SPORTS, PHYSICAL EDUCATION, MUSIC AND DANCE IN LOCAL

AND GLOBAL CULTURES FOR UPPER PRIMARY. GST 351

LECTURE NOTES ON UNIT 1

A team sport includes any sport where individuals are organized into opposing teams which
compete to win. Team members act together towards a shared objective. This can be done in a
number of ways such as outscoring the opposing team. Team members set goals, make decisions,
communicate, manage conflict, and solve problems in a supportive, trusting atmosphere in order
to accomplish their objectives. Examples are basketball, volleyball, rugby, water
polo, handball, lacrosse, cricket, baseball, and the various forms of association
football and hockey.

Team sports are practiced between opposing teams, where the players generally interact directly
and simultaneously between them to achieve an objective. The objective often involves
teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar object in accordance with a set of rules,
in order to score points. The meaning of a "team sport" has been disputed in recent years. Some
types of sports have different objectives or rules than "traditional" team sports. These types of
team sports do not involve teammates facilitating the movement of a ball or similar item in
accordance with a set of rules, in order to score points. For
example, swimming, rowing, sailing, dragon boat racing, and track and field among others can
also be considered team sports.

What are team sports and its importance?

Team sports support social interaction and encourage individuals to think with a team
perspective. Playing a sport as part of a team requires persistence, patience, and practice all of
which can translate into important life lessons.

SOCCER

INTRODUCTION

Football/Soccer is an international game. The federation of International Football Association

(FIFA) controls it worldwide. It has its headquarters in Zurich Swatzerland.FIFA was formed on
21st May,1904 in Rue Saint Honore,Paris.France.Football is a complex game,however,one can
enjoy the game with only a few basic skills and rules. It is an excellent activity for children
because it involves total body movements and it provides the rare opportunity for children to use

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body parts other than the hands to control the ball. Football also gives the chance to children to
relate to other children (team-mates and opponents), move over a large area (use of space) and
develop physical fitness. The game requires total body movement, basically involving running
and kicking. However, when correctly played, other skills such as dribbling, trapping, heading
and throwing are involved. Catching the ball is the sole prerogative of the goalkeeper, even, only
within a demarcated area (the penalty area). The team that scores more goals wins. Football is
the world’s most popular ball game in numbers of participants and spectators. Simple in its
principal rules and essential equipment, the sport can be played almost anywhere, from official
football playing fields (pitches) to gymnasiums, streets, school playgrounds, parks, or beaches.

BRIEF HISTORY OF THE GAME

Soccer, or better known to the rest of the world as football, is one of the oldest sports in history.
Dating back to 206 B.C., there are accounts of Chinese soldiers playing Tsu’chu, “kicking the
ball,” to supplement their training regiments during the Han Dynasty. While many other ancient
cultures played games involving a ball, Tsu’chu was the first to not allow hands. Goals consisted
of a net attached to two bamboo poles and elevated 30 feet in the air. This is quite the contrast to
modern goals that sit on the ground and extend eight feet high and 24 feet wide. The particular
style of playing a game with a ball, centered on one’s feet, spread throughout the world. In 1863,
official rules for football were drawn up to create an organized game in England. These rules
formally differentiated between rugby football and association football. Hence, modern football
was born. Seven members formed the International Federation of Football Association (FIFA) in
Paris, France, in 1904. Those members included: Belgium, France, Holland, Denmark, Spain,
Sweden, and Switzerland. In 1930, the year of the first World Cup, FIFA had reached 40
members. Due to an economic depression in Europe at the time of the first World Cup (1930 in
Mentevideo, Uruguay) many nations were not able to travel to Uruguay and compete. With the
help of the host country, four European teams did manage to trek the Atlantic for the World Cup,
most notably being Belgium and France. The final match of the first world cup was between
Argentina and Uruguay resulting in a 4-2 victory for the hosts. The year 1958 could be recorded
as the year in an attempt to lay a sound foundation for soccer in Ghana was made. Irrespective of
the fact that several football clubs had been formed earlier (eg. Accra Hearts of Oak in 1911).The
game is played on the field/pitch which is rectangular in shape. The longer sides are
called touchlines, and the shorter sides are called the goal lines. The two goal lines must be
between 45 and 90 m (50 and 100 yd) wide, and be the same length. The two touchlines must be
between 90 and 120 m (100 and 130 yd) long, and be the same length. All lines on the ground
must be equally wide, not to exceed 12 cm (5 in). The corners of the pitch are marked by corner
flags. The length of the rectangular field (pitch) specified for international adult matches is in the
range 100-110 metres (110-120 yd) and the width is in the range 65-75 metres (70-80 yd). Fields
for non-international matches may be 100-130 yards length and 50-100 yards in width, provided
that the pitch does not become square.

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DIMENSION OF A FOOTBALL/SOCCER PITCH OR FIELD

NUMBER OF PLAYERS

The game is played between two teams of eleven players each with one of the members being a
goalkeeper. Each team has five other players on a reserve bench who may replace any of the
eleven players on the field. In official competition, a team is allowed to make a maximum of
three substitutions during a game, although more substitutions are often permitted in non-
competitive fixtures such as friendlies. Common reasons for a substitution include injury,

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tiredness, ineffectiveness, a tactical switch, or as a defensive ploy to use up a little time at the
end of a finely poised game.

HOW IS THE GAME PLAYED AND BASIC RULES

A football match is played by two teams, with each allowed no more than 11 players on the field
at any one time, one of whom is a goalkeeper. The goalkeepers are the only players allowed to
touch the ball with their hands or arms while it is in play and only in their penalty area. Other
players mainly use their feet to strike or pass the ball, but may also use their head or torso.
A match is played in two 45 minute halves. The game begins with the toss of a coin, and the
winning captain decides which goal to defend or to take the first kick off. The team that scores
the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is level at the end of the game, either a
draw is declared or the game goes into extra time or a penalty shootout depending on the format
of the competition. A football match is played by two teams, with each allowed no more than 11
players on the field at any one time, one of whom is a goalkeeper.

Basic rules in football/Soccer include the following

 A match is played in two 45 minute halves.

 The game begins with the toss of a coin, and the winning captain decides which goal to
defend or to take the first kick off.

 All players must use their feet, head or chest to play the ball. Only the goalkeeper is
allowed to use their hands, and only within their designated goal area.

 The aim of the game is to score a goal, which is achieved by kicking or heading the ball
into the opposition team's goal.

 If the ball touches or crosses the side line, it is thrown back in by the team that was not
the last to touch the ball.

 The game is controlled by a central referee, and two linesmen. They award free kicks and
penalties when rules are broken. For continual breaking of rules or for a bad foul, the
player may be sent off.

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How is a winner declared in a game of football?

The object of the game is to score by maneuvering the ball into the opposing goal; only
the goalkeepers may use their hands or arms to propel the ball in general play. The team that
scores the most goals by the end of the match wins. If the score is tied at the end of the game,
either a draw is declared or the game goes into extended time, depending on the format of the
competition.

EQUIPMENT/FACILITIES/SUPPLIERS USED IN FOOTBALL

The basic equipment players are required to wear includes a shirt, shorts, socks, footwear and
adequate shin guards. Players are forbidden to wear or use anything that is dangerous to
themselves or another player (including jewelry or watches). The goalkeeper must wear clothing
that is easily distinguishable from that worn by the other players and the match officials.
Facilities include, the pitch/field, the goalpost, the dressing rooms, the electronic score boards
etc. Other suppliers used in the game of football also include, whistle, football, corner flags,
assistant referees flags etc.

OFFICIATING OFFICIALS

A game is officiated by a referee, who has "full authority to enforce the Laws of the Game in
connection with the match to which he has been appointed" (Law 5), and whose decisions are
final. The referee is assisted by two assistant referees. In many high-level games there is also

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a fourth official (and in the world cup a fifth official), who assist(s) the referee and may replace
another official should the need arise.

BASIC SKILLS IN FOOTBALL

Kicking-The act of hitting the ball with the foot from stationary, running or volley position to
pass or shoot. (Instep-kick, inside of the foot kick, outside of the foot kick volley, punting)

TRAPPING-Bringing the ball under control, and the intent is to stop the ball while it is moving
through the air or on the ground. (side-of-foot trapping, inside-of-the foot trapping, instep trap,
shin trap, thigh trap, chest trap,)

DRIBBLING- Moving the ball forward with short pushes or a series of taps with the inside,
outside, or instep of the foot.

TACKLING-This is done on a player who has possession of the ball(attacker), and it can be
done only from the front (block/frontal tackle) or from the side (side tackle).

HEADING-Butting or hitting the ball with the head, in most cases with the forehead.

THROW-IN-This is the only time field players use their hands in the game of football and this
is when the ball goes over the sideline and the game had to be restarted.

BASKETBALL

The history of basketball began with its invention in December, 1891 in Springfield,
Massachusetts by Canadian physical education instructor called James Naismith as a less injury-
prone sport than football. Naismith was a 31-year old graduate student when he created the
indoor sport to keep athletes indoors during the winters. The game became established fairly
quickly and grew very popular as the 20th century progressed, first in America and then in other
parts of the world. After basketball became established in American colleges, the professional
game followed. The American National Basketball Association (NBA), established in 1946,
grew to a multibillion-dollar enterprise by the end of the century, and basketball became an
integral part of American culture. It consists of peach baskets and a soccer style ball. He
published 13 rules for the new game. He divided his class of eighteen into two teams of nine
players each and set about to teach them the basics of his new game. The objective of the game
was to throw the basketball into the fruit baskets nailed to the lower railing of the gym balcony.
Every time a point was scored, the game was halted so the janitor could bring out a ladder and

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retrieve the ball. After a while, the bottoms of the fruit baskets were removed. The first public
basketball game was played in Springfield, Massachusetts, on March 11, 1892.

JAMES NAISMITH AND THE FRUITS BASKET

On December 21, 1891, Naismith published rules for a new game using five basic ideas and
thirteen rules. A soccer ball was used to play the game. Frank Mahan, one of his students, wasn't
so happy. Someone proposed to call it "Naismith Game", but he suggested "We have a ball and a
basket: why don’t we call it basketball. The peach baskets were closed, and balls had to be
retrieved manually, until a small hole was put in the bottom of the peach basket to poke the ball
out using a stick. Only in 1906 were metal hoops, nets and backboards introduced. In 1894 the
soccer ball was replaced by a ball Naismith contracted Spalding to make.

A SPALDING BASKETBALL (from 1922)

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World basketball was growing, but it was on June 18, 1932 that a real international organization
was formed, to coordinate tournaments and teams: that day, Argentina, Czechoslovakia, Greece,
Italy, Latvia, Portugal, Romania and Switzerland founded the International Basketball
Federation (Fédération internationale de basketball amateur, FIBA) in Geneva. Its work was
fundamental for the first inclusion of basketball in the Berlin Olympic Games in 1936. The first
Olympic title was won by the U.S. national team. It was because of the play of Michael
Jordan that basketball started to reach international audiences, especially on the 1992 United
States men's Olympic basketball team, known as the Dream Team. In 1895, the first recorded
basketball game between two college teams was organized. The University of Minnesota A&M
faced Hamline University under 9-on-9 rules, winning the game 9-3. By 1898, professional
leagues were forming, as were collegiate leagues. Six teams took part in the first professional
basketball league, but the league was disbanded in 1904. In the first decades of basketball, it was
growing as a sport, but had no real international organization. It took several petitions by
basketball supporters to have basketball included as an Olympic demonstration sport in 1904.
That all changed on June 18, 1932 when FIBA was first formed. The work of FIBA on the
international game would help to make basketball become an Olympic sport in 1936, which was
won by the US National Team.

BASKETBALL COURT DIMENSIONS AND MARKINGS

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NUMBER OF PLAYERS

According to NBA regulations, the number of players on basketball team is 12 players. In which,
there are five players on the court at one time and unlimited substitutions. Basketball matches
have two main forms of playing: street basketball and professional basketball. These two forms
will have a different number of players on the field and a different number of substitutes. Street
basketball, also known as 3×3 basketball, is a type of basketball often used for practice.
The number of members in each team will be:
 Number of players in each basketball team: 3 players on the court
 Number of substitute players: 1 player
 Number of main trainers: 1 person
 Assistant coach: 2 to 3 coaches.
The typical professional basketball tournament for this form of competition in the NBA. This is
the American basketball league; this type of competition is the most used and popular on the

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basketball court. Another name for this form of basketball competition is “5×5 competitive
basketball”. The number of people on the respective basketball team will be:
 Number of players per team: 5 players on the court
 Number of substitutes: 7 players
 Number of main trainers: 1 person
 Assistant coach: 2 to 3 coaches.

HOW IS THE GAME PLAYED/BASIC RULES OF THE GAME

Basketball is a team sport. Two teams of five players each try to score by shooting a ball
through a hoop elevated 10 feet above the ground. The game is played on a rectangular floor
called the court, usually indoors. And there is a hoop at each end. The court is divided into two
main sections by the mid-court line. The basketball game consists of four quarters of 10
minutes each. Teams play one-way for two quarters, the other way for the next two. There is a
two-minute interval between the first and second period, and also between the third and fourth
period, with 15 minutes for halftime.

The basic rules of basketball govern how the game is played and ensure uniformity for all levels
of the sports. The following displays some of the most basic rules and violations in basketball.

NUMBER OF PLAYERS; A team is required to have five players on the court at all times.
Making 10 players on the court at a time.

PLAYER SUBSTITUTIONS; Player substitutions can only occure in dead ball situations after
the whistle is blown. Examples, during free throws, timeouts or after an out of bounds call.

MOVING WITH THE BALL OR TRAVELLING; Players must dribble the ball to be able to
move while is possession of the ball. If a player walk or run with the ball without dribbling, they
will be charge with travelling violation. A travel results in turnover.

DRIBBLING/DOUBLE DRIBBLING; whenever a player gain possession of the ball they only
have one opportunity to dribble at a time. Once a player stops dribbling, they are not allowed to
dribble again until they first pass or shoot. If a player stops dribbling and starts again, they will
be charged with a double dribble violation and forfeit the ball to the other team.

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OUT OF BOUNDS; The ball and players in possession of the ball must always remain within
the boundaries of the court. If a player or the ball goes out of the bounds, the ball will be given to
the opposite team of whoever touched it last.

FOULS; On defense, players are supposed to stop the offensive player from scoring without
unnecessary physical contact. If any player on either side of the ball uses physical contact to stop
an opposing player, they will be called foe a foul. Eg, personal fouls, blocking fouls or charging.

POINTS; In basketball games, points are scored by 1, 2 or 3. A free throw is worth one point,
any basket inside the three-point line is worth two points, and any shot behind the three –point
line is worth three.

MODERN BASKETBALL GAME

HOW IS A WINNER DECLARED IN A GAME OF BASKETBALL

Points in basketball are used to keep track of the score in a game if the player makes a field goal
from beyond the three-point line, the player scores three points. The team that has recorded the
most points at the end of a game is declared that game's winner.

Basketball Equipment & Facilities

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Before knowing the facilities, it is better to have the idea of the necessary equipment which will
lead you to play this amazing sport.

Basketball Court - facility Ball – equipment

Basketball Hoop – equipment Basketball Hoop - equipment

Scoreboard facility Uniform equipment/suppliers

Whistle – equipment Game Clock - equipment

Protective Gears – equipment/suppliers

OFFICIALS

The game officials shall be a Crew Chief, Referee, Umpire and Replay Center They will be
assisted by an official scorer, two trained timers, and courtside administrator. One timer will
operate the game clock and the other will operate the shot clock.

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In basketball, an official (usually called a referee) enforces the rules and maintains order in the
game. The title of official also applies to the scorers and timekeepers, as well as other personnel
that have an active task in maintaining the game. Basketball is regarded as among the most
difficult sports to officiate due to the speed of play, complexity of rules, the case-specific
interpretations of rules, and the instantaneous decision required.
There is one lead referee and one or two umpires, depending on
whether there is a two- or three-person crew. In the NBA, the lead
official is called the crew chief with one referee and
one umpire. In FIBA-sanctioned play, two-man crews consist of a
referee and an umpire, and three-man crews contain a referee and
two umpires.
Regardless, both classes of officials have equal rights to control
almost all aspects of the game.
Basic skills in basketball
 Dribbling. This skill will allow you to move up and down
the court, maneuver past defenders and execute plays.
 Shooting. This requires the ability to properly hold and
throw the ball into the air toward the basket while avoiding
defenders to make a point.
 Running. When you have the ball, running will help you to
avoid defenders and get to the basket quicker.
 Passing is another skill that when mastered can help you
become a complete basketball player.
JUMPING. Is another skill that can define how good a basketball player is. Jumping is involved
in offense during the jump ball in the beginning, while taking shots and sometimes while trying
to catch a pass

CRICKET
The sport of cricket has a known history beginning in the late 16th century. Having originated in
south-east England. International matches have been played since 1844.Cricket is the world's
second most popular spectator sport after association football (soccer). Governance is by
the International Cricket Council (ICC) which has over one hundred countries and territories in
membership although only twelve currently play Test cricket. There have been several
speculations about the game's origins, including some that it was created in France or Flanders.
The earliest of these speculative references is dated Thursday, 10 March 1300. It has been
suggested that "creag" was an Old English word for cricket, but expert opinion is that it was an
early spelling of "craic", meaning "fun and games in general" It is generally believed that cricket
survived as a children's game for many generations before it was increasingly taken up by adults
around the beginning of the 17th century. Possibly cricket was derived from bowls, assuming
bowls is the older sport, by the intervention of a batsman trying to stop the ball from reaching its
target by hitting it away. Playing on sheep-grazed land or in clearings, the original implements
may have been a matted lump of sheep's wool (or even a stone or a small lump of wood) as the
ball; a stick or a crook or another farm tool as the bat; and a stool or a tree stump or a gate (e.g.,

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a wicket gate) as the wicket. The International Cricket Council (ICC) is the world governing
body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives
from Australia, England and South Africa. The ICC has 106 members. The pitch is a rectangular
area of the ground 22 yards/20.12 m in length and 10 ft/3.05 m in width. It is bounded at either
end by the bowling creases and on either side by imaginary lines, one each side of the imaginary
line joining the centres of the two middle stumps, each parallel to it and 5 ft/1.52 m from it.

STANDARD CRICKET PITCH AND ITS DIMENSIONS

How is the game of cricket played?

Cricket is a bat and ball game played by two teams of 11, with one side taking a turn to bat a
ball and score runs, while the other team will bowl and field the ball to restrict the opposition
from scoring. During an inning, one team bats the ball while the other attempts to field. The
game is played by 120 million players worldwide marking it the second most popular sport in the
world. The purpose of the game is to score more runs than your opposing team. A cricket is
divided into periods called INNINGS. During the innings one team bats while the other fields.
All 11 players on the fielding team are on the pitch at the same time however only two batsmen
are the field at any one time. Team captains toss a coin to decide who should bat first.

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BASIC RULES OF THE GAME
 Hitting the ball and running between the wickets and making it to the other end before the

fielders can hit the wickets with the ball. ...

 Hitting the ball to the boundary along the ground is 4 runs.
 Hitting the ball over the boundary on the full equals 6 runs.
 In cricket, there are always two teams’ and. 22 players.
 Ruling of the umpire is final.
 Every six balls make an over.
 Duration of the game is negotiated.
 Professional cricket matches are fixed. Duration games.
 Batsman and bat both run for an over.
 When the ball hits the fence of the. ...
 Overthrows could.
HOW A WINNER IS DECLARED IN A GAME OF CRICKET
The result of a match is a "win" when one side scores more runs than the opposing side and all
the innings of the team that has fewer runs have been completed. The side scoring more runs has

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"won" the game, and the side scoring fewer has "lost". If the match ends without all the innings
being completed, the result may be a draw or no result.

EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES

EQUIPMENTS

 Ball – A red, white or pink ball with a cork base, wrapped in twine covered with leather. The
ball should have a circumference of 9.1 in (23 centimeters) unless it is a children's size.
 Bat – A wooden bat is used. The wood used is from the Kashmir or English willow tree. The
bat cannot be more than 38 inches (96.5 cm) long and 4.25 inches (10.8 cm) wide.
Aluminum bats are not allowed. The bat has a long handle and one side has a smooth face.
 Stumps – three upright wooden poles that, together with the bails, form the wicket.
 Bails – two crosspieces made of wood, placed on top of the stumps.
 Sight screen – A screen placed at the boundary known as the sight screen. This is aligned
exactly parallel to the width of the pitch and behind both pairs of wickets.
 Boundary – A rope demarcating the perimeter of the field known as the boundary.

FACILITIES USE IN CRICKET
 Cricket Bat.
 Batting Leg-Guards (also known as pads)
 Batting Gloves.
 Thigh Guard/Lower Body Protector.
 Abdominal Protector/Box.
 Batting Helmet.
EQUIPMENT USE IN PLAYING CRICKET

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Officials

 During a competitive game of cricket there are two umpires officiating a match. ...
 One umpire is positioned behind the stumps at the bowler's end of the pitch and they
make decisions on LBW (leg before wicket) appeals, no balls, wades and leg byes. ...
 At the end of each over, the umpires change position. Traditionally, cricket matches
have two umpires on the field, one standing at the end where the bowler delivers the ball
(Bowler's end), and one directly opposite the facing batsman (usually, but not always, at
square leg).

BASIC SKILLS

The most basic skills that one must have to play the game of cricket include having a good
ability to throw and catch the ball, having a good batting and bowling technique, having the
ability to concentrate for longer periods of time.

 Hand-Eye Coordination and Batting Technique. Arguably one of the most important
facets of the game of cricket is to possess strong hand-eye co-ordination and batting
technique. ...
 Hand-Eye Coordination with Throwing & Catching. ...
 Bowling Technique (Fast, Swing, and Spin) ...
 Fielding. ...
 Wicket-keeping.
GOLF
Golf is a club-and-ball sport in which players use various clubs to hit balls into a series of holes
on a course in as few strokes as possible.

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Golf, unlike most ball games, cannot and does not utilize a standardized playing area, and coping
with the varied terrains encountered on different courses is a key part of the game. The game at
the usual level is played on a course with an arranged progression of 18 holes, though
recreational courses can be smaller, often having nine holes. Each hole on the course must
contain a teeing ground to start from, and a putting green containing the actual hole or
cup 4+1⁄4 inches (11 cm) in diameter. There are other standard forms of terrain in between, such
as the fairway, rough (long grass), bunkers (or "sand traps"), and various hazards (water, rocks)
but each hole on a course is unique in its specific layout and arrangement.

Golf is played for the lowest number of strokes by an individual, known as stroke play, or the
lowest score on the most individual holes in a complete round by an individual or team, known
as match play. Stroke play is the most commonly seen format at all levels, but most especially at
the elite level.

The modern game of golf originated in 15th century Scotland. The 18-hole round was created at
the Old Course at St Andrews in 1764. Golf's first major, and the world's oldest tournament in
existence, is The Open Championship, also known as the British Open, which was first played in
1860 at the Prestwick Golf Club in Ayrshire, Scotland. This is one of the four major
championships in men's professional golf, the other three being played in the United States: The
International Golf Federation (IGF) was founded in 1958 and is the recognized International
Federation within the Olympic and Paralympic Movement. The modern version was first played
at the Royal and Ancient Golf Club in St. Andrews, Scotland in 1754. They came up with the
rules and created actual courses for playing. It wasn't long before other clubs started opening
throughout Europe and North America. The average golf course is approximately 6600 yards
long (3.75 miles or 6 kilometers) made up of Par-3, 4 and 5's, with a varying number of each
depending on the course. A golf course is the grounds where the sport of golf is played. It
consists of a series of holes, each consisting of a tee box, a fairway, the rough and other hazards,
and a green with a cylindrical hole in the ground, known as a "cup". The cup holds a flagstick,
known as a "pin". A standard round of golf consists of 18 holes.[1] Most courses contain 18 holes;
some share fairways or greens, and a subset has nine holes, played twice per round. Par-3
courses consist of nine or 18 holes all of which have a par of three strokes. The first golf courses
were based on the topography of sand dunes and dune slacks with a ground cover of grasses,

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exposed to the wind and sea.[ Courses are private, public, or municipally owned, and typically
feature a pro shop.

GOLF COURSE

NUMBER OF PLAYERS
Teams are made up of four (4) players. Each player tees off from each hole. The team captain
decides which drive is the best. After selecting the best drive, the other players must pick up their
ball and proceed to the selected drive. The game can be played by any number of people,

HOW IS THE GAME PLAYED

Golf is played by going to a course and trying to get the ball into 18 holes that you play
consecutively. You want the ball to be sunk in the designated par, which is the maximum number
of shots you should take. Keep using different clubs until the ball goes into the green and
eventually into the hole. Golf is played by going to a course and trying to get the ball into 18
holes that you play consecutively. You want the ball to be sunk in the designated par, which is
the maximum number of shots you should take. ... Keep using different clubs until the ball goes
into the green and eventually into the hole. is a game played in an open field where the golfer
plays his golf ball into a hole Golf is usually played individually, with a professional tournament
generally consisting of around 80-160 players playing in groups of three or four.

RULES OF THE GAME

Most Important Golf Rules

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  Don't tee off in front of the markers. The teeing area is the front and side extremes of the
tee markers and two club-lengths back.
 You only have three minutes to search for golf balls.
 Taking a drop? ...
 You don't get relief from bare lies.
If your stance is impeded you can take a drop.

Scoring System

In match play, the player or team with the lowest total score for the hole wins the hole and is
awarded a point. In the event of a tie, each is awarded a half-point, meaning the hole is “halved.”
At the end of the round, the player or team with the most points is declared the winner.
EQUIPMENT/FACILITIES/SUPPLIERS
Golf - Equipment
 Playing environment. Golf is played in big fields with trimmed grass ground. ...
 Ball. The main equipment of this game is the ball. ...
 Golf Clubs. The clubs can be made of as woods, irons and putters. ...
 Ball Markers. ...
 Golf Bag. ...
 Golf Cart. ...
 Towels. ...
 Club Heads.

GOLF EQUIPMENT/FACILITIES

GOLF OFFICIAL

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A referee is one who is appointed by the Committee to accompany players to decide questions of
fact and apply the Rules. He must act on any breach of a Rule that he observes or is reported to
him. Being a course rater involves much more than one would normally think.

BASIC SKILLS IN GOLF

Golf's 7 Essential Skills

 Pre swing fundamentals - Grip, Aim and Setup. Grip – Most golfers have never held a
golf club properly. ...
 Club face control. Accuracy is a combination of aim and clubface control. ...
 Strike, don't scoop. ...
 Swing Plane. ...
 Pivot. ...
 Effortless power, not powerless effort. ...
 Width in your golf swing.
THE SWING SEQUENCE IN GOLF

BADMINTON GAME

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INTRODUCTION

We all love badminton; it’s such an exciting, addictive, and fun sport. With only 2 rackets, 1
shuttlecock, and a good friend, you can easily spend a great afternoon together exercising.

BRIEF HISTORY OF BADMINTON

Badminton is one of the racquet sports requiring players to hit a shuttlecock across a net with a
racket inside a badminton court. Generally, it comes in 2 forms:
 “Singles”, a 1 vs 1 game and
 “Doubles”, a 2 vs 2 games.
You can play badminton in both indoor and outdoor environments, however, most of the world-
class competitions are held in an indoor area because they want to reduce the influence caused by
external factors such as wind and lights to the minimum level. Badminton could be traced back
to more than 2000 years ago to the ancient game called battledore (bat or paddle) and shuttlecock
(also called “bird” or “birdie”), similar games were played for centuries across Eurasia countries
such as Greece, Egypt, China, India, and Japan. Modern badminton was created by British
military officers by around 1850s in British India, at that time, a net was added to the game and
because it was very popular in the garrison town of Poona, the game was known as Poona.
During that period, when the weather is windy and wet, instead of a shuttlecock, a woolen ball
was preferred by the upper class and hence invented “Ball badminton” In 1873 the Duke of
Beaufort introduced the sport at his country estate, “Badminton House” in Gloucestershire, since
then this sport was called Badminton. By 1972, Badminton became a demo sport at the Munich
Olympics and became an official Olympic Sport at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics. At that time,
only singles and doubles were listed. The Badminton World Federation (BWF; originally the
International Badminton Federation), the world governing body of the sport, was formed in
1934. The badminton court is 13.4m long and 6.1m wide. For singles the court is marked 5.18m
wide. The lines marking out the court are easily distinguishable and coloured white or yellow.
STANDARD BADMINTON COURT

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OFFICIALS

n most major tournaments, there will be at least thirteen (13) officiating officials in badminton.
The list includes one referee, umpire, (Chair Umpire and Service Umpire) a line judge, Mopper,
and up to ten (10) line judges.

BADMINTON OFFICIALS

1. Line judges
2. Service judge
3. Umpire

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Nature of the Game

Badminton is played as a singles or doubles game with one or two players on a side. The
object of the game is to hit the shuttlecock or “bird” back and forth with a racket across a
net five feet high at its center. The bird should be hit with such speed and accuracy that
the opponent is unable to return the shot successfully. The game can either be fast or slow
paced, depending on the skill level of the players.

Safety/Etiquette

1. Keep a firm grip on the racket.

2. Be careful not to hit your partner with the racket.

3. Stay in your own court to avoid the possibility of collision with other players.

4. Stop play if other players enter your court.

5. Wait until there is a stop in the action to retrieve a bird from another court.

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 6. be aware of the walls and the net posts.

7. Before play, agree on the boundaries and determine the first server.

8. Players call their own lines; replay the point if in doubt.

9. Shake hands after the game/match.

Facilities/Equipment

Badminton Equipment & Facilities

 Racket. The badminton racket is one of the most important tools a player has in the game.
...
 Shuttlecock. The badminton shuttle cock also referred to as a shuttle or birdie, acts
similarly to a ball in other racket sports. ...
 Net. A mesh net divides the badminton court into two sides.
 Badminton Court Dimensions.
 Badminton Shoes.
 Badminton Attire

BADMINTON EQUIPMENT

Game Rules/Scoring

1. Singles – one player on a side.

2. Doubles – two players on a side.

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3. Mixed Doubles – one male and one female partner opposing a male and female
opponent.

Basic Skills

A. Grip

1. Forehand – with the racket head perpendicular to the floor, shake hands with the grip
so the “V” formed by the thumb and forefinger is on the top of the handle. 2. Backhand –
using a forehand grip, rotate the hand slightly so the thumb is along and parallel to the
wide side of the handle.

B. Footwork

1. Move toward the shot with short steps and end with a long stride.

2. In the ready position the racket is held high, the knees are slightly bent, and the body
weight is on the balls of the feet.

C. Strokes

By using the same motion for all shots, the opponent is unable to detect what shot you are
going to make until the bird is actually hit. A good wrist action allows more power and
control with much less effort. A forehand stroke is one from the dominant side; the
backhand stroke is from the non-dominant side. The racket is swung back, the arm is bent
with the elbow up, the wrist is cocked, and the body weight is placed on the back foot.
From this position, the stroke is made by throwing the hand at the point of contact
between bird and racket with weight being transferred to the forward foot. If possible,
shots should be made with an overhand stroke.

1. Clear – a shot used to drive your opponent away from the net or forecourt or to slow
the game. The bird should fly above the opponent’s reach and fall within one foot of the
baseline.

2. Smash – an attacking shot made at the limit of one’s upward reach and slightly in
front of the shoulder. At the moment of contact, the arm and wrist come down forcibly.

3. Drive – A flat shot kept as low as possible and is second only to the smash as an
attacking shot.

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 4. Drop Shot – any shot that drops immediately after crossing the net. The descent of the
bird is controlled with little follow-through.

5. Net Shot – any shot played as near to the net as possible, controlled by wrist and
forearm. The hairpin shot is an example of a net shot.

D. Serves

1. High and deep (singles) – take a position near and on the proper side of the center line
and about four feet behind the short service line. Drop the bird on the racket side and
swing the racket forward.

2. Low and short (doubles) – take a position closer to the front service line. The racket is
swung forward with little follow-through.

3. Drive (flick) – a quick snap of the wrist in the backhand grip with the bird held directly
in front of the body. The bird travels in a direct line at the receiver.

E. Flight Patterns (left to right)

ARMWRESTLING

BRIEF HISTORY

The history of arm wrestling can be traced back to ancient Egypt, as numerous wall
paintings in Egyptian caves depicted the origin of arm wrestling around 2000 BC years
ago. ... A journalist, Bill Soberanes founded the sport of arm wrestling in the year of 1952
at the Gilardi's Saloon in Petaluma, it is a semi-popular sport among high school and
college students, arm wrestling was a tavern sport and the first organized competition was
staged by Bill Soberanes, in 1952 at Gilardi's Saloon in Petaluma, California. The sport is
being played since centuries, but officially it came into play in the 1950s. The main
motive of arm wrestling is to test the strength of an individual. The World Arm-wrestling
Federation (WAF) is the recognized world governing body of professional arm wrestling
with a membership of over 80 nations. The organization was established in 1977 and
their headquarters are based in Sofia, Bulgaria. President for WAF is Assen
Hadjitodorov. Charles Osei Asibey is the President of the Ghana Arm wrestling
federation. Arm-wrestling can produce arm injuries, muscles, tendors and ligaments. It
benefits include building strength in the fingers, hands, biceps, triceps, etc. The main

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 muscle used in arm-wrestling are biceps,brachii, pictoralis major, deltoid, latissimus,
flexor carpi, brachii, dorsi etc.

WHAT IS ARMWRESTLING

Arm wrestling is a contest between two opponents facing each other with their bent
elbows placed on a table and hands firmly gripped then attempt to force the opponent's
hand down to the table top.

LEFT ARM-WRESTLING RIGHT ARM-WRESTLING

HOW IS ARMWRESTLING PLAYED

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Arm wrestling (also written as arm wrestling) is a contest between two opponents facing each
other with their bent elbows placed on a table and hands firmly gripped then attempt to force the
opponent's hand down to the table top. In the early years different names were interchangeably
used to describe the same sport: "arm turning", "arm twisting", "arm wrestling", "twisting
wrists", "wrist turning", "wrist wrestling".

BASIC RULES OF ARM-WRESTLING

 The shoulder of both players must be in a square position before the match starts.
 All starts will be a 'Ready….. ...
 You must start with at least one foot on the ground. ...
 A pin cannot be made if the elbow is out of the pocket.
 To make a winning pin you must touch your opponent to the touch pad.
 A foul start is a foul
 Two warnings = one foul and two foul equals disqualification meaning that their
opponent immediately wins the match.
 The match is won when one competitor pins their opponent’s hand onto the touch pad. At
this point, if the head referee is happy that it is a valid pin, they will shout ‘Stop!’ and
indicate the inner by immediately raising their arm
 There is no time limit to a match but a referee may call a halt to the match if one or both
competitors are in his opinion not in a fit state to carry on.
BASIC SKILLS IN ARMWRESTLING
1. Make sure to maintain a tight grip throughout the match,
2. Don’t crush your opponent's hand so hard that you end up tiring out quickly.
3. To reduce the risk of injury while arm wrestling, avoid the 'break arm' position by keeping
your arm in line with your shoulder and perpendicular to your body.
HOW IS A WINNER DECLARE IN ARMWRESTLING
The wrestler with the most/highest points at the end of the third period is declared the winner. If
a wrestler pins his opponents at any time before the end of the third period, the match is over and
the winning wrestler earns a win by fall (pin).
OFFICIALS
 Master Referees.
 Senior Referees.
 Junior Referees.

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  Head Scorekeepers.
In professional wrestling, a referee is an authority figure present in or near the ring during
matches. The referee's purpose is similar to that of referees in combat sports such as boxing or
mixed martial arts, that is, as an arbiter of the rules and the person charged with rendering
decisions. Every match needs at least one official overseeing it. Not only are they onscreen
officials but they also coordinate the match between the Gorilla position and the performers.
Gorilla position. The staging area just behind the curtain where wrestlers come out to the ring,
named after Gorilla Monsoon.

EQUIPMENT /FACILITIES

ARMWRESTLING FIXED PULLEY SYSTEM CUP POWER HANDLE

TABLE

ARMWRESTLING TABLE ELBOW PAD

1. Arm Wrestling Multispinner Handle for Wrist Cupping, Grip and Finger Training - Forearm
– Strength

2. Anchored Power Twister - Arm Wrestling Resistance Spring Bar Exerciser for Biceps,
Forearms, Shoulders,

3. Arm-wrestling Grip for Handle

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MUSICAL CHAIR GAME

Musical chairs, also known as ‘TRIP TO JERUSALEM’, is a game of elimination involving

players, chairs, and music. It is a staple of many parties worldwide. It is a party game.

BRIEF HISTORY

The origin of musical chair is unknown; but it is believed that the game originated from
Germany (Reise Nach Jerusalem).Fred smith is the founder and commissioner of the game.
However it has been played for centuries in many different countries. It is not entirely known
where or how the game of musical chairs is seen in elementary schools and pop culture. A set of
chairs is arranged with one fewer chair than the number of players (for example, seven players
would use six chairs) while music plays, the contestants walk around the set of chairs. When the
music stops abruptly, all players must find their own individual chair to occupy. The player who
fails to sit on a chair is eliminated. A chair is then removed for the next round, and the process
repeats until only one player remains and is declared the winner.

HOW IT IS PLAYED

Players go round a circle of chairs, but once the music stops, make sure you have a seat to put
your booty on. At least four (4) people, but more can play to make fun. Musical chairs are set up
in two rows back to back (one chair less than the number of players).The music is turned on, and
the players walk around the chairs. When the music stops the players race to sit in the available
chairs. The player left standing is taken out of the game. On a non-music level, you can use
musical chairs to teach skills like fair play, sportsmanship, tolerance, respect etc.

RECIPE FOR FUN

There is no better game than musical chairs to get kids flexing their listening and social and
problem-solving skills. A popular birthday party game for kids, it’s also a fun play idea for
playmates, scout troops or other get-togethers involving kids. Musical chairs is also a fun idea
for grown-up parties to get everyone up, moving, and having fun. The more players and chairs
involved, the longer the game will take. The number of players is only limited by the number of
chairs you have handy.

How to Set Up Musical Chairs:

 Count the number of players.

 Collect chairs equivalent to the number of players, minus one.
 Arrange the chairs in a double line, back to back.
 Instruct the players to walk clockwise in a tight circle around the chairs.

MUSICAL CHAIR GAME

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 RULES OF THE GAME

1. Start the music and have the players walk clockwise in a circle around the chairs.
2. Stop the music suddenly, and all players need to sit quickly in an empty chair.
3. One person will be left standing without a chair, and they will be out of the game.
4. Another chair is then removed.
5. The game continues until there is only one person seated in a chair.
6. That person is the winner of the game.

Equipment/Facilities

1) Chairs
2) Tape recorder
3) Whistle
4) Open area

WRESTLING

Wrestling probably originated in hand-to-hand combat, and in particular as a sportive form of

combat substituting the submission of a contestant for his death. Works of art from 3000 BC
depict belt wrestling in Babylonia and Egypt, and the Sumerian Gilgamesh epic has a description
of such wrestling. With the possible exception of athletics, wrestling is recognized as the world's
oldest competitive sport. Indeed, cave drawings of wrestlers have been found dating as far
back as 3,000 BC. The sport was introduced into the ancient Olympics in 708 BC, shortly after

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the Games' recorded history began. Origin. The first real traces of the development of wrestling
date back to the times of the Sumerians, The International Wrestling Federation was formed in
1979 by Killer Kowalski two years after starting his wrestling school, the Killer Kowalski
Institute for Professional Wrestling, in Malden, Massachusetts. The Ghana Arm wrestling
Federation (GAF) is the national federation in charge of regulating arm wrestling in Ghana. The
Ghana Arm wrestling Federation was inaugurated in September 2016.[1] The federation was
founded by broadcast journalist Charles Osei Asibey and inaugurated in September 2016 by the
National Sports Authority as the 40th sporting federation in Ghana. The Ghana Arm Wrestling
Federation is affiliated to the World Arm- wrestling Federation and has been a member of the
international body since 2016. Charles Osei Asibey is the President of the Ghana Arm-wrestling
Federation. Husseini Akueteh is the head referee of the Ghana Arm-wrestling Federation.

TRADITIONAL WRESTLING IWF CHAPIONSHIP

HOW TO PLAY

Wrestling is a combat sport involving grappling-type techniques such as clinch

fighting, throws and takedowns, joint locks, pins and other grappling holds. The sport can either
be genuinely competitive or sportive entertainment (see professional wrestling). Wrestling comes
in different types such as folkstyle, freestyle, Greco-Roman, catch, submission, judo, sambo and
others. Wrestling is the combat game of power as well as strategy. The wrestlers need to
anticipate the forthcoming moves of the opponent and answer them with equally powerful move.
Wrestlers enter into the playing area and go into the center circle marked on the mat

HOW IS A WINNER DECLARED IN WRESTLING

Win by Decision: If neither wrestler achieves either a fall or technical superiority, the wrestler
who scored more points during match is declared the winner. ... If a wrestler is injured by his
opponent's illegal maneuver and cannot continue, the wrestler at fault is disqualified. The
objective in a wrestling match is to beat your opponent. If a pin occurs, the match is over and

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whoever scored the pin wins. But if neither wrestler scores a pin, the score at the end of three
two-minute periods determines the winner.

BASIC SKILLS IN WRESTLING

The seven basic skills are:

 Stance.
 Motion.
 Level change.
 Penetration.
 Back step.
 Back arch.
 Lift.
Rupture and restoration

Wrestling in Roman Times was developed based on the legacy of the Etruscans and the
restoration of the Greek games. Wrestling was the favorite sport of young aristocrats, soldiers
and shepherds. According to Classius Dion, the palestra was at the origin of the military success
of the Romans. In 393, Emperor Theodosius I prohibited all pagan games and outlawed the
Olympic Games. Olympic Values sank into the dark Middle Ages, but they were always latent,
without ceasing to exist. During Middle Ages and Renaissance, wrestling was practiced by the
social elite, in castles and palaces. Numerous painters and writers celebrated wrestling and
encouraged its practice: Caravaggio, Poussin, Rembrandt, Courbet, Rabelais, Rousseau,
Montaigne, Locke, etc. It is also interesting to mention that the first book to be printed came out
in 1500, and that already in 1512 came out the wrestling manual in color by German artist
Albrecht Dürer.

BASIC RULES IN WRESTLING

The object of the sport of wrestling is to put your opponent on his back -- to pin your opponent.
A pin (or fall) is when you put your opponent on his/her back with any part of both shoulders or
both shoulder blades of your opponent in contact with the mat for two seconds. When you pin
your opponent, the match is over and you are the winner. If nobody gets pinned, the winner is the
wrestler who has scored the most points during the match.

There are five ways to score points in a wrestling match:

 1) Takedown - (2 points) you score two points for taking your opponent down to the mat
and controlling him/her.

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2) Escape - (1 point) you score one point for getting away or getting to a neutral position when
your opponent has you down on the mat.

3) Reversal - (2 points) you score two points when your opponent has you down on the mat and
you come from underneath and gain control of your opponent.

4) Near Fall (Back Points) - (2 or 3 points) you get near fall points when you almost but not
quite get your opponent pinned. A near fall (near pin) is when: If a near fall lasts for two
seconds, you get 2 points. If a near fall lasts for 5 seconds, you get 3 points.

5) Penalty Points - (1 or 2 points) your opponent is awarded points if you commit the following
infractions.

EQUIPMENT/FACILITIES

Some of the basic equipment needed for wrestling includes a: Wrestling mat, an untard or
wrestling singlet, Wrestling shoes, Kneepads, Mouth guards, Headgear

OFFICIALS

In professional wrestling, a referee is an authority figure present in or near the ring during
matches. The referee's purpose is similar to that of referees in combat sports such as boxing or
mixed martial arts, that is, as an arbiter of the rules and the person charged with rendering
decisions. There are three types of officials: rulebook attorneys, freelancers and a combination of
both.

Professional Wrestling

Professional wrestling began in France around 1830. Wrestlers who had no access to the
wrestling elite, formed troupes that travelled around France showing their talent. Wrestlers thus
frequented wild animals’ exhibitors, tightrope walkers and bearded women. Showmen presented
wrestlers under names such as “Edward, the steel eater”, “Gustave d’Avignon, the bone
wrecker”, or “Bonnet, the ox of the low Alps” and challenged the public to knock them down for
500 francs. In 1848, French showman Jean Exbroyat created the first modern wrestlers’ circus
troupe and established as a rule not to execute holds below the waist. He named this new style «
flat hand wrestling ». Upon Mr. Exbroyat’s death in 1872, Mr. Rossignol-Rollin attorney from
Lyon assumed the direction of this troupe and was soon noticed for his ability to advertise, to «
arrange » matches and to reward wrestlers in the name of the audience.

The French influence extended to the Austrian Hungarian Empire, to Italy, to Denmark and to
Russia and the new style circulated under the name of Greco-Roman wrestling, classic wrestling

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or French wrestling. Professional wrestling matches were thus organized everywhere in Europe
with variable programs and competition rules according to the taste of wrestlers, of managers
and of the audience. In 1898, the Frenchman Paul Pons, also named “the Colossus”, was the first
Professional World Champion just before the Polish Ladislaus Pytlasinski. Some other great
champions succeeded him, like the Turkish Kara Ahmed (the eastern Monster), the Bulgarian
Nikola Petrov (the lion of the Balkans) or the Russian Ivan Poddoubni (the Champion of
Champions).

At the end of the 19th century, professional wrestling was the most in vogue sport in Europe, but
it started to degrade from 1900 because of the pre-arranged matches, the announcement of
forgery, false victories and false nationalities of the competitors. The rediscovery of Olympic
amateurism encouraged the creation of numerous clubs and schools that finished professional
wrestling off. However, from a historical point of view, professional wrestling has its
indisputable merits. Competitions contributed to making wrestling more popular, the physical
aspect of wrestlers served as a model to young men and the training system allowed amateur
wrestling clubs to rapidly become more structured.

Modern Olympic Wrestling

In 1904, freestyle wrestling was first introduced during the St. Louis Games and was only
disputed by American wrestlers. It was only during the fourth Olympic Games held in London in
1908 that competitions were organized for both styles. At the Stockholm Olympic Games in
1912, freestyle wrestling was again absent from the program and glima competitions (Icelandic
wrestling) were organized. Wrestling matches took place on three mats in the open air. They
lasted one hour, but finalists wrestled without limit of time. The match which confronted the
Finnish wrestler Alfred Johan Asikainen and the Russian Martin Klein lasted 11 hours and 40
minutes and appears on the Guinness Book of Records. Both wrestlers, having the same score,
were separated by two periods of three minutes of ground wrestling. The Russian finally
defeated the Finnish who weighed 8 kilos (17.64 lbs) more than he did. Exhausted by this match,
Martin Klein could not beat the Swedish Johansson who won the gold medal for the 75 kilos
(165.35 lbs).

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From this date, and encouraged by the newly created International Federation, wrestling
developed in every country. Northern Europe countries maintained during many years the
monopoly of Greco-Roman wrestling, whereas freestyle wrestling was largely dominated by the
English and the Americans. In Amsterdam, in 1928, the Egyptian wrestler Ibrahim Mustafa was
the first African wrestler to win an Olympic title. The Japanese Shohachi Ishii won the first
Asian title at the Olympic Games in Helsinki, in 1952. Numerous legends shaped the history of
wrestling around the world and it would be impossible to name them all. However, four wrestlers
have deeply changed the history of Modern Olympic Games by winning three Olympic titles :
the Swedish Carl Westergren (Greco-roman wrestling in 1920, 1924 and 1932), the Swedish Ivar
Johansson (Greco-roman and freestyle wrestling in 1932, and freestyle wrestling in 1936), the
Russian Alexandre Medved (freestyle wrestling in 1964, 1968 and in 1972) and the Russian
Alexandre Karelin (in 1988, 1992 and 1996). After obtaining his third title, Alexandre Karelin
decided to conquer his fourth title at the Olympic Games in Sydney in 2000, but to the general
surprise, he was beaten by the American wrestler Rulon Gardner. In 2002, during the World
Championship held in Moscow, FILA awarded the title of Best Wrestler of the Century to both
Russians : Alexandre Medved (for freestyle wrestling) and Alexandre Karelin (for Greco-roman
wrestling), offering them the FILA Gold necklace, award generally reserved for heads of state.

A hundred years after the introduction of freestyle wrestling in the Olympic program, worldwide
wrestling entered a new era with the acknowledgement of female wrestling as an Olympic
discipline on the occasion of the Athens Games in 2004. This decision is part of the policy of the
IOC that aims at establishing equality in sport, and legitimized the efforts made by FILA to
sustain the development of female wrestling since the end of the 80s.

Appreciating and Apprraising Art music in Ghana

Art music is a general term often used to describe thoughtfully cultivated music, particularly in

Western societies, and as in contrast to pop and folk music. Art music is a term that encompasses

music traditions that apply advanced structural and theoretical considerations with a written

musical tradition. In Western countries, classical music is the main tradition. Art music has two

extensions, being either serious music or light music. From as early as antiquity, the art music

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genre existed alongside other music and developed through the time periods from medieval to

contemporary times. There are no outstanding characteristics of the style as time has brought

significant changes and differences to each generation.

Characteristics of Art music

Art music is an umbrella term that describes music originating from Western classical music. In

other definitions, Catherine Schmidt-Jones defines art music as music which demands more

work and attention from the listener for full appreciation than the average popular music. To

Catherine, art music includes challenging music types such as Jazz, Rock, and Classical. In

general, art music is highly formalized music in which most if not all elements are specified in

advance in written form, and not improvised or left to the performer’s discretion. Art music

refers to classical traditions that focus on formal styles, inviting technical and detailed

deconstruction and criticism, and at the same time requiring significantly more effort by the

listener. Art music is primarily a written musical tradition, preserved in music notations as

opposed to oral, note, or recording transmissions as seen in modern and traditional music.

Origins

Music as a whole dates back to antiquity, and is arguably the most celebrated of all the

discoveries or inventions of mankind. Art music as a genre started in around the 11th Century.

The staff notation system characterizing art music dates way back before the 16th Century.

Western staff notation was used by composers to express pitches, meter, tempo, and rhythms to

the performer. The central norms for the art of the West music started in 1550-1900. Monks in

Christian churches used to sing classical and romantic symphonies at around the 1700s and

1800s. Down the line especially before the onset of the 19th Century, sophisticated instrumental

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music such as the concerto, sonata, symphony, mixed vocals and instrumental styles such as

operas, which are developed to give art music a distinctive feel from other types of music. The

relationship of art music to folk music became apparent in the 18th Century when western

intellectuals started to glorify folk and peasant life. How-ever the name, “classical music” only

appeared in the early 19th Century with the earliest reference to the term "classical music"

appearing in 1836.

Art Music in Ghana: An Introduction

Before the socio-cultural interaction between Africa and Europe, Western classical music
was neither known, performed nor appreciated by Africans. Africans therefore solely relied on
their native music for all spheres of life. Since the arrival of the Portuguese at Elmina in 1482,
which marks the earliest European contact with Ghana, the introduction and the impact of
European music among other cultural phenomena on the Gold Coast, now Ghana had been
steadily and increasingly significant. In retrospect, the growth of Western classical music in
Ghana can be attributed mainly to economic, political and religious factors.

The activities of British colonial administrators, missionaries and teachers helped to introduce
and consolidate the practice and consumption of European liturgical Christian music as well as
European classical music — the two musical genres — which provided the foundations for the
emergence of modern Ghanaian Art music. The most significant factor in the growth of
European music and indeed European culture in Ghana was the Christian Church. As J.H.K.
Nketiah has observed, this growth was:
encouraged and strengthened by the activities of the church, which preached against African
cultural practices while promoting western cultural values and usages. It adopted a hostile
attitude to African music... because (it) was associated with ‘pagan’ practices. Moreover, this
music did not appear to be suitable for the form of Christian worship that westerners were
accustomed to....
Although, European church music was used almost exclusively in the early Ghanaian Christian
liturgy, events which would usher in the use of Ghanaian music in the Church began to take
place by the beginning of this century. As a result of the need to make Christianity a more widely
accepted religion in Ghana, and in view of the limitations of European music for reflecting the
semantic and poetic potency of indigenous Ghanaian languages adequately, it became necessary
for Ghanaian music to be composed for use in the emerging Ghanaian churches. One individual
whose life illustrates the musico-historical process which modern Ghanaian church music and

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classical music have undergone is Ephraim Amu, who is regarded as the ‘father’ of
contemporary Ghanaian Art Music.

The Pioneering Works of Ephraim Amu

Amu was born in 1899, in Peki, in the Volta Region of Ghana. His father, a drummer and singer,

provided the earliest form of musical influence from which the young Amu derived strong

motivation to pursue a professional career in music. He later enrolled at the Presbyterian Middle

School where he was formally introduced to Western music by the music teacher, Mr. Theodore

Karl Ntem. Mr. Ntem did not only teach music, he also directed a church choir and was a very

proficient organist. By the time Amu left the school in 1919, he had started to play the organ.

Amu continued his music education at the Basel Mission Seminary at Kwahu Abetifi, where he

had gone to train as a mission school teacher in January 1916. Of particular significance to his

musical career were the activities of one Reverend Gershon Stern, whose love for and knowledge

of the music of Handel, Bach and Mozart as well as of other Western composers became a

source of inspiration and enlightenment for the young Amu. By the end of his course at the

teacher training school in 1919, Amu had acquired enough musical skill to become a music

teacher at Peki Blengo Middle Boarding School. In Peki, he continued his own lessons, this time

from Reverend Allotey Pappoe. In an interview, Reverend Pappoe recalled that:

Mr. Amu came to take music lessons — theory — with me. Amu at the time could play the

harmonium, but not much, and he also knew a bit of the theory of music. I started to teach him

the rudiments of music and composition, wading through the syllabus of the advanced course of

the Victoria College of Music, London. It is significant that even at such a relatively early stage

in his musical career, Amu developed an interest in composition. His teacher, Reverend Pappoe,

provided one of the first opportunities for Amu to produce a composition. His piece, Fare Thee

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Well, was written in 1923 and dedicated to Reverend Pappoe to mark his transfer from Peki to

Accra. At about the same time, between 1921 and 1923, Amu also wrote such choral works

as Mawo do Iesu in Ewe and Meye Adwuma Ama Iesu in Twi. Other songs include Nkwagye

Dwom (A song of salvation), Dwonto and Yetu.

Amu later moved to Akropong where he continued to teach music. During his stay there, in

response to a challenge by the principal, the Reverend William Fergusson, he arranged a popular

Ghanaian tune, Yaa Amponsa. The significance of this work to Amu’s career is aptly described

by Fred Agyemang:

Ya Amponsa was clearly the curtain raiser to Amu’s wider interest and deeper work in

indigenous African music: rhythm, flutes, drums, time, idiom and words. His new words Nnonan

Ne Fa set to the well-known tune soon gained popularity in many schools and colleges.

In addition, Amu held and maintained his students’ interest... by teaching them simple African

tunes, (and) rhythms which he was himself studying and adapting from popular as well as

traditional African dance, song.

Amu, however, never stopped his study of Western music.

Whilst he was studying and developing the indigenous traditional African Music... he maintained

his study of European Music and never lost his love for the music of Bach, Mozart, Hadyn and

the other great Masters.

By 1937, when Amu proceeded to the Royal College of Music, London for further studies, he

had had a solid foundation in the theory and practice of music. He took courses in harmony and

counterpoint, orchestration, piano and composition under such great musicians as Herbert

Howells and Gordon Jacob. As Agyemang noted, Amu’s ‘musical studies in Europe prepared

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him for the type of musical career he was to pursue back in the Gold Coast (now Ghana)’ In

1940, and for the next fifty years, Amu dominated contemporary Ghanaian Art Music. Amu,

who is now ninety-six years old, has led an active musical life in Ghana. He established a famous

Government Music School at Achimota and later became a faculty member of the University of

Science and Technology, Kumasi. In addition, he helped to establish the Music Department of

the Institute of African Studies, University of Ghana at Legon, where he later worked as Senior

Research Fellow from 1962 to 1971, when he retired. A glowing tribute to Amu’s successful

musical career in Ghana is the Ghana National Orchestra, which is still the forum for the

promotion of classical music in Ghana. This author was privileged to attend a special concert

held on September 30th, 1994 at the National Theatre, Accra by the Ghana National Choir to

honour Ephraim Amu, on the occasion of his ninety- fifth birthday. The Choir, which was

conducted by Mrs. Dinah Reindorf, mostly performed works by Amu

Stylistic Classification of Amu’s Music

Amu’s music has been classified into three distinct stylistic periods comprising the early period

(1920-1937), middle period (1937-1951), and third period (1952-present). His early works are

generally simple in character, making use of simple and diatonic chords.

Other Ghanaian Composers

The pioneering effort of Ephraim Amu has helped to provide the foundation for the emergence

of younger Ghanaian composers who have, in different ways through their works, contributed to

the growth and sustenance of Ghanaian Art Music. As in Nigeria, many of these composers are

trained within a predominantly European system of music education and are musicologists or

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ethnomusicologists who have combined a career in composition with a strong academic interest

in music. Examples include J.H.K. Nketia (the renowned African ethnomusicologist), Ata Annan

Mensah, N.Z. Nayo, Gyimah Labi, Otto-Boateng, Entsua-Mensah, Kwesi Baiden, A. Amissah,

Eric Nyarko, Kenneth Kafui, Willie Anku and, one of the youngest of them, Emmanuel Boamah.

In terms of style and direction, Amu’s vision continues to influence the works of these

composers, notably in the integration of European and African musical elements.

J.H.K. Nketia has been described as the natural successor to Amu as the leading Ghanaian

composer. His musical career is distinguished by a desire to compose anchored on a thorough

study and investigation of traditional African music. As he explained to me in an interview, it

was because of his desire to compose works culturally relevant to Africa that he developed an

interest in ethnomusicology, with a view to understanding the principles of African music. His

initial interest in African music was to develop one of the most distinguished careers in this

study. After an initial interest in linguistics as a student of the School of Oriental and African

Studies, University of London, Nketia studied music at the Birkbeck College, also of the

University of London. He continued his musical studies at the Trinity College of Music London,

and then the Julliard School of Music, New York and Northwestern University in Evanston,

Illinois. His teachers included Henry Cowell (composition), Cari Sachs (ethnomusicology), Alan

Merriam and Melville Herskovits (anthropology and ethnomusicology). He has taught music in

such institutions as the University of Ghana, Legon and the University of California, Los

Angeles. He was the head for the International Centre for African Music and Dance, Legon.

Nketia has written vocal and instrumental works. His choral works include Adanse

Kronkron (Divine Testimony) Mokamfo No (Praise Him) and Wose Aseda (You Deserve to be

Thanked). While his first work, Adanse Kronkron is similar to the early works of Amu in its

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hymn-like charactec, contrapuntal writing is featured in works like Mokamfo No and Wose

Aseda. According to Nketia, the use of counterpoint ‘gives room for imagination and invention’.

Nketia has also written substantially for the piano. His works for the piano include Playtime, At

the Crossroads, Libation, Meditation, Dagarti Work Song, Builsa Work Song, Volta

Fantasy and Contemplation. These are short quasi-programmatic works in which Nketia evokes

the melo-rhythmic and textual features of Ghanaian instrumental music. Generally simple in

their tonal and formal character, the most significant element of these pieces lies in their dynamic

rhythmic character, notably in the use of vertical and horizontal hemiola

Style in Ghanaian Choral Music

Nketia has classified Ghanaian choral music into three stylistic categories. These are the choral
anthem model, the traditional model and the Highlife model. The choral anthem model is
typified essentially by the use of European four-part harmony conceived along the tradition of
protestant church hymns, but which also make use of Ghanaian derived rhythms like this one.

Pieces in this category include: Aman Beyi W’aye(God, Nations Shall Praise Thee) by Otto-
Boateng, Nketia’s Adanse Kronkron (Divine Testimony), Amissah’s Ayeyi and
Amu’s Sam Bjfa (Go Back and Collect What You Left Behind). The traditional model is
characterized by songs which are adapted from traditional Ghanaian choral music. Although
pieces in this category also make use of European derived harmony, their formal outline often
reflects traditional Ghanaian practices, notably in the use of the call and response pattern and
improvisations. In addition, they often re-create, or allude to, traditional Ghanaian extra-musical
social or ritual occasions. Examples here include Agor’s Dowolae Dua Nu (The Hard Worker
Eats) and Nayo’s Mazu Atimedide both of which are conceived along the tradition of Northern
Eweland recreational music; and Amu’s Asafo— a work conceived to evoke traditional Ghanaian
war music. Also in this category are the lyrics, set to Fante tunes, which are often used
spontaneously during worship in the church.

The Highlife model consists of pieces conceived in the tradition of Highlife music and popular
West African music whose origins are rooted in Ghana. Characteristic features of this model

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include the use of European- derived diatonic harmonics with emphasis on a colouristic use of
the raised supertonic and the minor seventh, a single modulation to the dominant, as well as
African rhythmic tradition. Examples of works in this category are Otto-
Boateng’s YeyeAhene Baasa, Entsua Mensah’s Mmere (Time) and Kwesi Baiden’s Meye Den
Me Kamfo Me Nyame (How do I praise my Lord?).

Other features of Ghanaian choral music are the use of percussive rhythm, the use of parallel
harmonics especially in thirds and sixths; the use of melodic lines which reflect the inflationary
pattern of texts and the employment of non-lexical syllables for harmonic and rhythmic effects

BIOGRAPHY OF NICODEMUS KOFI BADU

The Early Years of Nicodemus Kofi Badu

Nicodemus Kofi Badu, born at Agona Asafo in the Central Region of Ghana on the 15th of

August 1947, was his parents’ tenth born, hence his surname Badu. His father, though a peasant

farmer, was also a brass band music instructor and a leading trumpeter. According to Badu, his

mother was a well-known Ebibindwom cantor whose performances in the church and elsewhere

always thrilled her spectators. It is a step in the right direction that Badu is a skilled musician. He

followed in the footsteps of his parents and developed his musical talents. In 1960, his parents

moved from Agona Asafo in the Central Region of Ghana and lived at Bibiani.

Development of his Musical Talent

He started the elementary school at age seven (1962) at Bibiani Anglican School. According to

Badu, when he was a pupil in class three and a member of the school choral group, he was

invited by the head teacher to meet with him and the music teacher at his office after the school’s

singing rehearsal period. At the meeting, the head teacher revealed that the music teacher said he

was a talented alto singer. Thus, the head teacher wanted to seek Badu’s opinion and that of his

parents about enrolling him in the church choir. Eventually, he was made a member of the

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church choir. This effort by the school authority, making him a chorister, unearthed and allowed

for the development of the musical prowess in him. He then developed such love for singing that

he joined another singing group, the “Minstrel” choir, a choral group at Bibiani. So alongside his

schedule to serve his parents, he attended rehearsals regularly and performed his religious duties,

believing that “the fear of the Lord was the beginning of wisdom,” a philosophy he made his

guiding rule and still treasures today. After completing his standard seven-year education,

managing domestic life became difficult as his parents could not afford to pay for higher

education. He therefore sought employment with the State Gold Mining Company in Bibiani in

1962 and was gainfully employed as a truck boy at the worksite. After working with this mining

company for some time, he decided to abandon this mining job to seek a better life, mainly

because the job was not lucrative and did not permit Anglican church and the “Westminster”

choirs. According to Badu, the “Westminster” choir was very popular and powerful in the field

of choral music him to practice his art of teaching songs which he had learnt informally from

directors of the choirs he joined.

In 1968 he moved from Bibiani to stay with a relative at Tamale in the Northern Region of

Ghana. Though life was not easy, he did begin to sing again. He enrolled in the Tamale Anglican

church and the “Westminster” choirs. According to Badu, the “Westminster” choir was very

popular and powerful in the field of choral music performance in the early 1970s. His active

involvement in these two groups perhaps paved the way for his appointment as a pupil teacher6

at the basic school because a few education officers who were members of the groups saw how

he sang with zeal. In 1974, the leader of the Westminster choir gained admission to the National

Academy of Music, Winneba and left the leadership position vacant. The leadership of the choir

therefore asked Badu to take his place because the authorities considered him ready and capable

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of teaching songs. In 1978, he gained admission to pursue a programme leading to a four-year

teacher training certificate “A” at Bimbilla Training College in the Northern Region. As a

talented singer, he joined the college choir when he went there for his studies. The absence of the

Music Master in one of the routine choir rehearsals of the college choir permitted Badu to take

the initiative to teach a Negro Spiritual entitled “Go and Sin No More” arranged by Jester

Hairston. His willingness and ability to teach a song within four weeks of his arrival on campus

caught the attention and admiration of the entire student population as well as the tutorial staff.

The staff was impressed by this performance and was encouraged to appoint him to the position

of second student choirmaster of the college. Realizing that Badu had no knowledge in the theory

of music and could not interpret anything on paper, the Music Master paid special attention to

him. He offered him extra tuition to prepare him adequately in music fundamentals. This was the

same period during which Badu was introduced to the keyboard and to other subjects to prepare

him to write the School Certificate Ordinary Level Examination towards an admission to the

National Academy of Music. In effect, by the time he completed the Four–Year Teacher

Training Education, he had also obtained passes in History, Music, Mathematics and English at

the School Certificate Ordinary Level. After completing his Teacher Training Education, he

continued to seek to increase his knowledge in music. He therefore contacted Charles Bernard

Wilson, the Central Regional Music Organizer and a part time staff member at the National

Academy of Music. Wilson readily offered Badu a direction and gave him some books on

Rudiments and the Theory of Music to help him work towards admission to the Academy of

Music. This offer of books and sense of direction provided Badu with rudimentary knowledge in

music and helped him make significant progress in his acquisition of music knowledge. From

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studying these books, he learned more about some of the Classical composers, their

compositional techniques and their style of instrumentation.

First Composition with Traditional Music Elements

The first attempt Badu made to compose with traditional music elements was to participate in a

composition contest organized by Charter Secretariat, which required competitors write a

national patriotic song. He presented his song entitled Nee Gom (Awake) in which he utilized

traditional singing styles like yodeling and spoken texts of the people of the Northern Region. He

had studied the Dagbani language of the people of the North since the period he had lived there

as a student at Bimbilla Training College. This was the same period he enrolled in Tamale

Anglican Church and the Westminster choirs, and by his close association with colleague

students and choristers, learned to communicate and to write in the Dagbani language. As part of

the contest, the song was performed. His submission was chosen as the winning composition of

the contest. His ability to emerge victorious in this contest gave him the encouragement to

continue to write in that dimension, using traditional music elements. As a native of the Fante

land he started exploring the musical elements in asafo music and mmoguo songs and began to

use them in his compositions so that he could compose for people of his ethnic background. His

success at the writing of compositions using traditional music elements was a result of effective

instruction he received in compositional techniques class at the National Academy of Music,

Winneba, when he enrolled in 1985 to pursue a Diploma in Music Education. In the academy the

compositional techniques he applied in his works, especially the use of traditional music

elements to blend effectively with western harmonic techniques, were received from music

scholars such as Robert Manford, Cosmas W.K. Mereku, Charles Bernard Wilson, Gilbert

Berese, Eric Beeko, Pascal Amuzu among others. This was the period when syllabuses of

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educational systems were changed to reflect the traditions of Ghana, and for composers to situate

their works in that respect rather than to rely on western compositional elements. In singing

competitions, choirs are required to present an optional item and for choirs to meet such a

requirement, according to Badu, many choirs have consulted him to write a test piece for them.

He had since written his works using traditional music elements. On hearing Badu’s song, one

does not have to be told the source of the traditional music elements he explored. One will

experience the traditional musical traits of asafo, music spoken texts and scooping effects, as

well as realize the melodic structure of mmoguo as a guiding technique. In these, he has tried to

blend these traits effectively with western harmonic idioms.

Life as a Choirmaster/Director of Music

From his early youth days, after his Diploma education, Nicodemus Kofi Badu has been teaching

songs to church choirs, school choirs as well as community choral groups on contract. This made

him unofficial or guest choirmaster for many singing groups and church choirs since he

temporarily handled the choirs. This appointment usually ended at the close of the event for

which he was contracted. In all these choirs he directed, he taught some of these “asafo

compositions,” the compositions in which he has explored asafo elements. These songs thrilled

most audiences to the extent that a number of choirs craved to have him as a choirmaster. Some

of the groups who were lucky to have him were Sekondi Vocal band, Irani Brothers’ Staff Choir,

Tema, Asafo Methodist Church Choir, Emmanuel Methodist Church Choir (Swedru), Agona

Swedru and Ashaiman Mozama Disco Christo Church Choir. I observed that his compositional

technique presented him as unique, especially in the Central Region where no composer

competed with him in the writing of musical pieces using traditional music elements from asafo.

In the Association of Methodist church choirs, Ghana, appointment or election of music directors

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is dependent on a musician’s ability to prepare and present choirs to conferences and to emerge

victorious at singing competitions. Badu’s ability to present choirs and perform with credibility

therefore earned him a higher office in the Methodist church as the Director of Music for Swedru

circuit of the Winneba diocese of the Methodist Church, Ghana, after which he was elevated to

the highest office in the diocese as the Director of Music for the same association. Currently,

Badu is a consultant to the Cultural Unit of Ghana Education Service, Central Region, and

resident in his village, Agona Asafo near Swedru.

Musical Style and Characteristics

Badu’s composition is generally characterized with proverbs and other traditional music

elements, especially from asafo. He perceives God as an omnipotent and writes his texts in that

perspective. I believe he writes his texts first, and sets music to it, for his melodies to flow like

the spoken word. His harmonies are a blend of both Western and African styles. He writes using

varied textural densities to “paint” the performance of the traditional musical elements he

explores. He additionally creates a form for his pieces with respect to performance situations of

the traditional elements he uses. The lyrics of Nicodemus Kofi Badu’s compositions center upon

the greatness of God. The titles of some of his compositions make this assertion factual. The

titles Woana na nye Wo sε? (Who is like you?), Mara nye Mara (I am that I am), and Katakyi

Nyame bra! (Come! Mighty God) are enough evidence of this. In most of his writings, and

especially the three I have mentioned, he has explored numerous wise sayings, proverbs and

indigenous vocabulary all to depict the greatness of God. The parents being Christians

(Methodists) might have given him the appreciation of God. He might also have experienced the

wonders of God as a Christian. The use of words and phrases like Mpitiprim Mpatapram and

Emintsiminim Nyame nyew, which do not have exact English translations other than to say they

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express the greatness of God, are examples of phrases he uses throughout his works. As I study

his works and consider at which point in his life he may have learned those proverbs and

appellations of God, I am unsure where and how he learned these traditional appellations that

seek to evoke the greatness of God. When I interviewed him, the response he offered was that he

listened to live performance asafo music during the days he spent in Winneba for his Diploma in

Music Education and he informally learned from the Asafo cantors. He took time to visit the

Tuafo Asafo Company and listened to them. Upon my consideration of a number of

compositions I have listened to, I conclude that if there is one Fante composer who has written

extensively using indigenous traditional elements involving appellations and This is very close to

compositions of Nigerian, Zimbabwean as well as other Ghanaian composers who show

originality in the treatment of melodies using proverbs, as Njoku points out:

One is tempered to liken his treatment of tunes to what happens when, if necessary, Igbo

proverbs need explanation. Such explanations usually require more elaborate commentaries and

longer sentences than the proverbs. With songs, however, it is easier to experiment with tunes

than with text. Tunes are more malleable. (Njoku 1997, p.26)

It has been said earlier of Badu’s trait of an elaborate use of text rather than proverbs. This is

likened to what Njoku expresses of Nigerian and Zimbabwean composers. As found commonly

with traditional African songs, Badu has repeatedly stressed God’s greatness to his audiences. In

Woana na nye wo this theme/title is repeated several times from the opening of the song until

the end. In a similar manner, Mara nye Mara and Katakyi Nyame bra are repeated throughout. In

other songs of Badu, repetitions are commonly found. This has been asserted by Agordoh as a

feature which is inherent in African traditional music as “Amu is repetitive-repeating the same

word, phrase or proverbs, then it is Nicodemus Kofi Badu.

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This is very close to compositions of Nigerian, Zimbabwean as well as other Ghanaian

composers who show originality in the treatment of melodies using proverbs, as Njoku points

out: One is tempered to liken his treatment of tunes to what happens when, if necessary, Igbo

proverbs need explanation. Such explanations usually require more elaborate commentaries and

longer sentences than the proverbs. With songs, however, it is easier to experiment with tunes

than with text. Tunes are more malleable. (Njoku 1997, p.26) It has been said earlier of Badu’s

trait of an elaborate use of text rather than proverbs. This is likened to what Njoku expresses of

Nigerian and Zimbabwean composers. As found commonly with traditional African songs, Badu

has repeatedly stressed God’s greatness to his audiences. In Woana na nye wo this theme/title is

repeated several times from the opening of the song until the end. In a similar manner, Mara nye

Mara and Katakyi Nyame bra are repeated throughout. In other songs of Badu, repetitions are

commonly found. This has been asserted by Agordoh as a feature which is inherent in African

traditional music as “Amu is repetitive-repeating the same word, phrase or sentence several

times, which is an essential part of traditional African music.” (Agordoh 2004, p.110) Agawu on

another facet says this about repetition: Order emanates from repetition, and [it] is from doing

the “same thing” over and over again that the Northern Ewe find meaning in life. Ritual orders

both “life” and “art.” Repetition gives Northern Ewes assurance of the known and the familiar,

enables them to take stock of what has been achieved, and provides a forum for creative

interpretation and reinterpretation of culture. (Agawu 1995, p.23) Such has been the style of

Badu to ensure that there is meaning in what he wants to communicate to his audiences. Another

common feature is engagement of unison, or duplication of melodies in octaves. In Badu’s works

this approach emphasizes the singing style of asafo and, for that matter, Akans from where Badu

originated. In western terms, polarity is a form of unison singing. In the three selected songs and

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other songs of Badu, the feature of polarity is predominant, especially at the beginnings of the

works. Badu employs the Western style in the use of call and response; transforming a traditional

music element and blending with harmonic ideologies, he writes five parts: a tenor/alto solo

against SATB. In the traditional set up, music making has been primarily call and response but

confined to solo against two parts in either thirds, or sixths. This has been likened to the

performance of the dirge, as Agawu puts it as “the standard form of the dirge follows the

traditional call and response pattern. A lead singer intones the call or introductory segment (A),

to which the chorus responds (B). The A-B pattern is then repeated a number of times; the dirge

usually ends with B.” (Agawu 1995, p.77) Following the convention in melody writing in Africa,

making sure the melodic organization reflects the speech contour, Badu has achieved notable

results. He has been very sensitive to this principle so that the meaning of the words and phrases

of his songs can be communicated accurately when sung to his audiences. This frequently results

in the use of spoken words in his compositions. Woanana nyewo Katakyi Nyame bra and Mara

nye Mara have such features in them. This is done to represent the feel of the natural realm of the

asafo which he explores. Though Badu wrote many beautiful melodies, with adherence to

conventions in African melody writing, one of his more radical innovations compared with his

colleagues is forceful, marked and even stark rhythmic patterns throughout his compositions. In

particular, his themes are primarily rhythmic rather than melodic.

Badu has transplanted a great deal of asafo song features into his compositions, making his

words carry many indigenous expressions of asafo. I want to emphasize that Badu has written

works which are highly evolved and individualized, sometimes with spoken words as in asafo

songs trying to combine effectively the traditional and the original art. Asafo koeyihn, fatwitwi a

wonnsiw no kwan (asafo appellations) are some of the expressions employed to create his own

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melodies in order to make his pieces sound like asafo. Furthermore, Badu uses chromatic notes

either to embellish or modulate to related keys. This reflects his background of having studied

western harmonic principles before adapting to traditional music elements. Regarding this, Euba

comments: It is true that [modern African] composers have often attempted to Africanize their

works by using Africa tunes and rhythms, but, in their preoccupation with Western forms, such

borrowings has been quite minimal and their works must be regarded as extensions of Western

art music rather than a continuation of African tradition in music. (Euba 1970, pp.52-3) However

in the case of Badu, his use of western harmonic forms has not overshadowed his compositions.

Although he uses chromatic notes and western harmonic forms, his works do not portray a

simple extension of Western art music, as Euba asserts has been the practice with many African

modern composers. It is important also to mention Badu’s contrapuntal style. In each of Badu’s

extensive works, he has written a section or more in polyphonic texture. This brings to light his

efforts to display a compositional ability and to write in all kinds of textures at the same time,

depicting a traditional performance style which results in different melodic lines performed

simultaneously. A sectional outline of his pieces demonstrates Badu distributing the sections to

the various kinds of music textures that are used, most often devoting the early sections to

monophony, middle sections to homophony to be followed with polyphony or contrapuntal

effect and conclude with homophony alongside call and responses.

Conclusion

Nicodemus Kofi Badu is a one of the younger generational art choral music composers who has

done extensive choral works exploring traditional musical elements. He has exhibited very

palpably the asafo performance trend in his works. Badu’s desire to apply traditional music

elements in his choral compositions was encouraged by his participation in a choral composition

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contest in which he placed first. The urge to explore further into expanding his horizon in the use

of the said element manifested when he enrolled to undertake a course of study at University of

Education, Winneba, paving the way to study Winneba asafo groups. As a native of Fante

parents he learned proverbs and appellations informally and applied them to biblical situations.

He thrilled all and sundry with his compositions and this led to his position as “contract

composer” composing songs for church choirs and schools as optional songs for singing

competition contests for a token fee. At Winneba, where he earned his Diploma in music, he

took advantage of the vibrant asafo company in town and learned many asafo songs and

appellations which he incorporated in his compositions. An inquiry into Badu’s compositions

reveals his imaginative and skillful styles in the use of varied textural layouts in his

compositions. Badu never lacked words. He could use several indigenous words in his

compositions to show God’s greatness which has been the theme in most of his compositions.

His texts are difficult to understand and translate. In his compositions one realizes an effective

use of conventional harmony as well as African harmony by his use of prepared chords for

modulations and the use of parallel thirds and sixths which is a prominent harmonic trend in

Akan songs. His melodies are comprehensible, edifying and easy to sing because of his ability to

apply the principle of tonal inflections to them. He has an economic use of dynamics and I

believe this is because he wants directors of music to apply their musicianship in punctuating his

compositions with dynamics. He is generous when it comes to form. He has not used any of the

conventional forms but makes sure he sectionalizes his pieces to create a form with the varied

textures he utilizes. I suggest that composers such as Badu should be made object of study in our

schools. Besides learning to compose in his style, the younger generation would also learn of the

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indigenous words/phrases and appellations that may fall out of use and become unfamiliar to

future generations. This will contribute to promoting the philosophy of Sankofaism

DR. EPHRAIM AMU

Ghanaian composer and musicologist.

Amu, whose life spanned almost the entire twentieth century, embodied most of the transitions of

Christianity in Ghana in the period. He was born in the town of Peki-Avetile, in the Ewe-

speaking Volta region of present-day Ghana, where his early upbringing was influenced by the

Bremen Mission. He was a composer and musicologist. Amu, whose life spanned almost the

entire twentieth century, embodied most of the transitions of Christianity in Ghana in the period.

Having responded personally to the faith at fifteen, Amu desired to be a teacher in church

schools. With the outbreak of World War I, the repatriation of German missionaries, and the

closing of the Bremen Mission seminaries, Amu was trained as a teacher catechist under Scottish

Presbyterian missionaries at the Abetifi Seminary founded by the Basel Mission.

Amu, the Ewe thus began his intellectual association with Twi language and culture.

As a teacher at Peki, Amu’s early interest in music was intensified through association with local

Methodist minister and music tutor Allotey-Pappoe. Moving to Akropong, Amu taught music,

nature agriculture, and Ewe from 1925 to 1933 at Akropong Training College. This was a

momentous period for him as he researched the rhythms and meter of African music. He

emphasized the critical significance of the drum and maintained that indigenous musical form

need not be at variance with the Christian religion. In 1932 he published his Twenty-five African

Songs. Reaffirming “the excellence of African culture,” he discarded European dress, took to

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African food, and drank water from a gourd. His most startling innovation was to preach from

the pulpit dressed in African cloth, which combined with his musical innovations, angered the

Presbyterian leadership. Faced with the choice of abandoning his African attire and his research

into African musical idiom or being dismissed from the Presbyterian Training College, Amu

chose the latter.

The church soon recognized that Amu was not wrong; he was simply ahead of time. But Amu

now set aside earlier thoughts of ordination. His career subsequently took him to Achimota

College, where he taught from 1934 to 1936 and from 1941 to 1950 to the Royal College of

Music, London, where he engaged in research from 1937 to 1940, to the new Kumasi College of

Science and Technology (1951 - 1960), and finally, to the new music department of the Institute

of African Studies of the University of Ghana, Legon (1961 - 1971). In 1965, the University of

Ghana awarded him its first Doctor of Music degree; this was followed, in 1976, by another

doctorate from the University of Science and Technology, Kumasi.

For Amu, the most important single influence was the life and career of James Emmanuel

Kwegyir Aggrey of Anomabu, who believed that no first-rate educated African would want to be

a carbon copy of a white man. No cultural jingoist, Amu never broke away from the church, and

his Christian self-consciousness remained consistent. Half of his 200 or so musical compositions

derive from and express his Christian convictions.

PROFESSOR JOSEPH HANSON KWABENA NKETIA

Kwabena Nketia was born at Mampong, then a little town in the Ashanti Region of Ghana. He

received his first musical education, and eventually trained as a teacher at the Presbyterian

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Training College, Akropong Akwapin - where he later taught and was appointed Acting

Principal in 1952.

At 23, a very young age to go abroad in those days, Kwabena, through a Ghanaian government

scholarship, went to the University of London to study for a certificate of phonetics at the School

of Oriental and African studies.

He went on (1949) to Birkeck College, University of London, and Trinity College of Music,

London, to obtain his Bachelor of Arts degree. In 1958 he came to the United States, attending

Columbia University, Julliard School of Music, and Northwestern University to do courses in

Musicology and Composition.

After a year in the United States, he returned to Ghana where he rapidly rose through the ranks at

the University of Ghana, Legon - from Senior Research Fellow (1962), to Associate Professor,

and finally a full professor in 1963. Two years later, he was appointed Director of the Institute of

African Studies.

Prof. Nketia is world-renowned as Musicologist and Composer. He is to African music what

Bartok is to Western music. Of all the interpreters of African music and aesthetics, Nketia sets

the pace. His concept and interpretation of time and rhythmic patterns in Ghanaian and other

African folk music were revolutionary and became standard for researchers and scholars around

the world.

For example, Nketia introduced the use of the easier-to-read 6/8 time signature in his

compositions as an alternative to the use of duple (2/4) time with triplets used earlier by his

mentor, Ephraim Amu. Although this practice undermined Amu's theory of a constant basic

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rhythm (or pulse) in African music, and generated some debate, Nketia maintained that the

constant use of triplets in a duple time signature was misleading.

Today, many scholars around the world have found Nketia’s theory very useful in transcribing

African music. Prof. Nketia's work to reconcile the melodic and rhythmic elements of folk music

with contemporary music spurred a new kind of compositional technique for African musicians

and academics, worldwide.

Other pioneering works include the transcription of many Ghanaian folk songs in a manner

virtually free from Western influences.

Kwabena Nketia studied with the Rev. Danso, who was a pupil of Ephraim Amu. It is, therefore,

no surprise that his earliest choral works were deeply influenced by the pioneering work of

Ephraim Amu.

Some of his well-known choral works include Adanse Kronkron, Mcbcrc Asem, Monna N'Ase

and Monkafo No. Other vocal works with piano accompaniment include Yaanom Montie, Onipa

Dasani Nni Aye, Onipa Beyee Bi, Yiadom Heneba, Mekae Na Woantie, Maforo Pata Hunu,

Obarima Nifahene and Asuo Meresen.

He also wrote extensively for Western orchestral instruments, like the flute, violin, cello,

percussion and piano. But it is through Nketia’s pace-setting works for traditional African

instruments that his genius is acclaimed.

He wrote for a variety of combinations of modern and local African instruments. Works in this

category include the Builsa Work Song (1960), Dagarti Work Song (1961), At the Cross Roads

(1961), Owora (1961), Volta Fantasy (1961) and Contemplation (1961).

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Prof. J.H. Kwabena Nketia became the Director of the International Centre for African Music

and Dance (ICAMD), based at the University of Ghana, Legon-Accra, Ghana. He travelled

extensively, and served on the advisory panels of many top organizations.

He was Professor of Music at UCLA, University of Pittsburgh, and has lectured in many top

universities in the US, Europe, Africa and Asia, including the University of Michigan, Harvard

University, Stanford University, Indiana University, City University of London, and the China

Conservatory of Music.

KEN KAFUI

Ken Kafui was born on July 25, 1951, and died on Wednesday, March 18, 2020, in Accra.

The composer before his death was a lecturer in music theory and composition at the Music

Department of the University of Ghana, Legon.

He was also the Director of Abibigromma Theatre Group of the University of Ghana. He was

considered one of the leading composers of his generation in Ghana, in African art music.

The late Ken Kafui composed choral works for choir and orchestra, symphonic works, piano,

The following year, he became a senior research assistant and while working at theuniversity, he

gained further qualifications, including a Diploma in African Music (1982) anda Master’s degree

in music (2003).

Most of Kafui’s compositions are orchestral or choral works or pieces for solo piano. He

alsocomposed for the orchestra of the Ghana Broadcasting Corporation during the late 1970s.

Kafui served as the choirmaster for the Madina Evangelical Presbyterian Church, and theHohoe

Evangelical Presbyterian Church, where he was also the organist and also played theorgan for

Trinity College.

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He was also a music Tutor at Achimota School before he moved to the University of Ghana.

Selected works of the late composer are (Choral): Nutifafa (Peace), Op. 1 No. 1 (1972),Yehowa

fe L)l) Lolo (God’s Love is Great), Op. 1 No. 2 (1973), Dzifo Gbowo Navu, Op. 2 No.1 (1974),

Nunya Adidoe (Wisdom is like a Baobab Tree), Op. 1 No.5 (1979), Kokoeto (HolyOne), Op. 1

No. 6 (1980), Dom Ko Mayi, Op. 2 No. 5 (1982), Miwc Dc Kple Lolo, Op. 1 No.11 (1983), Ne

Nyo Ko Noviwo, Op. 1 No. 12 (1984) and Brighten the Corner where you Are,Op. 1 No. 14

(1988) Others are Dzidzom, Mida Akpe na Mawu, Migli, Zcdede.

For Orchestral, his works include Symphony No. 1 in D, Op. 3 No. 1 (1975), Rhapsody, Op.3

No. 2 (1976), Kale, Op. 3 No. 3 (1977), Clarinet Concerto in B?, Op. 3 No. 4 (1980) and

Pentaphony, Op. 3 No. 5 (1986).

In the area of Solo vocal, he composed, Nunya (Wisdom), for Tenor and pianoforte (1976),

Dzogbenyuie (Goodwill), for Tenor and pianoforte (1977), Enye yie Enuanom, for Tenor and

Orchestra (1986)

He also did some work on solo piano, which includes 6 Easy African Piano Pieces (1976–7),

Pentanata no. 1, Op. 10 No. 1 (1980), Visitation (1985), Black Visitation (1986), 4Keyboard

Songs (1986), Pentanata no. 2, Op. 10 No. 2 (1986), Divine Love and Peace (1987) and Sonata

in D (1987).

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 LECTURE NOTES ON UNIT 2
APPRECIATING AND APPRAISING TRADITIONAL GAMES IN GHANA

(NORTHERN SECTOR FOCUS)

Introduction

Ghanaians born in the rural and peri-urban communities where many lords are found might have

experienced some of these games that we will be studying. A lot of nostalgic feelings always fills

the body of adults when they remember the fun provided by such games and the spicy memories

of friends they played and enjoyed such Ghana Traditional Games with.

Some of these traditional Ghanaian games include

1. Chaskele

2. Tumatu

3. Ampe

4. Pililo (pilolo)

5. Kpitinge

6. Chempe

7. Alikoto

8. Oware

9. Zanzamu

10. Stay (Agbanaa)

11. Antoakyire

12. Ehe kwan (me pe kwan ako)

13. Yi wo mpena

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 14. Sansan kroma (kuriye-kuriye by Dagombas)

Focus on the various traditional games will be on those around the northern sector of Ghana

though some of the games are national due to their performance by almost all communities in

Ghana. Namely chaskele, tumatu, ampe, oware, chempe, zanzama, pilolo, stean nkye wo and

others.

CHASKELE

History and Sociological Perspective

History has it that the game of chaskele started with the children of colonial merchants who tried

to mimic their parents playing the game of cricket.

Archives records show that the first cricket match played in the then Gold Coast (Ghana) was in

May 1904 against a team from the Nigeria Colony. It started at the coastal towns such as Cape

Coast, Takoradi but was later dominated by children from the Greater Accra Region. The name

is the same everywhere in the Ghanaian community. The name is believed to have been coined

from the sound always made from the sound of the implements used in the game i.e., a mangled

milk tin/ tomato tin or any other canned emptied tin when it is stroked or volleyed by the

defender with a stick or wooden board.

Sociologically, it is played or participated by two or more players with one player as a defender

and the other player as an attacker. Participants could number up to 20 players.

Step-by-Step Performance Progression

With a minimum of two players, the game of chaskele follows the following steps;

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 i. All players with their mangled tin-can assemble behind a demarcated point.

ii. A basin, basket or lorry tyre has placed a distance accepted by all the players from the

point of assembling by the players preferably a distance of 5-7 metres.

iii. Each player is allowed to throw his/her mangled tin-can into the basin, basket or lorry

tyre depending on their chosen drop-pot.

iv. All players who successfully drop their mangled can-tin into the drop-pot automatically

become defenders whiles those unsuccessful ones. i.e., those who could not drop their

can-tins into the drop-pot become attackers.

v. The game starts immediately where all defenders surround the drop-pot trying to throw

their can-tins into the drop-pot whiles the defenders with their sticks or wooden

slates/boards try to prevent the can-tins from being dropped into the drop-pot by the

attackers.

vi. The routine is continuous until any defender who successfully drops his/her can-tin into

the drop-pot then joins the defenders in the volleying and walking activities of the

defenders.

vii. It continues until all attackers can land their mangled can-tins into the dropbox the game

starts from the assemble point where all players would try their luck again trying to enter

the can-tin into the drop-pot.

Benefits Derived from the Game of Chaskele

i. Cardiovascular endurance/respiratory endurance

ii. Muscular strength

iii. Muscular endurance

iv. Flexibility

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 v. Reaction time

Values /Lessons Learned and how they Transform and Inform Cultural Identity

i. Perseverance: it takes a lot of hard work and patience to get one’s mangled can-tin

dropped in the drop-in pot after failing to get in and starting as an attacker. This builds

the value of perseverance in the individual.

ii. Teamwork: the game of Chaskele needs a lot of collaborations between and among the

defending player to be able to overcome the incessant attackers from the attackers trying

to drop their can-tins into the basket, basin or lorry tyre.

iii. Calculation: a player needs a lot of calculation to do with the optimal force he/she needs

to deliver the mangled can-tin into the drop-pot. If one throws the with maximum force,

the likelihood of it passing away and with minimum force, the tendency of it not reaching

the destination.

iv. Practice: one needs continuous practice to be used to throwing and landing into the drop-

pot.

v. Obedience: the rules for the game applies to both defenders and attackers. In the process

of whacking the thrown tin-can and the defenders hand hits the tin-can instead of the

stick, it is an infringement and the punishment is that the defenders mangled tin-can is

taken out of the drop-pot and the defender becomes an attacker.

vi. These values inculcated into players transform players who are quick-tempered,

impatient, disobedient to eschew such behaviours thereby conforming to the cultural

identity of the Ghanaian.

Similarities and Differences Between and Within Traditional Sports and Games Across

Communities
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With Chaskele, the similarities within and across communities are much. The use of a basket as

the drop-pot is akin to communities in rural areas. In urban communities, lorry tyres are mainly

used as drop-pots.

Rules of play differ from community to community. In some communities, every player will

have to give an attacking player a knock in case he/she wants to stop playing but a defending

player is free to stop playing without any penalty. In some communities, when an attacker’s tin-

can hit the hand of a defender he or she takes out the tin-can takes it to the starting point and

throw the implement into the drop. If he/she succeeds in the continuous but a failure turns the

player into an attacking player.

The name and mode of play are similar across and within communities in the northern sector and

Ghana generally.

Impact on General Healthy Living

i. Promotes physical fitness.

ii. Initiates an individual’s active lifestyle.

iii. Increases blood circulation and oxygen capacity in the body especially the brain.

iv. Build strong muscles and flexible joints.

v. Increases digestion metabolism and ejection as well as excretion.

History and Sociological Perspectives of Tumatu

Tumatu

Tumatu (Tu-mah-tu) is one of the Traditional Games that originated from the coastal zones of

Ghana and now, being played all over is Tumatu. The name is a Ga origin meaning “jump and I

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will jump or jump and let me also jump”. Tu means to jump, mah means me then tu means to

jump. It is widely believed that the numerous hoping and jumping activities in the game gave it

the name.

Tumatu is a female-dominated traditional game as Chaskele is male-dominated.

Step-by-Step Performance Progression in Tumatu

i. Demarcations are drawn on sandy ground or cemented floor chalk or charcoal is used for

the drawing. This drawing forms the main court for playing the game.

ii. The demarcations are done with several boxes and at every stage of the drawing, there are

rules of stepping into the boxes.

iii. Others are entered with one leg and others are entered with two legs. In some situations,

entry is done by splitting the legs with each foot in the adjacent box.

iv. When a player’s feet step on any of the lines used as borders for the demarcations, the

player is automatically disqualified.

v. Also, when a player could not control his/her steps and steps outside the demarcated

court, it also leads to disqualification.

vi. When a player successfully goes through the hop-step-jump actions without any

infringement on the rules, he/she then qualify to claim a box as a personal ground where

he/she can step and the opponents cannot step.

vii. The choosing of the box is done by turning the owners back to the playing court and

tossing a coin or any small stone into the court. Where the implement lands become a

personal box.

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viii. If the implement falls outside the court after 3 attempts, the player forfeits that

opportunity and starts afresh after the next opponents turn ends.

ix. The game continues until all the demarcated boxes in the court finishes.

x. The winner is awarded to the player with the maximum number of boxes.

Benefits Derived From Participation in Tumatu

i. Release of stress and tension

ii. Improve brain function

iii. Improve alertness and brings out individual creativity

iv. Inculcate teamwork within and among players

v. Builds spirit of socialization among the players

vi. Slows down the ageing process

Value Lessons Learned and how they Transform and Inform Cultural Identity

Value lessons learned in the game of Tumatu include;

i. Good Judgement: During playing, good judgement is applied in calculating steps, hops

and jumps in the court. Also, a good judge is used to disqualify players who go against

the rules.

ii. Acceptance: Players from different homes and communities and as well as different

ethnic backgrounds meet to play this game. Though there could be a language barrier,

they accept each other and play.

iii. Patience: When the competing players are many, after balloting for turns in performance,

players who are to perform later on the queue needs a lot of patience to wait for their

turn.

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 iv. Tolerance: A competitor might win and possess a lot of boxes in the game during play.

The other competing players have to tolerate him or her by skipping those won boxes.

v. Obedience: During the performance, players are caught with infringements such as

stepping on the line or outside the court and this leads to disqualification. The player has

to obey.

vi. Creativity: In hoping through the various boxes in the court of the game of ‘tumatu’ one

applies a lot of creative locomotive skills to manoeuvre through the various boxes. This

act finally builds a sense of creativity in the individual participants.

All the above value lessons inculcated in players refine their attitudes and binds in obedience,

tolerance, sociability, acceptance, patience which are easily identified by the Ghanaian

traditional way of life.

Similarities and Differences Between/Within Traditional Sports and Games Across

Communities

Some similarities in the game of tumatu include the drawing of the court. Every community

plays the game on a demarcated court either on a cemented court or bare ground in the sand.

The jump-hop-step actions cut across all the communities.

Participation by the female’s majority cuts across all the communities.

The rules of play are however different from community to community. Won boxes by

individual players are allowed to be stepped in with the approval of the owner.

In urban communities, the game is mostly played on cemented courts whiles the rural and peri-

urban communities play on bare ground.

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The number of boxes depends on the agreement or approval of all the participants. There is no

standard measurement or a particular number of boxes that the court of tumatu contains. The

size, number of boxes and style differ within communities and among communities in Ghana and

particularly the northern sector.

Impact of Tumutu on Active Healthy Living

i. Improves blood circulation

ii. Improves cardiovascular endurance

iii. Increases rate of metabolism and excretion

iv. Increases agility and alertness

v. Improves physical fitness

History and Sociological Perspective of Ampe

The story of the ampere began when a Danish physicist named Hans Christian Ørsted
discovered that magnetism and electricity were two aspects of the same thing. In 1820, he
showed that you could make a compass needle deflect from north by putting it near an electric
current. Ampe is one of the female-dominated playing games by school-age kids across African
countries and Ghana is not an exemption. It is believed to have originated from Ghana but
through trade and education, almost all African countries school-age children are involved in
playing ‘ampe’.

The game is performed by two or more children which involves jumping and clapping

simultaneously. It requires a lot of energy, coordination and agility to play ampe. The jumping,

clapping and throwing/pushing of feet is accompanied by songs that differ community by

community in different languages and dialects.

Step-by-Step Performance Progressions in Ampe

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 i. Two or more players can start the game. It could also be played in a team form.

ii. In a two-play competition, the two players have to choose the scoring system for

themselves. The scores/points are done with the legs/feet.

iii. The scoring is in two distinct forms. One competitor chooses to miss (‘opare’ in the Akan

language) whiles the other competitor chooses meeting (‘oshia’ in the Akan language)

iv. The scoring/points are executed when the two players jump, clap and thrust/throw/kick

their feet (one foot from each player) to meet the feet or miss the feet of the opponent

depending on the players chosen method of scoring or gaining points.

v. When the feet are thrown/kicked or pushed forward by the two players and a point or

score is made, it is recorded as a goal or a point for the player depending on the player’s

scoring method.

vi. Mostly ten (10) scores/points/goals are the maximum number that is set to reach to be

declared a match-winner hence players keep on tally their individual’s points and the first

to get ten (10) points is declared the winner of the match and the game starts afresh.

vii. The cycle continuous until players are exhausted or called by their parents to run errands

or execute house chores.

viii. In a match/game situation, an equal number of players face one another base on their

chosen method of scoring.

ix. Team ‘A ‘could choose missing or dodging whiles Team ‘B’ chooses meeting/ catching

as their scoring method respectively.

x. The two opposing team players ‘A’ and ‘B’ play once in turns until all opposing players

play. The accumulated points/goals/scores for the two teams are compared and the

highest accumulated points are declared the winner.

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 xi. Team competition could be organized on a knockout basis or round-robin (all play all).

Value Lessons Learned and how they Transform and Inform Cultural Identity

i. Teamwork and Collaboration: Players put themselves into teams and collaborate to

play and win.

ii. Cognitive Action: Players do a lot of calculations, study the movement patterns and

strategies of their opponents to outwit them and score.

iii. Creativity: Players in the game of ‘ampe’ uses a lot of creative skills in jumping,

clapping and kicking/pushing their feet forward to outwit their opponents.

iv. Socialization: Players of different houses, communities, ethnic backgrounds and

religions come to compete in the game and this leads to making new friends as well as

healing old wounds and charting new paths.

v. Coordination: The actions of jumping, clapping, singing, kicking/pushing of feet

forward go on simultaneously hence a lot of coordination is needed to execute this

combined effort

All the above value lessons learned in the game of ampe goes to transform players and make

players aware of the accepted attitudes and morals that are accepted and identified with the

Ghanaian culture.

Similarities and Differences Between /Within Communities in the Game of ‘Ampe’.

Jumping, clapping, and throwing/kicking/pushing of legs is similar across the various Ghanaian

communities including the northern sector. Mode of scoring is another similarity assigned to the

game of ‘ampe’. Communities across Ghana in general and the northern sector in particular play

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in either team or individually as well as the method of declaring a winner is similar across the

various communities.

Talking about differences, the first to be considered is the non-clapping and non-jumping playing

style by some communities. In this style, players choose to tap/bounce or step their feet twice

simultaneously and attempt to score a point by placing/ pushing their feet depending on their

chosen method of scoring i.e., missing/ dodging or meeting/catching.

Songs that accompany the playing also differ from community to community as a result of the

language difference.

Impact of Ampe on Active Healthy Living.

i. Improves physiology of the cardiovascular system

ii. Improves the function of the circulating system

iii. Aids in digestion and ejection

iv. Speeds up the metabolic process

v. Increase one's coordination skills of the body

vi. Improves individuals agility

vii. Reduces high heart rates to a normal level

viii. Increases muscular strength and joint flexibility in terms of locomotion movements

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 TRADITIONAL MUSICAL GAMES IN GHANA
Indigenous Musical Games
In Ghana and particularly, children’s songs and games are passed on orally from one generation
to the other through informal interaction between the old and the young, and among peer groups
and through observation and imitation. Those involving complex skills are taught by elder
members of the group. The majority of Ghanaian musical games can be played by mixed sex
groups. It has been observed that when a mixed group of boys and girls play game the girls want
to be considered as girls and treated likewise. In the same way, boys consider themselves as
boys and not like to use their advantage of physical capabilities to choose girls. The boys feel
more humiliated when they suffer defeat from girls and less elated when they win over girls. On
the other hand, girls feel highly elated when they win over boys less humiliated when boys
defeat them. The difference in sex does not undermine the numerous social attributes inherent in
the games. It rather helps bring out the reality of communal living and how to cope with it.
Through games, children are prepared to face adult life and its realities. At an early age, games
expose the child to problems dilemmas, privileges and responsibilities of being created male or
female in communal society.
The words of children’s songs do illustrate moral lessons; a significant device for effective
training. Children create many of these songs themselves through imagination and observation.
They watch human activities, situations and study animal behavior to create songs for their
games. Children’s games can be grouped into five categories in terms of sex roles – games for
girls only, games for boys only, boys’ games girls play separately modified girls’ games boys
paly and mixed- sex games. Even though there are no established social sanctions against boys
playing girls game and vice-versa there are always some natural situations, which indirectly
favor this separation. In some girl’s games, most boys cannot match the dexterity with which
girls play it. Similarly, girls are not comfortable with such games for boys due to the degree of
agility and ferocity involved that make it difficult for the girls to participate in them. However,
the basic rules of the game are maintained.

SELECTION OF MUSICAL GAMES

Games played by both sexes tend to maintain the structure and rules of the game and treat the
competency of both sexes equally. In the light of this, twenty musical games selected and five

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were sampled and described for use in the classroom. The selection was based on games for both
sexes and their impact on the total well-being on the children. The table shows the games
sampled.
MUSICAL GAMES FOR BOYS AND GIRLS IN AKAN
1. Jhe kwan nie?
2. Sansankroma
3. Fa mpaboa behyia me
4. Dua o, dua
5. Anhwj w’ekyir
Mode of Play
Players stand and hold their hands in a circular formation with the leader at the center. The leader
in this game is considered as prisoner. The players hold their hands so tight that the leader at the
centre cannot run through easily if he/she makes any attempt. The leader wins the game by
breaking any of the corners of the players meanwhile the right hand of each player is his/her
‘’corner’’. A spot, about twenty metres away from the circle is marked as the “Danger Zone” as
illustrated above. The leader then moves round touching the corners and performing the song to
find a way of breaking into any of the corners of the co-players. Anytime the leader touches a
corner, the player whose corner is touched has to respond by mentioning any two or village that
comes to his or her mind. The tempo and the intensity of the sound grow faster and louder
respectively when after several rounds and repeatedly singing the song. The prisoner finds it
difficult to escape. This is done with serious chanting and exuberant response. If he/she becomes
successful, he/she runs towards the danger zone while the other players chase him/her up. On
reaching the danger Zone, he/she becomes the winner but if he/she is caught by the other players
to prevent him/her from touching the danger zone, he/she continues to be the prisoner. Similarly,
if he/she breaks any corner and runs to touch the danger zone, he/she wins and the player whose
‘’corner’’ is broken becomes the loser and the new prisoner. The game continues till players
decide to stop.

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 Text in Akan Literal Translation
Leader: Jhe Kwan Nie? Which Way Is This?
Response: Abetifi Kwan Abetifi Way
Leader: Mpraeso Kwan Kwan The Way to Mpraeso
Leader: Apentum Gyegyiregye A Big Plantain Tree
Response: Wonya No Way
Leader: Me Pj Kwan Ma Kc O I Want To Go Away
Respone: Wonya No Way
Leader: Minya Kwan Mekc I Can’t Get a Way
Response: Wonya No Way
Leader: Menya Kwan Menkc If I get the chance
Response: Wonya No Way
Leader: Anka Mekc Kakra I Shall Go Small
Response: Wonya No Way

2. Mode of play
This game is a stone passing game played by both girls and boys. The formation is usually
circular with players in a squatting position. Each player obtains a stone or any other object
which is not too heavy or too light to be picked and lifted with one hand. Players sing through
the accompanying song once, hitting the floor continuously with the object to the beat of the
song. On the first note of the beat each player passes the object to the right. Each player picks up
the object pass him/her by the player lifted on the left and the passing process continues to the
bat of the song. Any player who fumbles with an object or who mixes a beat thus disrupting the
game is eliminated. Players who are eliminated become judges by being conscious of the
‘defaulters’ until but two eliminated. These two players become the winners of the game. Apart
from the example of the song used in this paper, other folk songs with the same movement
patterns can be used for the game. The text of the song is

Text in Akan English Translation

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 Twi Literal Translation
Leader: sansakroma ne na ewu Hawk’s mother is dead
Ckyeyer nkokcma He catches chicks
Sansakroma, n’egya ewuo, hawks father is dead
Ckyeyer nkokcma he caches chicks

Response: sansakroma ne na ewu Hawk’s mother is dead

Ckyeyer nkokcma He catches chicks
Sansakroma, n’egya ewuo, Hawks father is dead
Ckyeyer nkokcma he caches chicks
Leader: ckyekyer, ckyekyer.ckyeker, he catches, he catches, he catches
Ne na ewuo, ckyekyer nkokcmba his mother is dead, he catches chicks
Cse cnnkcyj edwuma he says he will not work
N’egya wuo, ckyekyer nkokcmba his father is dead, he catches chicks
Response: sansakroma ne na ewu Hawk’s mother dead
Ckyeyer nkokcma He catches chicks
Sansakroma, n’egya ewuo, hawks father is dead
Ckyeyer nkokcma He is catching chicks

Mode of Play
This game is played by both boys and girls. The players stand in a circle while the leader
positions at the centre with a handkerchief. The leader sings the entire song while the other
players chorus it after the leader. The song is sang repeatedly amidst clapping and dancing. the
leader is made to exhibit any dance style in accordance with the rhythm of the music as the other
players continue to sing the song. After dancing a while in the circle, the leader then puts the
handkerchief around the neck of any member of whom he/she has affection with. this continues
till everyone in the group gets the chance to win the heart of a player and assumes the leadership
position role consequently. This helps children to socialize, communicate and understand why it
is important to love one another in their cultural environment. To corroborate some scholars are
of the view that music can provide an additional motivation to learn as it appears to enable

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children with communication difficulties to feel comfortable and relaxed: thus their engagement
in learning is increased (Wilgram & Gold, 2006)
The text of the song is translated below.

Text in Akan Literal Translation

Leader: fa mpaboa behyia me o Meet me with footwear

Cdc yewu love even in death

Fa mapaboa behyia me met me with footwear

Na me nan yi kyir abosa for my foot hates gravels

Response: fa mpaboa behyia me o Meet me with footwear

Cdc yewu love even in death

Fa mapaboa behyia me Meet me with footwear

Na me nan yi kyir abosa my foot hate sand

Note:

Students are encouraged to go into their communities where their colleges are
located to look for more examples of traditional musical games in Ghana.

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 UNIT 3
TYPES OF MUSIC
All the music in the whole world can be grouped under three main broad types. These are
traditional or folk music, popular music (band) art music.
TRADITIONAL MUSIC
Traditional music is the type of music made by the local or indigenous people of mostlytribes
and sometimes communities to satisfy a variety of individual and social events that requires
music. Some of such occasions or events that may require are naming ceremony, puberty rites,
marriage ceremony, funeral, festival, the enstoolment or enskinment of a chief, recreation,
communal labour and other functions.

Characteristics of Traditional Music

Below are some identified characteristics of traditional music;
 Traditional music is not written notated in terms of the musical symbols.
 It is transferred to other performers through oral means.
 The people who perform this type of music are not professional musicians and were first
considered to be non – literate.
 In performing this type of music, people who are not part of the group can join and leave
at any time they feel like joining or leaving.
 The instruments used in performing traditional music are obtained from the performers
immediate surroundings. This means almost all the instruments used in traditional music
are made by the people themselves.

Some examples of this musical types are Adowa, Kete, Fontomfrom, Adowa, Nnwonkrokro,
Apatampa and Sikyi by the Akans. Kpanlogo, Gome, Kolomashieby the Gas, Gahu, Kenka,
Agbadza, Borborbor, Atsiagbekor by the Ewes, Bawa, Takaiand Toura from the northern part of
Ghana. Some of the instruments are bell (dawuro/gakogui), casternet, (Frikyiwa), ‘Axatse’
(gourd rattle) local drums like ‘Atumpan’, ‘Apentema’, Sogo’, ‘Kagan’, ‘ Donno’, ‘ Brekete’, ‘
Gyamadudu’, ‘ Gome’, ‘ Tamalinsand ‘djembe’, under traditional music, there exist three other
grouping namely Recreational Music, Occasional Music And Incidental Music.

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RECREATIONAL MUSIC:
Recreational music is the type of music that is mainly performed for entertainment. in
communities, this kind of music is performed in the evenings after the hard day’s work. it is also
performed during festivals additional form of musical entertainment. Again, during funeral
celebrations, recreational music is performed to entertain mourners, sympathizers and wee-
wishers who gather at the funeral grounds.
In short recreational music is performed to put smiles in the faces of both performers and
audience. Examples are Adwoa, apatampa, Sikyi by the [Akans], Kpanlogo, Gome, Kolomashie
by the [Gas] Gahu, Kinka, Agbadza, Borborbor, Atsiagbekor by the [Ewes], Bawa and Tora
[Northern].
Note that kete and fontomfrom cannot be given as examples of recreational music because they
are royal dances. It is only the chief can invite somebody to join him whiles dancing to any of
these two dances.

OCCASIONAL MUSIC
Music under this type includes all music associated with rites and ceremonies of individuals,
groups and societies. Occasionally performed during:
a) Life-cycle events like birth retie, naming ceremonies, puberty rites, marriage ceremonies
and funerals.
b) Social-political events like the enstoolment / enskinment of a chief, and destoolment /
deskinnment of a chief and ceremonies of social groups and organizations (e.g. Asafo
companies, hunter’s organization); state functions.
c) Religious music: This type of music is used in the worship of objects of worship. E.g.
Yeve of Ewes and Akom of the Akans.

INCIDENTAL MUSIC
This is the type of music performed or sung in the course of work. This type of music is not part
of the work that is being done but helps the worker to do the work better.
This type of music is not plan for the per4son(s) doing the work but as he or she works, the song
comes along. The types of work being done determent the songs but not that they plan that when
they start working they will sing this or that song.

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Incidental music includes s work songs associated with different types of occupation like fishing,
farming and mowing, sawing and herding cattle. The songs sung when performing house hold
chores like washing, grinding, pounding. Cradle songs of lullabies are also inclusive. {Play songs
like ‘Bantema Akrako, Annhwewakyire’ and songs sung during story telling time are all
incidental music because they do not form integral parts of the stories. E.g. (Mmoguo of the
Akan)

POPULAR MUSIC
As the name goes popular music is the most popular type of music known to everybody because
we hear them being played on the air waves (FM stations) every day. Popular music is the most
accepted commercial type of music because it is played at almost every function of man. Popular
music covers almost every socio- cultural subject and activity of man.
The instruments used in performing popular music are a combination of electronic guitars,
electronic keyboards, percussion, wind instruments (woodwind and brass) and rarely traditional
instrument for special effects.

Highlife, Hip- Life, Hip-Pop, Rock, Jazz, Reggae, Calypso, Juju, Congo, Samba, Soul, Afro –
beat and gospel are the songs classified as popular music. Although popular music spread so fast
due to its sweet, catchy and danceable tunes or melodies and it’s easy to remember lyric, text or
word, they easily fade the memories of the listeners due to the continuous production of other
new tracks.

Characteristics of Popular Music

 The people who create this type of music rangers form professional, semi- professional
and informally trained musicians and so it is enjoyed by every human being.
 Popular music is made of melodies or tunes that are often sweet, catchy and danceable.
 The lyric, text or word are easily remembered and so one can hear the teacher, lawyer,
doctor, farmers, driver, trader, shoemaker and even children singing popular music.
 Popular music in most cases is not notated and so performance varies from group to
group.

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  Normally where a group is located reflects on the performance varies from group. Some
group in the course of performances can play their own additions (free styles) by adding
things that were not original added to insight listeners and dancers.
 The maximum number of months a popular music song stay in the market is three to six
months. Mostly is three months. So popular music easily fades away.

ART MUSIC
Art music is also called by any of these names “classical, serious, learned, cultivated, civilized
music” because it is only people who are professionals, formally trained and skillful in music
that can compose one must understand and be able to interpret the symbols and the elements of
music before one can notate or read art music.
Because art music is notated, it is performed as notated. The notation of art music is based on the
“Western tradition of notating music” unlike popular music that performers are bale to add their
free style, the performer(s) of art music has no right to add or substrate anything.

Notation and harmony are among the corner stones of art music because it is normally written for
four voices or solo voices with accompaniment. For this reason, schools and church choirs
normally use art music for competitions.

Art music is mostly enjoyed by learned people. The instruments used in performing art music
are: human voice, strings, winds (both wood and brass), percussion and keyboard. It is mainly
performed at the concert halls and church premises with always the performers separated from
the audience. Examples of art music are hymns like “Oh God Our Help In Ages Past, Now The
Day Is Over, Holy, holy holy” anthems like “hallelujah chorus written by G.F. Handel” wedding
march and dead march. All These art music’s were composed so many years ago but because
they were notated, you and I have heard them and can see copies if we wish. Tells you that art
music last for a whole number of years.

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HISTORY OF HIGHLIFE MUSIC IN GHANA

Highlife is musical genre that started in present day Ghana in the 19th century, during its history
as a colony of the British Empire and through its trade route in coastal areas. It describes
multiple local fusions of Africa metre and Western Jazz melodies. It uses the melodic and main
rhythmic structures of traditional Akan music and Kpanlogo of the Ga people, but it is typically
played with Western instruments. Highlife is characterized by Jazz horns and multiples guitars,
which lead the band and its use of the two-finger plucking guitar staff that is typical of African
music. Recently, it has acquired an up-tempo, synth-driven sound.

Highlife gained popularity in the genre “Native Blues” prior to World War II before production
was shut down. After the war, its popularity came back within the Igbo people of Nigeria, taking
their own traditional guitar riffs and the influence of the Ghanaian highlife performing ideas,
mixed and perfected it to form Igbo highlife which became the country’s most popular music
genre in the 1960s. Highlife has remained a part of popular music for Ghanaians and their
diaspora globally through its integration with religious institutions and positive effects it had on
immigrating Ghanaians leaving their homeland.

The following arppeggiated highlife guitar part is modeled after an afro-Cuban guajeo. The
pattern of attach-point is nearly identical to the 3-2 clave motif guajeo as shown below. The bell
pattern known in Cuba as clave is indigenous in Ghana, and is used in highlife.

The origin of highlife stems from

colonialism and trading in West Africa
through regional styles of music;

PALM WINE MUSIC

Palm wine music was one that took its style from Akan music, Akan folklore and other African
music types. It is also stated that the style originated on coastal locations when local musicians
began using portable instruments brought by traders and fused them with local strings and
percussion instruments. It was usually played in a syncopated metre. This music was played in
local low class palm-wine bars at ports where sailors, dock workers, and working class locals

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would drink and listen to the music. Eventually, this genre worked its way inland and a more
Africanised version came containing polyrhythm, this would be known as the “Native Blues”.
This style would gain popularity up until World War II when production of the records were
stopped.

BRASS BAND HIGHLIFE

A style of Highlife that resembled Western brass band in European forts across West Africa. The
military would use local musicians in their brass band regiments and taught them linear marching
music. After these musicians seen how the West Indian regimental bandsmen practiced
traditional music. The fusion of linear marching music with polyrhythmic local music created a
danceable style called ADAHA as well as a style with cheaper, local instruments called
Konkoma. This fusion was similar to the birth of jazz in New Orleans.

DANCE AND GUITAR DANCE BAND HIGHLIFE

In the 1920s, Ghanaian musicians incorporated foreign influences like the Foxtrot and Calypso
with Ghanaian rhythms like osibisa (Fante). Highlife was associated with local African
aristocracy during the colonial period, and was played by numerous bands including the Jazz
Kings, Cape Coast Sugar Babies, and Accra Orchestral along the country’s coast. The high class
audience members who enjoyed the music I select clubs gave the music its name. The dance
the dance orchestra leader Yebuah Mensah (E.T. Mensah’s older brother) told John Collins in
1973 that the term ‘Highlife’ appeared in the early 1920s as a catch-phrase for the orchestrated
indigenous songs played at exclusive clubs by such early dance bands as the Jazz Kings, the
Cape Coast Sugar Babies, the Sekondi Nanshamang and later the Accra orchestra. The people
outside called it the highlife as they did not reach the class of the couples going inside, who not
only had to pay a relatively high entrance fee about 7s 6p (i.e. 7 shillings and sixpence) but also
had to wear full evening dress, including top-hats if they could afford it. From the 1930s,
Highlife spread through Ghanaian workers to Sierra Leone, Liberia, Nigeria and Gambia among
other West African countries, where the music quickly gained popularity.

In 1940s, the music diverged into two distinct streams: dance band highlife and guitar highlife.
Guitar band highlife featured smaller bands and at least initially, was most common in the rural

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areas. Because of the history of stringed instruments like the seprewa in the region, musicians
were happy to add the guitar. They also used the Dagomba style, borrowed from Kru sailors
from Liberia, to create highlife’s two-finger picking style. Guitar band highlife also features
singing, drums and claves. E.K. Nyame and his Akan Trio helped to popularize guitar band
highlife, and would release over 400 records during Nyame’s lifetime. Dance and highlife, by
contrast, was more rooted in urban settings. In the post-war period, larger dance orchestras began
to be replaced by smaller professional dance bands, typified by the success of E.T Mensa and the
Tempos band. As foreign troops departed, the primary audiences became increasingly
Ghanaians, and the music changed to cater for their tastes. Mensah’s fame soared after he played
with Louis Armstrong in Accra in May, 1956, and he eventually earned the nickname the “King
of Highlife”. Also important from the 1950s onwards was musician King Bruce, who served as
band leader to the Black Beats. Some other early bands were the Red Sport, the Rhythm Aces,
the Ramblers and the Broadway-Uhuru. E.K. Nyame was a famous Highlife musician.

THE GHANAIANS IN DIASPORA

Economic problems led to migration of Ghanaians in the 1960s looking for more opportunities
and after that political instability in the 1970s and 1980s would cause more people and many
prominent Highlife musicians to leave and create clusters of communities across the West with
Germany being a perfect destination because of its relaxed immigration laws.

BURGER HIGHLIFE

Ghanaians in Germany created as secular style of Highlife that combined the genre with funk,
disco, and synth pop. It is believed it was called Burger Highlife because the largest communities
of Ghanaians resided in Hamburg. The music became associated with migrants who would travel
between Germany and Ghana. It also would become defined by its use of modern technologies,
by the late 1990s productions used closely electronic instruments.

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 PROFILE OF SOME HIGHLIFE MUSICIANS

E.T. MENSAH

Emmanuel Tettey Mensah was a Ghanaian highlife musician who was regarded as the King of
Highlife music. He led the Tempos, a band that toured widely in the West Africa. He was born
on May 31, 1919 in Accra and died in Accra on July 19, 1996 at the age of 77 years. Some of his
albums are Day by Day, All for you, Ghana Freedom Song, etc.

C.K. MANN

Charles Kofi Amankwaa Mann known as C.K. Mann was a Ghanaian highlife musician and
producer. His music carrier spanned over four decades. He won multiple awards for his songs.
He was awarded the grand medal of Ghana by John Agyekum Kufour in 2006. He was born in
1936 in Cape Coast and died on March 20, 2018. Some of his songs are Asafo Beeson, Fa
W’akoma Ma Me, Adwoa Yankey etc.

AKOSUA AGYAPONG

She is a Ghanaian highlife musician and a TV personality. She was born on November 17 th, 1959
in Accra to Asante and Akyem parents. She attended Holy Child High School in Cape Coast-
Ghana. She began singing at early state and was discovered by the legend Nana Ampadu in the
1990s. She is a mothered six children yet still looking young. She is 63 year old. Some of her
songs are Ebo, Odo Bema Me So, Adwuma Biara, Aware Pa, Oreba, Odo Kaya etc.

HIP-LIFE MUSIC

Hip-life music is another music genre that evolved in Ghana in 1990s. The name hip-life is
generally believed to be a compound of the names “hip hop” and “highlife” (Boateng, 2009);
hence they share some kind of “genre-tic” connections. Hip-life music could be defined as the art
of singing and rapping in either a Ghanaian language or Pidgin language or English language or
a fusion of these two or more languages over a fusion of highlife and hip-hop beat. Hip-life
music has been described as a hybrid culture that evolved from both the Ghanaian Burger
highlife and American Hip hop in the 1990s (Boateng, 2009). Hip-life music emerged and spread

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in the urban areas of Ghana from the 1990s. Both hip hop and hip-life music emerged as a
response to societal issues (Salaam, 1995; Oduro-Frimpomg, 2009). However, it must be noted
that unlike in America where Hip hop originated and spread among the poor suburbs in South
Bronx; in Ghana, it was rather the middle- and upper-class youth who first had access to rap
music on recordings through their frequent travel abroad (Charry, 2012). In Ghana, it was
particularly middle-class boarding schools that first provided a breeding ground for the
performance of rap (Carl & Dankwa, 2012). Thus, hip-life music is of middle-class origin.

The genesis of hip-hop dates back to the 1970s in South Bronx, New York, USA. Hip hop (also
known as rap music) is not just music but an entire culture on its own. Bronx had been a mainly
black and Hispanic “ghetto” for decades. By 1930, nearly a quarter of the people who lived there
were immigrants from the Caribbean Islands. For example, Cubans began arriving in Bronx in
1930s and 1940s while that of the Puerto Rican community goes back even further. The Bronx
had never been prosperous, in spite of that, in the 1960s, it went into a sudden decline and by the
end of the decade it had become the poorest and toughest neighbourhood in the whole of New
York City (Davos, 2007). In a rented Sedgwick Avenue recreation room in Bronx on August 11,
1973, a Jamaican-born11 DJ called Clive Campbell (popularly known as Kool Herc) pioneered
the art of separating the break beat from already recorded songs and extending it using two
turntables that were playing the same record.

Herc’s friend, Coke La Rock, began rapping over a continuous beat. The sound sparked an
instant revolution and was soon recreated at parties all over South Bronx. This extended
breakbeat further encouraged the evolution of break dancing in addition to rapping; Graffiti
artists also offered a visual complement to the musical and dance performance (Embassy of the
United States of America, 2016). Rap music’s unique feature of rhythmic talk over beat is
connected to the bardic African traditions (Keyes, 1996 as cited in Oduro-Frimpomg, 2009).
Thus, to some extent, hip hop music could be said to be of African origin, and moreover, its beat
that hip-life is just a fusion of two completely different music genres, thus, hip hop and highlife
because that assumption ignores the cultural relationships that exist between Africans in Africa
and those in the Diaspora.

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But the bottom line is that in Ghana, it is Reginald Yaw Asante Osei whose stage name is Reggie
Rockstone who came down to Ghana after a brief sojourn in Europe to pioneer the hip-life
movement in 1994. Although he was born in the United Kingdom to Ghanaian parents, he spent
his early life in Ghana. Reggie was a frequent traveler to the United Kingdom and United State
of America. He returned to Ghana in the 1994 to popularised a new music genre which is a blend
of American hip hop and highlife music to Ghanaians. According to Reggie, he realised that
Ghanaian youth loved and danced to hip hop although not all the hip-hop music lovers could
grasped the meaning of the hip hop lyrics (Museke, 2008 as cited in Boateng, 2009). Rockstone,
therefore, established a record label called Kassa Records and released albums such as “Makaa
Maka” (I Said It Because I Said It) in 1997, “Me Na Me Kae” (I Was The One Who Said It) in
the year 1999, “Me Ka” (I Will Say) in the year 2000, “Last show” in the year 2004 and “Reggie
stration” in the year 2010 (Boateng, 2009).

However, some credit also goes to Gyedu Blay Ambolley as the originator of Rap in Ghana. In
1973, Ambolley released his first record known as “Simigwado” --a half spoken half sang in
Mfantse language. According Collins, Ambolley’s invention of rap is a retrospective myth. His
lyrics were rhythmic Mfantse slang and in the 1970s, he played a funky form of highlife. His
style is similar to the half spoken half sang musical style found in Ghanaian traditional dirges,
proverbial songs, adenkum and also some highlife guitar band songs like those of Nana Ampadu
where proverbs are recited (John E. Collins, personal communication, 22nd April 2017). In the
year 2012, Ambolley made an effort to challenge Guinness World Records that credited Sugar
hill gang as the pioneer of rap in the whole world but his effort was unsuccessful. Sugar hill gang
was a music group that released a hit track called “Rapper’s Delight” in 1979 and it became the
first Hip hop single to top billboard top 40, but Ambolley’s recitative half spoken half sang
musical style started in 1973 and would have made him the first pioneer of rap in the world if his
style was indeed rap (Wiafe, 2012).

REGGAE MUSIC

Reggae is a style of popular music that originated in Jamaica in the late 1960s and quickly
emerged as Jamaica’s dominant music. By 1970s, it had become an international style that was

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particularly popular in Britain, United States, and in Africa. It was widely perceived as a voice of
the oppressed.

According to an earlier definition in the Dictionary of Jamaican English (1980), reggae is based
on ska, an earlier form of Jamaican popular music, which employed (four-beat) rhythm driven by
drums, bass guitar, electric guitar, and the scraper, a corrugated stick. The drum and bass became
the foundation of a new instrumental music. The chunking sound of the rhythmic guitar that
comes at the end of the measures acts as an accompaniment to the emotional songs often
expressing rejection of established “Whiteman culture.” Another term for this distinctive guitar-
playing effect “skengay”, is identified with the sound of gunshots ricocheting (i.e. echoing) in
the streets of Kingston’s ghettos. Tellingly, skeng is defined as “gun” or “rachet knife”. Thus
reggae expressed the sounds and pressures of ghetto life. It was the music of the
emergent “rude boy” (would be gangster) culture.

In the mid-1960s, under the direction of producers such as Duke Reid and Coxsone Dodd,
Jamaican musicians dramatically slowed the tempo of ska, whose energetic rhythms reflected the
optimism that had heralded Jamaica’s independence from Britain in 1962. The musical style that
resulted, rock steady, was short-lived but brought fame to such performers as the Heptones and
Alton Ellis.

Reggae evolved from these root and bore the weight of increasingly politicized lyrics that
addressed social and economic injustice. Among those who pioneered the new reggae sound,
with its faster best driven by the bass, were tool and the maytals who had their first major hit
with “54-46 (That’s my number) ” (1968), and the wailers-Bunny wailer, Peter Tosh, and
reggae’s biggest star: Bob Marley_ who recorded hit at Dodd’s studio one and later worked with
producer Lee (“scratch”) Perry. Another reggae superstar, Jimmy Cliff, gained international fame
of the movie “The harder they come” (1972). A major cultural force in the worldwide spread of
reggae, this Jamaican-made film documented how the music became voice for the poor and
dispossessed. Its sound track was a c

elebration for the defiant (i.e. the rebellious) human spirit that refuses to be suppressed.

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During this period of reggae development, a connection grew between the music and the
Rastafarian movement, which encouraged the relocation of the African diaspora to Africa,
dispersed the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie (whose pre-coronation name was Ras (Prince)
Tafari), and endorsers the sacramental uses of ganja (marijuana). Rastafari (Rastafarianism)
advocates equal rights and justice; and draws on the mystical consciousness of Kumina, an
earlier Jamaican religious tradition that ritualized communication with ancestors. Besides,
Marley and the Wailers groups who popularized the fusion of Rastafaria and reggae were big
youth Black Uhuru, Burning Spear (principally Winston Rodney), and Culture. “Lover’s rock,” a
style of reggae that celebrated erotic love, became popular through the works of artists such as
Dennis Brown, Gregory Isaacs, and Britain’s Maxi Priest.

In the 1970s, reggae like ska before it, spread to the United Kingdom, where a mixture of
Jamaican immigrants and native-born Britons forged a reggae movement that produced artists
such as Aswad, Steel Pulse, UB40, and performance poet Linton Kwesi Johnson. Reggae was
embraced in the United States largely through the work of Marley—both directly and indirectly
(the latter as a result of Eric Clapton’s popular cover version of Marley’s “I Shot the Sheriff” in
1974). Marley’s career illustrates the way reggae was repackaged to suit a rock market whose
patrons had used marijuana and were curious about the music that sanctified it. Fusion with other
genres was an inevitable consequence of the music’s globalization and incorporation into the
multinational entertainment industry. The dancehall deejays of the 1980s and 1990s who refined
the practice of “toasting” (rapping over instrumental tracks) were heirs to reggae’s politicization
of music. These deejays influenced the emergence of hip-hop music in the United States and
extended the market for reggae into the African American community. At the beginning of the
21st century, reggae remained one of the weapons of choice for the urban poor, whose “lyrical
gun,” in the words of performer Shabba Ranks, earned them a measure of respectability.

GOSPLE HIGHLIFE

This genre is considered as one of the most popular music genres to both Ghanaians and its
diaspora musicians. It has outlived Burger Highlife because of its success in blurring the lines
between religion and pop culture. This genre is similar to Burger Highlife but its inspiration
comes from Charismatic Christianity and Pentecostalism. Its significance within the

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communities’ stems from the religious institutions’ ability to provide social and cultural
infrastructure for the Ghanaian ant its diaspora in Germany.

Studies in World Christianity (2006) 142-163 shows that the fastest growing musical expression
in Ghana is the religious music that has come to be described as 'gospel music'. Especially since
the late 1980s, gospel music has assumed an increasingly prominent position in Ghanaian
religious and social life. Gospel music constituted about 75% of recorded musical works in
Ghana in 1993 and in 2001. It was believed that about 90% of musicians were plying their trade
in churches. This boom in gospel music coincided with the phenomenal spread of the charismatic
movement. The charismatic movement affected most branches of Ghanaian Christianity and also
produced a distinct group of churches that eventually came to be known as 'Charismatic
Churches'. The movement indelibly left its mark on the Church. In Ghana, so much of Christian
expression of spirituality at the popular level has been the result of the Charismatic movement.
Gospel music has become one of the most important expressions of popular Christianity. Perhaps
no other aspect of popular Christianity embodies the aspirations, fears, the self-understanding,
and the faith and hope of the ordinary Ghanaian Christian as the various strands of popular
religious music, which have together been referred to as 'gospel music'. It is observed that
contemporary Ghanaian gospel music represents a high point in a long process of assimilation of
the Christian message by Ghanaians. It is one of the most important and popular expressions of
Christianity as understood by Ghanaian Christians.

The sound of Gospel music varies according to culture and social context. Many have classified
Gospel music as a genre rather than what the lyrics and meaning depict. A genre is basically
pieces of music that share a certain style or fundamental musical language like reggae, highlife,
funk, and fusion. Clearly, Gospel music shares several styles and musical language found in
many genres. The defining factor rests on the lyrics of love, compassion and the common faith
that Christians uphold. Nonetheless, the world has succeeded in categorizing Gospel music as a
genre and a viable commercial act.

Gospel music in the Ghanaian context is not defined according to the beat or rhythm. It is the
song-text that defines a particular piece of music as 'gospel'. It appears the whole repertoire of
musical traditions available in Ghana is enlisted to the service of gospel music. The most popular

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form is gospel highlife. There are others in the style of traditional music forms such as asafo,
adzewa, agbadza and even the traditional recreational jama, which has been popularised in recent
times by the youth. In the gospel music repertoire, one can also find singing that is not
accompanied by any instrument, solo and recitatives. This leads to a range of music styles that
makes room for the expression of different moods. Some of the songs are traditional Western
Christian hymns that are sung to new rhythm and tempo accompanied by guitar, drums and other
instruments. It is, basically, the text that determines whether a particular song is 'gospel'.

It is the Christian faith sung in the common style and idiom of the ordinary people; the music of
faith set in the common place language of the people which does not require any effort to
understand. It is Ghanaian Christians singing their faith with understanding. The song-text may
be one of encouragement, an admonition to believers to live up to their responsibilities, an
affirmation of a doctrinal truth, or even a rebuke of believers who are not being faithful. Gospel
songs may also be prayers of petition or songs of praise and thanksgiving or direct evangelistic
message appealing to unbelievers to accept the Gospel of Christ. It is not easy to classify gospel
music. As it has been mentioned above, in terms of musical types, all the available musical types
are represented.

Charismatic Christians themselves, especially the youth, divide gospel songs into two: praise
songs and worship songs. What differentiates the two is the tempo. 'Worship' songs are slow and
poignant (i.e. emotional) and are usually accompanied by raising of hands and swaying the
whole body forward and backward while 'praise' songs are faster and are usually accompanied by
dancing. The same song can be either 'praise' or 'worship', depending on the beat to which it is
sung. In most cases, such classifications do not take into consideration whether the text of the
song is actually about worship or praise.

A useful classification would be to distinguish between 'Ghana spirituals' or 'shouts' and 'gospel
highlife'. Ghana spirituals are songs that have emerged in the history of Christianity in Ghana,
especially, at periods of renewal. Most of those songs have been composed spontaneously.

Many performers of commercial gospel music are rooted in Charismatic churches, bands, choirs,
and congregations. They take up songs, dances, and styles that circulate publicly, re- integrating
them into the liturgical context of their worship. In doing so, they have thus created a constant

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feedback between the congregation and mass-mediated performance practices, facilitating the
emergence of a common religious format and aesthetics. There exists interrelationship between
the performance practices of congregational worship and the mediated performances of the
performing groups. That may not catch the attention of Ghana's media scape in various audio-
visual formats.

Unlike reggae, blues and other genres which limit themselves to specific time signatures, gospel
music features all kinds of time signatures ranging from common time (i.e. simple duple, triple
and quadruple times) to compound time (i.e. compound duple, triple, quadruple etc.). Another
sterling characteristics of gospel music is that it is full with improvisations as the way a group or
a person performs one song today, you do not have to expect same song to be sang by another
group/person the same way tomorrow. Different kinds of instruments are used the perform
gospel music. These instruments range from jazz/brass (i.e. trap set, winds-woodwinds and
brass-winds), to b4b44b4 set of instruments (i.e. Havana: the master drum, asi3uivi, asi3uig7,
rattle, bells) to even traditional set of instruments like atime3u, sogo, kidi, kaga`, atumpan,
br1k1t1, donno etc. This thus demonstrates the liberal and all-embracing nature of gospel music.

Some of the gospel musicians or artistes include but not limited to Danny Nettey

SOME GOSPEL MUSICIANS

The journey to the discovery of gospel music was began in Kumasi by with the New Creation
Group. Mr. Dzokoto, the father of the Dzokoto Brothers of IMPACT fame was instrumental
member of the group. Other include Danny Nettey, Bro. Asiamah and his ‘Som Nyame’ Gospel
Band, The Ahinsan Happy Gospel Band, Prof. Kofi Abraham, Wofa Asomani, Comfort Annor,
Mc Abraham, YABS, Elder Mireku. Then came another breed in the early 1980s with a fusion of
foreign music style, melody lines, vocal harmonies, and composition. These lasted through to the
late 1990s. These breed include Tagoe Sisters, Bernice Offei, Daughters of Glorious Jesus, Amy
Newman, Diana Hopeson, Naana and Dan, Rev. Thomas Yawson, Rev. Kusi Berko, Yaw
Sarpong, Stella Seal, Rev. Mary Ghansah etc.

Contemporary Ghanaian Gospel music has been influenced by foreign Gospel music styles and
artists like; The Winans, Shirly Ceaser, and Integrity Music. Integrity Music was at the forefront

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of contemporary worship music's widespread popularity of praise and worship music. Integrity
published many of the top songs in the Church and was widely known in the 1990s. They
produced artists like Don Moen, Ron Kenoly, Darlene Zschech with hit albums that was wide
spread around the world. Africa became one of their biggest market and even recorded an album
in South Africa. In Ghana, City Rock Productions was producing albums from Integrity Music
on cassettes for wide distribution that caught the attention of music lovers and supported the
evolution efforts of the new breed that was going to change the face of Gospel music in Ghana.

Also, there was a group called Abundant Life who were around during the same era and
attempted to fuse foreign accent on our local Gospel music. Then came the second episode of the
evolution- we can call them the “Accra Academy Boys” because they all schooled in the famous
Ghanaian secondary school, Accra Academy.

Rev. Tom Bright-Davies, Rev Eric Kwarpong, the late Danny Nettey, and Zapp Mallet, these
gentlemen went on to introduce a replica of the Gospel music we were listening from the West.
They started composing songs and recording tunes that were based on Western Gospel music
styles and harmonies. They ministered in churches and even at secular events like the Miss
Ghana Pageant. The late Danny Nettey chiefly performed contemporary Gospel songs. At the
same time in the Western region, the late Bishop Ofori Twumasi of HOLY FIRE Church was
also breeding an environment that shaped artistes like Rev Charley Sam, Pastor Joe Beechem,
and Koda.

On his return from American trips, Bishop Twumasi will come with DVDs of integrity music
albums and have his church performed them on Sundays. His church was one of the three
churches that owned a drum at the time. Koda and other colleagues of his visited the church to
listen and watch what contemporary Gospel music was then.

There were also groups like Joyful Way and Commission Family, which were also composing
and recording songs that had a deep Ghanaian root but polished with foreign style and beats. In
the early 2000, contemporary Gospel music was becoming popular and had gained widespread
reach in our secondary schools and universities. This begun the second episode. Out of this
emanated groups like Shining Stars, Anointed Psalmist, Empraise, Harbor City Mass Choir,

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Echoes of Calvary (UCC), God’s Instruments (KNUST) and IMPACT. They were made up of
young people who loved music and have been influenced deeply by foreign Gospel music. These
groups had people like Nii Okai and Eugene Zuta leading them until they recorded their own
albums and became solo artists.

Then came the third episode of the evolution. This breed is a hybrid of the first and second
episodes. The hybrid outdoored artistes like Joe Mettle, Eric Jeshrun, Denzel, Cwesi Oteng,
Koda, Calvis Hammond, MOG, Kobby Mantey, Akesse Brempong amongst others. This breed
had mostly worked with people from the first and second episode mostly as backing vocalists.
Gradually, they formed and started their own perception of Gospel music and have succeeded
immensely in their efforts, even so, winning the overall artist of the year position at the Ghana
Music Awards.

This breed created a new sound of Gospel music that was original and could match-up to any
foreign song from the West. Also, this was made possible by young instrumentalists like Lord
Listowell, Chalie Keys, Prince Sennah, Jay Zymera, Opoku Sanaa, Jay Loops, Ernest Eshun, and
Emmanuel Bludo etc. These instrumentalists have worked with singing groups from the second
episode and have understood and perfected the language of foreign Gospel music. They will go
on to support the music compositions of the actors in the third episode, creating a unique sound
we call Ghanaian contemporary Gospel Music today.

Further to this development, Fifi Folson, a celebrated radio and TV presenter helped to promote
the compositions of the second and third episodes in the evolution. He will play on radio, songs
from these artistes and organize events for actors of the third episode to perform and get their
songs heard by the new Ghanaian.

Further to this exposition, Ghanaian contemporary Gospel music has gained wide acceptance in
the last 10 years due to its recognition in mainstream media. Formally, you will find such
compositions on phones and other media carriers like computers, iPod and tablets. TV shows and
channels like Footprint TV, Praiz TV and other church-based channels predominantly play
contemporary Gospel music. They have contributed immensely to its growth and profitability.

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Danny Nettey was born on 19th September, 1968 in Accra-Ghana and died on July 15th, 2016 at
the age of 48 in Accra-Ghana. He was a gospel musician and songwriter. He was best described
as one of the pioneers of contemporary gospel music in Ghana.

NEO-TRADITIONAL GENRES IN GHANA

Neo-traditional music genres in Ghana means new traditional music styles in Ghana. These are
modern forms of traditional recreational music and drum-dances that have been influenced by
indigenous African and other forms of popular music and dance, which draw strongly upon
traditional resources and utilize primarily local instruments. Some examples of these genres
includes Konkoma, Simpa, B4b44b4 and Kpanlogo. Each is functionally integrated into
traditional society, yet each is also involved socially and even politically in the process of
modern social change.

A BRIEF OF THE KONKOMA DANCE GENRE

Historically, an acephalous society led by religious leaders rather than hierarchical chiefs,
Konkomba self-identify as indigenous to North-East Ghana and North-West Togo, a claim
supported by historians and anthropologists. When tracing their ancestry, and like the Akan
people, Konkoma people say they came from a hole in the ground.

Konkoma is a London-based Afro-funk band signed to Sound-way Records. The band fused
Afro-funk and Afro-beat with the influences of American Blaxploitation-era soul and 1960s
psychedelia.

Join me let us discuss into detail B4b44b4 and Kpanlogo genres.

BCBCCBC DANCE

Bcbccbc dance is a recreational dance dominated by the youth. People therefore refer to it as a
youth band. It is a forerunner of Konkomba and Tuidzi dances that were formed in 1940s after

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the World War II. The use of bugle which metamorphosed into trumpet and pati in some
Bcbccbc group today is an attestation. For, bugle and pati were essential instrument of the
Konkomba dance. It was founded by Kcdzo Nuatrc from Kpando in the Volta Region in the early
1950s. It is a band for both males and females. Even though it is a youth dominated band,
nothing forbids the older folks from joining the performance. Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, the first
President of Ghana was the Chief patron of the maiden group. He used it extensively for his
political campaign during the independence struggle of Ghana; especially in the Volta Region.
Currently, the band is performed in every part of Ghana and in even the neighbouring countries.

There are different choreographed Bcbccbc groups now that sets well-rehearsed and stylized
performance before its audiences. Some of these groups are named Agbeyeye, Agbesinyale,
Love, Lclcnyo, Dodzi, Miatcko etc.
Some occasions during which Bcbccbc is performed include visitation of funeral, enstoolment of
chiefs, outdooring of chiefs and babies, festivals, marriage ceremonies, cultural festival of
schools, visitation of state dignitaries, political rallies, durbar of chiefs and elders, Church
activities etc.

In Bcbccbc performance, there are the following leaderships:

1. Lead singer: it is also called Hadzincwho usually is a male. He is the composer and a
vocalist who leads the performance as a cantor. A cantor is a singer who calls the tune
first before the chorus (drummers, dancers, and audience as well as other participants)
respond.
2. Female musician; She is a singer who gives support to the lead singer/cantor.
3. Lead dancer: She/he is responsible for the choreography and the rehearsals of the dance
movements of the group.

COSTUME AND MAKE-UP

Bcbccbc groups usually have special attire that when worn put members of a particular group
into uniform. This could be any fabric, style and design that group members have agreed to sow.
This ranges from Lacoste, “T”-Shirt, kaba with slit, jumper to batakali. Members dressed very
smartly to reflect their youthfulness.

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FORMATION AND DANCE MOVEMENT
Performance begins with singing of one or two unaccompanied, except that the lead-singer beats
the time with the castanet. To start the dancing, the master drum cues in, all other instruments to
join the performance simultaneously with the dance movement. Dancers dance in circle going
round the instrumentalists in the middle of the circle. Due to the fact that the dance is highly a
choreographed one, groups may showcase varied formation on stage apart from the circular
formation. This could be triangular, rectangular, kite, semi-circular, one or two straight lines, etc.
formations depending on the taste of a particular group. Dancers move forward, backwards,
rightwards and leftwards as they dance. Perhaps the most attractive and charming part of the
dance is the vigorous and brisk buttocks shaking of the female dancers. Each dance movement
goes with specific and distinctive song, meaning that the moment a song is changed, the dance
style must also change. This is not done in isolation. Changing of song and dance movement go
with a change in drum beats too. Dance movement concentrate on waist twisting, leg movement
and buttocks shaking with a bent upper part of the body. Sometimes, dancers will be on their
knees or in a squatting position as they do a particular dance movement.

The instrumentation of the Bcbccbc dance

The following are the instruments that are used in the dance.
1. Slit/Boat/Banana shaped bell (Dawuro) - It gives the timeline and sets
The tempo for a performance.
2. Castanet also known as Kretsiwj - Another bell in the dance.
3. Asivui - A small highly pitched
supporting drum that plays an
ostinato pattern.
4. Vuvi - A medium size and pitched
supporting drum.
5. Vuga also known as Havana - The master drum.
6. Bugle or trumpet - Wind instrument for special
sound effects.
7. Pati and Donno - Optional drums

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 Rattle (Akaya) Gakogoe (Slit/Boat shaped bell) Akogj/Kretsiwj

Donno

Some titles of Bcbccbc songs are

i. Manc Efe dusi me
ii. Kue dia ‘Me Nu Loo
iii. Lcl- Wò de, Va Makpc Wò
iv. Na Yee, Na Yee, Na Yee Loo

KPANLOGO DANCE

Brief Historical Background of the Ga-Dangme People

The Ga and Dangme people are believed to have come from either Nigeria or Middle East. The
moved in small groups travelling either by land or by the sea. They were too many to the extent
that a hunter who first saw them described them as Driver-Ants. Akan people call the driver-ant
as nkran. In Ga language, the driver-ant is gaga. A corruption of these (i.e. nkran and gaga)
resulted in the two names that identify the geographical zone where the Driver-Ant people settled
as Accra and Ga. When they have arrived, they first settled at Ayawaso. They therefore made
Ayawaso their capital town. The Dangme people after sometime moved away from the coast.
The Ga people are made up of six clans namely Ga Mashie (Accra), Nungua, Tema (Manhean),
La (Labadi), Osu and Teshie.
Some dances that are performed by the Ga-Dangme people are Kone, Ashinc, Kpatsa, Agcsu,
Oge, Asamai, Gome, Kolomashie, Yaa nc and Kpanlogo.

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Kpanlogo is a “neo traditional” social music and dancestyle of the Ga People of Ghana. It is
believed that dance was invented in 1963 by a man named Otoo Lincoln. The name Kpanlogo
was a name of a young girl in an Ananse story. Its rhythm and dance are a combination of
Highlife music, Kolomashie (street processional music), Oge (a Liberian based music drum
style) and Rock n Roll (i.e. the Twist). In 1964, the Kpanlogo dance was banned by the elders of
the Arts council of Ghana because the dance was blamed to have had sexually inducing hip
movements. It was later redeemed after a public outcry to the Arts Council.

Agordoh (2002) observed rather that Kpanlogo started in late 1950s as a youth band used for
entertainment in Accra. Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah, the first president of Ghana was the
chief patron of the group as he used it for his political campaign. Some occasions that could call
for the performance of the dance are funerals, Wedding/Marriage ceremonies, enstoolment of
chiefs, durbar of chief and elders, visitation of political functionaries, annual cultural festival of
schools, outdooring of chiefs and babies, during church services. Themes of Kpanlogo songs are
derived from current happenings like political issues, love, hatred, death, money, sympathy,
praise for good deeds etc.

COSTUME AND MAKE-UPS

The females wear two different kinds of cloth leaving the upper torso bare and the men dress like
a colonial clerk (i.e. the wear a pair of trousers, white long sleeve shirt, a long flying tie of bow
tie and sometimes a coat). One remarkable thing about the men dress is that they are all over-
sized.

FORMATION AND DANCE MOVEMENT

Dance formation is free style. It is done on as a communal activity since no restriction is put on
anybody who joins the performance. Anybody at all can get to the dancing arena with his or her
own style. But well-choreographed groups who are normally hired for performance forbid
entrance of people who did not rehearse with them. Dancing is normally done in pairs; a male
and a female at a time.

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INSTRUMENTAL SET UP IN KPANLOGO DANCE
The following presents the instrumentation of the Kpanlogo dance.

1. Nono (slit/banana/boat shaped bell) - Gives the time line that sets the tempo of
performance.
2. zNononta (Double bell) - A second and supporting bell.
3. Dodonpo (i.e. castanet) - Another supporting bell.
4. Pati - A small snare drum borrowed from
paramilitary music tradition .
5. Tamaline - A framed drum. Three of them are used.
6. Djembe - Master drum.
7. Bongos - Two small drums of Latin American origin
played by one person.
8. Bugle - Optional
9. Whistle - Optional
10. Harmonica - Optional
11. Shekesheke (rattle) - Optional
12. Handclapping - Always present as idiophonic device
A SET OF KPANLOGO DANCE INSTRUMENTS

Set of Kpanlogo drums

Harmonica

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 Nono Dodonpo Nononta

pati

Tamalin Bongos

Djembe drum

Shjkjshjkj whistle

Some Kpanlogo songs are

1. Alonte Julc Ee!
2. Mitee Chckc

UNIT 4

African-American music (Black-American)

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African-American music is an umbrella term covering a diverse range of music and musical
genres largely developed by African Americans. Their origins are in musical forms that arose out
of the historical condition of slavery that characterized the lives of African Americans prior to
the American Civil War. Some of the most popular music types today, such as Rock and Roll,
Country, Rock, Funk, Jazz, Blues, Rhythm, and Rhythm and Blues are African-American Music.

White enslavers sought to completely conquer their slaves physically, mentally, and spiritually
through brutality and demeaning acts. African-Americans used music to counter this
dehumanization. White Americans considered African-Americans separate and unequal for
centuries, going to extraordinary lengths to keep blacks oppressed. African-Americans created a
distinctive music that sank its roots deeply into their experience.

Following the Civil War, black Americans, through employment as musicians playing European
music in military bands, developed a new style of music called ragtime which gradually evolved
into jazz. In developing this latter musical form, African Americans contributed knowledge of
the sophisticated polyrhythmic structure of the dance and folk music of peoples across western
and sub-Saharan Africa. These musical forms had a wide-ranging influence on the development
of music within the United States and around the world during the 20th century.

The modern genres of blues and ragtime were developed during the late 19th century by fusing
West African vocalizations – which employed the natural harmonic series, and blue notes. For
example, "If one considers the five criteria given by Waterman as cluster characteristics for West
African music, one finds that three have been well documented as being characteristic of Afro-
American music. Call-and-response organizational procedures, dominance of a percussive
approach to music, and off-beat phrasing of melodic accents have been cited as typical of Afro-
American music in virtually every study of any kind of Afro-American music from work songs,
field or street calls, shouts, and spirituals to blues and jazz.

The earliest jazz and blues recordings were made in the 1920s. African-American musicians
developed related styles such as rhythm and blues in the 1940s. In the 1960s, soul performers
had a major influence on white US and UK singers. In the mid-1960s, Black musicians
developed funk and they were many of the leading figures in late 1960s and 1970s genre of jazz-

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rock fusion. In the 1970s and 1980s, Black artists developed hip-hop, and in the 1980s
introduced the disco-infused dance style known as house music. Much of today's genres of music
is heavily influenced by traditional African-American music.

The following are some characteristic of musical forms that defines African-American music.
These forms include: work song , spoken word, rapping, call and response, improvisation,
polyrhythms (syncopation, tension, improvisation, percussion, swung note), texture (antiphony,
homophony, polyphony, heterophony) and harmony (vernacular progressions; complex, multi-
part harmony, as in spirituals, Doo Wop, and barbershop music).

James Joseph Brown Michael Joseph Jackson

Example of Black-American musicians in 20th century are: James Joseph Brown, Louis Daniel
Armstrong, Michael Joseph Jackson, Billie Holiday, Chuck Berry, Led Belly, B.B. King, Sam
Cooke and Mahalia Jackson.

Indian music

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Due to India's vastness and diversity, Indian music encompasses numerous genres in multiple
varieties and forms which include classical music, folk (Bollywood), rock, and pop. It has a
history spanning several millennia and developed over several geo-locations spanning the sub-
continent. Music in India began as an integral part of socio-religious life. Indian folk music have
the sweetest melodies and heart touching lyrics of the daily life. Their songs talk about life in the
farmland, their dreams and aspirations and of course, love. The lyrics are mostly full of
philosophical metaphors range from, romance, stories of their ancestors to songs of harvest. The
music is generally performed in groups and dance and dialogues in between.

There are two major traditions of Indian classical music. They are Carnatic music, a style
associated with South India, and Hindustani music, a style associated with North India. Among
these two major traditions, there are 4 types of folk music. They are

 Primitive/ tribal
 Elite/ art
 Folk and
 Popular.
In the early 1960s Jazz pioneers such as John Coltrane and George Harrison collaborated with
Indian instrumentalists and started to use Indian instruments such as sitar in their songs. In the
late 1970s and early 1980s, rock and roll fusions with Indian music were well known throughout
Europe and North America. In the late 1980s, Indian-British artists fused Indian and Western
traditions to make the Asian Underground. In the new millennium, American hip-hop has
featured Indian filmi and bhangra.

Indian pop music, also known as Indi-pop, refers to pop music produced in India that is
independent from filmi soundtracks for Indian cinema, such as the music of Bollywood, which
tends to be more popular. Indian pop is closely linked to Bollywood, Kollywood, Tollywood and
the Asian Underground scene of the United Kingdom.

Indian traditional musical instruments

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Instruments most commonly used in Hindustani and Carnatic classical music are the
Sitar, Sarod, Tambura, Sahnai, Sarangi, Tabla, Vina, Mrdangam, Kanjira, and Violin.

Costume

The pallu is extremely significant and is usually very colorful with bold gold borders, similar to
traditional south Indian designs. It is prominently draped across the torso in the front and tucked into a
kamarbandh or waist chain. Below the waist a fan-like piece of cloth is attached. This pleated fan is
essential to the look. Usually these costumes closely resemble colorful south silk sarees, right down to the
lustrous fabric and the large, gold borders that may or may not come with temple border designs. The use
of bright colors, golden borders, intricate embellishments and beautiful drapes can be seen in almost all
types of Indian dance wear.

Styling is a crucial part of getting the perfect traditional look for Indian dance. Everything, from the hair
and make-up, to the accessorizing, has to be carefully executed. In terms of jewelry, heavy gold jewelry is
the norm in almost all the classical dances. Indian dance clothing often comes with gold work and to
enhance that aspect, multiple gold necklaces, bangles, earrings and rings are required.

Indian Dance Costume

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Chinese traditional music

China has a long and influential musical tradition. Over the centuries, musicians developed
various styles of music and invented or adopted many types of instruments. The classical
traditional music of the elites, the folk and ethnic music, and the favorite traditional Chinese
instruments are “keynotes” for appreciating Chinese traditional music in general and enjoying it
more. Perhaps for other people around the world, music was meant mainly for amusement and
entertainment. But Chinese belief that, music had the crucial role of an important pillar of
society, music is meant not to amuse, but to purify one's thoughts.

Despite the Chinese belief that music is meant not to amuse, but to purify one's thoughts,
Chinese have modern opera music that is meant for entertainment. The texture of Chinese music
is often monophonic, where only one instrument is playing, or heterophonic. A heterophonic
texture is one where a core melody is simultaneously played with decorated versions of the same
melody. Timbre is very important in Chinese music.

C-pop is an abbreviation for Chinese popular music. C-pop is used as an umbrella term covering
not only Chinese pop but also R&B, ballads, Chinese rock, Chinese hip hop and Chinese ambient
music, although Chinese rock diverged during the early 1990s.

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 Li Jinhui, known as the father of Chinese pop

Three Kinds of Chinese Traditional Music

The three general kinds of traditional music are:

 Chinese opera music meant for theatrical performances,

 Ensemble or orchestra music for cultured audiences, and
 Solo instrumental performance.

Instruments

Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known. The eight
categories are silk, bamboo, wood, stone, metal, clay, gourd and skin. There are other
instruments which may not fit these groups. This is one of the first musical groupings ever
devised. The most popular traditional instrument is Guzheng.

A Chinese young girl playing Guzheng

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JAPANESE MUSIC

Historically, Japanese folk music was strongly influenced by music from China, with some of its
forms being imported from China more than a thousand years ago. Many popular Japanese
musical instruments originated in China and were then adapted to meet local needs. There are
two forms of Japanese traditional music; usually refers to Japan’s historical folk music. These
are; shōmyō, or Buddhist chanting, and gagaku, or theatrical court music.

Shōmyō is a ritual music sung in a Buddhist ceremony by a group of Buddhist monks – literally
translated, the word ‘shōmyō’ combines the characters for ‘voice’ and ‘wisdom’.

Gagaku is the oldest of Japan's musical traditions and includes dances and songs in two styles –
kigaku, which is instrumental music, and seigaku, a form of vocal music.

JAPANESE MUSIC INSTRUMENTS

The key instruments used to play Japanese music are:

 Shamisen
 Shakuhachi
 Koto

The shamisen resembles a guitar, with a long, thin neck and a small rectangular body covered
with skin. It has three strings, with the pitch adjusted by tuning pegs on the head, like a guitar or
violin. It’s played with a large triangular plectrum that’s used to strike the strings.

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Women playing Shamisen

The shakuhachi is a flute made of bamboo that’s played by blowing on one end.

Sometimes called a ‘five-holed bamboo flute’ in English, it has four holes on the front, and one
on the back, and is characterised by its distinctively poignant tone.

(shakuhachi)

Different kind of music in Japan

Japan has variety of music genres include J-pop, J-rock, J-hip hop, Japanese reggae, Japanese
Jazz, Japanoise, Anime Music, Game music, Traditional Minyo, Traditional Wadaiko,
Traditional Kagura, Traditional Dengaku, Traditional Gagaku and so on.

Japanese traditional dance costume

Dancers wear socks called tabi, which are traditionally worn with kimono. White tabi are most common,
but other colors, including turquoise blue, light purple, and pale yellow, are used for certain types of
performances and costumes.

Japanese traditional dance costume

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Ani, M. (2010). What is culture? Web. Reel Freedom Productions. Accessed from
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Ani, M. (1994). Yurugu: An African centered critique of European cultural thought and
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Aranzadi, I. D. (2010). A drum’s trans-atlantic journey from Africa to the Americas and back
after the end of slavery: Annobonese and Fernandino musical cultures. African
Sociological Review, 14(1).

Arowolo, D. (2010).The effects of western civilization and culture on Africa. Afro-Asian

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