterine endo-

crine functions, and immunological disorders. In turn, the variations in
brain development were linked to variations in hand preference, hemi-
spheric cerebral dominance, and specific cognitive abilities. A detailed ex-
position of his hypotheses was published in 1985, some months after his
sudden death in November 1984 (Geschwind and Galaburda, 1985).
Norman Geschwind was an enthusiastic teacher and a generous col-
league who single-handedly founded the speciality of behavioral neurology
in this country. Frank Benson, Franqois Boiler, Antonio Damasio, Martha
Denckla, Albert Galaburda, Kenneth Heilman, Marcel Mesulam, and Alan
Rubens were among his students. Harold Goodglass and Edith Kaplan
were his close collaborators in research from the moment he joined the
staff of the Boston VA Hospital in 1958. In the early 1960s, Davis Howes
and Geschwind jointly pursued some pioneer linguistic studies of aphasia
(cf. Howes and Geschwind, 1964). Thus, another link with clinical neurop-
sychology was forged. His premature death in 1984 deprived behavioral
neurology of its preeminent figure.

A SUMMING UP

We have reviewed the life and careers of four of our fellow neurop-
sychologists. They were very different from each other in respect to per-
sonal traits. H6caen was direct, intense, and although unpretentious in
manner, full of fierce pride. Zangwill was sensitive, considerate, attentive
to the needs of others, and endowed with a keen sense of humor. Teuber
was dynamic, even somewhat flamboyant, quick-thinking, and paternalistic
toward his students and younger colleagues, somewhat in the manner of a
pre-war German professor. Geschwind was open, fun-loving, challenging,
and passionate in defense of his ideas.
Obviously, our colleagues had four quite different personalities. What
traits did they have in common? The first that comes to mind is their drive,
their stamina, and their prodigious productivity. They had immense energy
and worked very, very hard. This was quite evident for t-I6caen, Teuber,
and Geschwind, who were always on the move, who always had some
neuropsychological issue on their minds, and who invariably took home a
briefcase of material with them at the end of the day. On the other hand,
Zangwill was perhaps a bit of a dissimulator in this regard. Quiet and ap-
parently relaxed, he was always ready to talk about a variety of topics other
than neuropsychology, to take tea, or to show one the sights of Cambridge.
Yet there is no doubt that he spent many thousands of hours in the privacy
of his study reading, writing, and analyzing research results.
42 Benton

Nevertheless, none of them could be classified as "workaholics" if that

term describes a person who has no concerns other than with his work.
Each of them had a set of quite serious outside interests. H6caen was an
ardent student of classical Greek art and he was active politically. Zang-
will's conversation revealed that he had read everything, including contem-
porary French and German literature. Teuber was a true polymath whose
historical knowledge was both broad and deep and who kept abreast of
diverse developments in the neurosciences in astounding detail. Norman
Geschwind had a passion for languages and had attained a level of profi-
ciency in French, German, Spanish, and Italian that allowed him to lecture
in these languages. Perhaps these extracurricular interests, activities, and
accomplishments can be regarded as simply additional expressions of their
immense drive and energy.
A second important characteristic that these men shared was simply
that they were very, very bright. Their capacity to analyze and integrate
information, to detect the significance of isolated observations, to get to
the heart of a problem, and to do all this so quickly as to suggest multiple
integrative processing was quite extraordinary. Clearly all of them possessed
the prepared mind that Pasteur had specified as being the only kind that
was likely to profit from chance observations.
A personal note--to sit with Norman Geschwind in one-to-one con-
versation of an evening was (at least to me) an exceptional experience.
The first hour consisted of genuine conversation with an exchange of in-
formation and views. By the second and third hours, my own store of
knowledge and insights having been depleted, Norman would carry on an
instructive monologue at a rapid pace, making diverse observations bearing
on a particular theme and integrating them to prove a particular point, to
all of which I would react with bewildered admiration.

EPILOGUE

The debt we owe to our colleagues is incalculable. No doubt, neurop-

sychology would have progressed in due course without them. But its de-
velopment would have been much slower and, I think, probably along less
fruitful lines. Our sense of loss is keen and sometimes we feel that they
are irreplaceable. But, in fact, their places have already been taken by gifted
younger men and women, some of whom were their students. On this an-
niversary celebration, we pay tribute to our four colleagues and we welcome
their successors.
Four Neuropsychologists 43

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