Chapter 1 Introduction

1
 Introduction

l Von Neumann computer

» “Naked machine”
» Hardware without any helpful user-oriented features
» Extremely difficult for a human to work with

l An interface between the user and the

hardware is needed to make a Von
Neumann computer usable

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 Introduction (continued)

l Tasks of the interface

» Hide details of the underlying hardware from the user

» Present information in a way that does not require in-depth

knowledge of the internal structure of the system

» Allow easy user access to the available resources

» Prevent accidental or intentional damage to hardware,

programs, and data

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 System Software: The Virtual
Machine

l System software
» Acts as an intermediary between users and hardware

» Creates a virtual environment for the user that hides the

actual computer architecture

l Virtual machine (or virtual environment)

» Set of services and resources created by the system
software and seen by the user

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The Role of System Software

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 Operating Systems

l System commands
» Carry out services such as translate a program, load a
program, run a program
» Types of system commands

– Lines of text typed at a terminal

– Menu items displayed on a screen and selected
with a mouse and a button: Point-and-click
» Examined by the operating system

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 Functions of an Operating System
l Five most important responsibilities of the
operating system
» User interface management

» Program scheduling and activation

» Control of access to system and files

» Efficient resource allocation

» Deadlock detection and error detection

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 The User Interface
l Operating system
» Waits for a user command

» If command is legal, activates and schedules the appropriate

software package

l User interfaces
» Text-oriented

» Graphical

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 Types of System Software

l System software is a collection of many

different programs
l Operating system
» Controls the overall operation of the computer
» Communicates with the user
» Determines what the user wants
» Activates system programs, applications packages, or user
programs to carry out user requests

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Types of System Software

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 Types of System Software
(continued)

l User interface
» Graphical user interface (GUI) provides graphical control of
the capabilities and services of the computer

l Language services
» Assemblers, compilers, and interpreters
» Allow you to write programs in a high-level, user-oriented
language, and then execute them

l Memory managers
» Allocate and retrieve memory space
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 Types of System Software
(continued)

l Information managers
» Handle the organization, storage, and retrieval of information
on mass storage devices

l I/O systems
» Allow the use of different types of input and output devices

l Scheduler
» Keeps a list of programs ready to run and selects the one
that will execute next

l Utilities
» Collections of library routines that provide services either to
user or other system routines 12
 Machine Language
l Machine language
» Uses binary

» Allows only numeric memory addresses

» Difficult to change

» Difficult to create data

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 Assembly Language (continued)

l Assembly languages
» Designed to overcome shortcomings of machine languages

» Create a more productive, user-oriented environment

» Earlier termed second-generation languages

» Now viewed as low-level programming languages

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 Assembly Language (continued)

l Source program
» An assembly language program

l Object program
» A machine language program

l Assembler
» Translates a source program into a corresponding object
program

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 Assembly Language (continued)

The Translation/Loading/Execution Process

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 Assembly Language (continued)

l Advantages of writing in assembly language

rather than machine language
» Use of symbolic operation codes rather than numeric
(binary) ones

» Use of symbolic memory addresses rather than numeric

(binary) ones

» Pseudo-operations that provide useful user-oriented services

such as data generation

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Assembly Language (continued)

Structure of a Typical Assembly Language Program

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 Examples of Assembly Language
Code (continued)
l Assembly language translation
LOAD B --Put the value B into register R.
ADD C --R now holds the sum (B + C).
SUBTRACT SEVEN --R now holds the expression (B + C - 7).
STORE A --Store the result into A.
: --These data should be placed after the
HALT.
A: .DATA 0
B: .DATA 0
C: .DATA 0
SEVEN: .DATA 7 --The constant 7.

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 Program example

l Problem

» Read in a sequence of non-negative numbers, one number at a

time, and compute a running sum

» When you encounter a negative number, print out the sum of the
non-negative values and stop

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 Program example

Algorithm to Compute the Sum of Numbers

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Assembly Language Program to Compute the Sum of Nonnegative
Numbers
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 Translation and Loading

l Before a source program can be run, an

assembler and a loader must be invoked
l Assembler
» Translates a symbolic assembly language program into
machine language

l Loader
» Reads instructions from the object file and stores them into
memory for execution

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 Translation and Loading (continued)

l Assembler tasks
» Convert symbolic op codes to binary

» Convert symbolic addresses to binary

» Perform assembler services requested by the pseudo-ops

» Put translated instructions into a file for future use

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 System Security And Protection

l The operating system must prevent

» Non-authorized people from using the computer

– User names and passwords

» Legitimate users from accessing data or programs they are

not authorized to access

– Authorization lists

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 Efficient Allocation Of Resources
l The operating system ensures that
» Multiple tasks of the computer can be underway at one time

» Processor is constantly busy

– Keeps a queue of programs that are ready to run

– Whenever processor is idle, picks a job from the

queue and assigns it to the processor

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 The Safe Use Of Resources

l Deadlock
» Two processes are each holding a resource the other needs
» Neither process will ever progress

l The operating system must handle deadlocks

» Deadlock prevention
» Deadlock recovery

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 Historical Overview of Operating
Systems Development

l First generation of system software (roughly

1945-1955)

» No operating systems

» Assemblers and loaders were almost the only system software

provided

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 Historical Overview of Operating
Systems Development (continued)

l Second generation of system software (1955-

1965)
» Batch operating systems

» Ran collections of input programs one after the other

» Included a command language

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Operation of a Batch Computer System

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 Historical Overview of Operating
Systems Development (continued)

l Third-generation operating systems (1965-1985)

» Multiprogrammed operating systems

» Permitted multiple user programs to run at once

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 Historical Overview of Operating
Systems Development (continued)

l Fourth-generation operating systems (1985-

present)
» Network operating systems

» Virtual environment treats resources physically residing on the

computer in the same way as resources available through the
computer’s network

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 The Future

l Operating systems will continue to evolve

l Possible characteristics of fifth-generation

systems
» Multimedia user interfaces

» Parallel processing systems

» Completely distributed computing environments

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Some of the Major Advances in Operating Systems Development
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