Article

Analysis of Surface Characteristics of Titanium Alloy Milling

with Ball-End Milling Cutters Based on Mesoscopic
Geometric Features
Xin Tong 1,2, Shoumeng Wang 1,2,*, Xiyue Wang 1,2 and Qiang Qu 1,2

1 School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Harbin University of Science and Technology,
Harbin 150080, China; [email protected] (X.T.); [email protected] (X.W.);
[email protected] (Q.Q.)
2 Key Laboratory of Advanced Manufacturing and Intelligent Technology, Ministry of Education,

Harbin University of Science and Technology, Harbin 150080, China

* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: In order to further reduce the height of burrs on the surface of the workpiece when milling
titanium alloy with ball-end milling cutters and optimize the quality of the workpiece, this article
takes the mesoscopic geometric feature of ball-end milling cutters as the research object and estab-
lishes the theoretical relationship between the mesoscopic geometric feature parameters and the
height of titanium alloy burrs during milling. A milling test platform was built to explore the influ-
ence of micro-texture, blunt edge single factor, and their interaction with cutting parameters on the
force-thermal characteristics and workpiece burr in the milling process. The influence mechanism
was revealed, and the prediction model was established. The results show that the ball-end milling
cutter with mesoscopic geometric features was able to suppress burrs, and the burr height was re-
duced by 21% compared with the non-textured milling cutter. The micro-texture reduced the con-
tact area and improved the heat dissipation conditions, thereby reducing the force-thermal charac-
teristics and thus inhibiting the formation of some burrs. The blunt edge can disperse the stress,
Citation: Tong, X.; Wang, S.; Wang, diffuse the local heat in the tool–chip contact area, and reduce the burr height. In the interaction test
X.; Qu, Q. Analysis of Surface considering cutting parameters, the interaction between R and ap was significant. The optimized
Characteristics of Titanium Alloy parameters based on the simulated annealing algorithm were as follows: the radius of the blunt
Milling with Ball-End Milling edge was 33.242 µm, the distance between the texture and the edge was 114.621 µm, the texture
Cutters Based on Mesoscopic diameter was 59.820 µm, the texture spacing L1 was 131.410 µm, the cutting depth ap was 0.310 mm,
Geometric Features. Coatings 2024, the cutting speed V was 140.019 mm/min, and the feed f was 60 µm/z. This provides a basis for the
14, 670. https://doi.org/10.3390/
study of strengthening the tool to suppress burr size.
coatings14060670

Academic Editor: Vincent Ji Keywords: titanium alloy; ball-end milling cutter; blunt round blade edge; micro-texture; burrs

Received: 18 April 2024

Revised: 15 May 2024
Accepted: 23 May 2024
Published: 25 May 2024 1. Introduction
The characteristics of titanium alloy are complex, and the cutting process is difficult.
During the cutting process, high cutting forces and temperatures are generated, which
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. easily lead to burrs on the machined surface of the workpiece. Burrs can affect the geo-
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. metric accuracy of the workpiece and, in severe cases, can even result in workpiece scrap
This article is an open access article [1,2]. To address this issue, scholars have adopted optimized cutting parameters to sup-
distributed under the terms and press burr formation. Additionally, studies have demonstrated that mesoscopic geometric
conditions of the Creative Commons features can reduce milling forces, lower milling temperatures to suppress burr genera-
Attribution (CC BY) license tion, decrease tool wear, prolong tool life, and enhance workpiece surface integrity. By
(https://creativecommons.org/license focusing on the mesoscopic geometric characteristics of cutting tools, this study explores
s/by/4.0/). their interaction mechanisms in the formation of burrs on the surface of workpieces. The

Coatings 2024, 14, 670. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings14060670 www.mdpi.com/journal/coatings

Coatings 2024, 14, 670 2 of 19

aim is to further suppress burr formation and achieve efficient and high-quality precision
machining of titanium alloys.
Deba Kumar Sarma [3] used micro electric discharge to machine grooves and micro
pits on the back face of AISI D2 steel hard-alloy-coated cutting tools. It was found that
both types of textured cutting tools have good surface quality and small back face wear.
Yu Xin [4] proposed a novel variable density micro texturing tool consisting of two regions
with different groove widths and distribution densities. By reasonably designing texture
parameters with variable distribution density, cutting tools can have better wear re-
sistance and chip-breaking ability. Kairui Zheng [5] machined different-shaped grooves
on the front face of hard alloy cutting tools to improve the cutting performance of titanium
alloy Ti-6Al-4V machining. It was found that using sine-textured cutting tools can achieve
optimal cutting performance under different cutting parameters. Patel Kaushalandra [6]
investigated the influence of micro-texture geometric parameters on the front face of tung-
sten carbide blades tested in dry turning titanium alloy Ti-6Al-4V. It has been proven that
both the characteristic parameters of microgroove size and cutting parameters have a sig-
nificant impact on cutting performance. Usman Mustapha Mukhtar [7] and Ali Shafahat
[8] have both studied it in the field of unconventional cutting. The former studied the cut-
ting performance of micro-textured cutting tools on the front face under ultrasonic ellip-
tical vibration cutting, demonstrating that the combined effect of ultrasonic elliptical vi-
bration cutting mechanism and tool texturing technology can significantly improve the
significant machining efficiency of ultrasonic elliptical vibration cutting. The latter studied
the cutting process of AISI 630 stainless steel using different microgroove tools and found
that rectangular microgroove tools have good performance and a positive impact on tool
life. Kishawy Hossam A [9] proposed an analytical model based on Oxley to optimize the
design of micro-textured cutting tools to suppress the occurrence of derivative cutting.
Through experiments, it was found that the optimal micro-textured design eliminates de-
rivative cutting and reduces cutting force. Yang Xiaofan et al. [10] analyzed the cutting
mechanism of a new type of milling cutter to suppress machining defects such as burrs
during the milling of carbon fiber composite materials. They discovered that staggered
edge end mills and diamond tooth end mills can effectively suppress the generation of
burrs on the surface of workpieces. The ability of diamond tooth end mills to suppress
milling burrs is better than that of staggered edge end mills. Diamond-coated diamond-
toothed end mills are suitable for milling carbon fiber composite materials. Minsu Kim et
al. [11] conducted experimental research on tool wear during the CFRP milling process.
Using this correlation between parameters, a wear prediction model with force equations
was derived, and the estimated results were well-matched with the measured wear values.
Franczyk Emilia et al. [12] selected different tool geometries and cutting parameters by
modifying the blade of the cutting bit, so that the height of the burr is reduced by more
than 90%. Ragavanantham Shanmugam [13] and Zaidi Sajid Raza et al. [14] studied the
influence of cutting parameters on the surface roughness, burr height, and cutting energy
consumption of the workpiece. It was proven that the surface roughness, burr width, and
cutting energy of the workpiece can be reduced by selecting appropriate processing pa-
rameters. Song Wenbin et al. [15] introduced ultrasonic-vibration-assisted technology in
cutting titanium alloy to reduce the height of cutting burr and improve the quality of
workpiece. Anand Krishnan et al. [16] constructed a mathematical model for predicting
the exit burr height of Inconel 718 micro-milling. The maximum error of the predicted exit
burr height is 6.4%, which can be used to control and minimize the exit burr size. Cur-
rently, there has been some progress in the research on the mechanism and control tech-
nology of burr formation. However, from the perspective of tool structure design, the
analysis of the interaction between tool feature parameters and the generation of milling
burrs is not yet widely studied. There is a lack of technical research on strengthening the
cutting tool itself to suppress burr size.
This article establishes a theoretical relationship between ball-end milling cutter char-
acteristics and burr height when milling titanium alloys. A test platform for milling
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 3 of 19

titanium alloy with a hard alloy ball-end milling cutter with mesoscopic geometric fea-
tures was established, and the influence of mesoscopic geometric feature parameters on
the height of burrs on the surface of the workpiece after milling was analyzed. A test plat-
form for milling titanium alloy with cemented carbide ball-end milling cutter with
mesoscopic geometric characteristics was built. The influence of the interaction between
mesoscopic geometric characteristic parameters and cutting parameters on the force-ther-
mal characteristics of ball-end milling titanium alloy was analyzed. The mechanism of its
action is revealed. An exponential regression analysis prediction model with burr height
as the evaluation index was established, and the relevant parameters were optimized
based on simulated annealing algorithm.

2. Theoretical Modeling of Geometric Features for Milling Titanium Alloy Outlet

Burrs by Ball-End Milling Cutters
2.1. Milling Burr Size Model Establishment
It is generally believed that the movement of the tool during milling is not a cycloid
but a combination of rotation and translation. Therefore, milling can be regarded as a spe-
cial form of cutting in which the machining layer changes with the position angle of the
milling cutter [17]. When milling with a milling cutter, at the moment when chips form
burrs, the cutter teeth only travel a very small distance.
As shown in Figure 1, the length of the edge PB where the plastic hinge point B is
located is the thickness of the burr. When the milling cutter teeth are milled, at the moment
when the chips form burrs, the cutter teeth only travel a very small distance, which is AA’
in the figure. At the moment when the chips are converted into burrs, the cutting force is
continuous, so it can be assumed that the work done to form chips is equal to the work
done to form burrs, that is,

ΔWc = ΔWb (1)

In Formula (1), the work done by ∆Wc is to form chips, and the work done by ∆Wb is
to form burrs. ∆Wc is calculated according to the work of the main cutting force Fr in the
milling process. As shown in Figure 1, the chips at point A begin to transform into burrs.
When the cutter tooth rotates a very small angle dλ to point A’, the rotation angle of the
corresponding plastic hinge point is dβ. The calculation of ∆Wc is as in Formula (2):
λ
ΔWc = 
0
Fr Rd λ = Fr R λ (2)

In Formula (2), Rdλ is the distance of tooth movement at which burrs begin to form.

Figure 1. Milling outlet burr model diagram.

According to [18], the work required for burr formation is

λ
k σ 
ΔWb =   0 cos 2 β 0 + e tan β 0 ω Rd λ a p (3)
0
2 4 
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 4 of 19

In Formula (3), k0 is the yield strength of the material against shear, σe is the normal
yield strength of the material, and ap represents the amount of back cutting.
Simplify Formula (3) to obtain Formula (4):
Fr
ω=
 3 1  (4)
 cos 2
β + tan β σ e a p
 6 0
4
0 
 
From Figure 1, it can be seen that the burr height Ht is shown in Formula (5):
H t = ω tan β 0 + a p (5)
It can be concluded that the height of burrs is
Fr tan β 0
Ht = + ap
 3 1  (6)
 cos 2 β 0 + tan β 0  σ e a p
 6 4 
There are two types of energy generated during metal processing, namely, shear en-
ergy in the first deformation zone and friction energy in the second and third deformation
zones. According to the mechanism of micro-texture [19], it has little effect on the shear
energy of the workpiece in the first deformation zone. The wear-resistant function of the
micro-texture is mainly in the second and third deformation zones.
As shown in Figure 2, the relationship between shear force, friction force, and result-
ant force is as follows (7):

 Fs = τ sAs

 Fs = Fr cos (ϕ + β − γ 0 ) (7)
 Ff = Fr sin β

In Formula (7), Fs is the shear force, Fr is the resultant force, Ff is the frictional force,
τs is shear strength, As is the shear area, β is the friction angle, γ0 is the front corner, and φ
is cut angle.

Figure 2. Ball head milling cutter front cutting surface cutting model.

Based on the above equation, the height of burrs can be expressed as Ht:

F f tan β 0
Ht = + ap
 3 1  (8)
 cos 2 β 0 + tan β 0  σ e a p sin β
 6 4 
By combining Equation (7), Ff can be obtained as
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 5 of 19

 sin β 
F f = τ s As   (9)
 cos(φ + β − γ 0 ) 
The effective friction area is set to Qp, and Ff can be further expressed as [19]

sin β
Qp = AS (10)
cos(φ + β − γ 0 )

Ff = τ sQ p (11)

By inserting the micro-texture into the tool-chip contact area, the effective contact
friction area becomes:

Q1p = Q p − S (12)

In Formula (12): S is the area of micro-texture, and Qp is the effective friction area.
Therefore, the existence of micro-texture will reduce the effective friction area. By
examining Equation (11), it can be inferred that the friction force Ff will decrease. Com-
bining this with Formula (8), it can be concluded that when there is micro-texture on the
surface of the milling cutter, the effective friction area decreases, so that the friction force
will decrease, and then the burr height will decrease.

2.2. Dimensional Model of Burrs at the Outlet of Titanium Alloy Milling with Blunt Circular
Edge Ball-End Milling Cutter
According to the schematic diagram in Figure 2, it can be seen that the main cutting
force Fr can be expressed as the cutting-edge radius:

τ s aw (ac − krn )
Fr = (13)
sin φ cos(φ + β − γ 0 )
In Formula (13), τs represents the shear flow limit of the workpiece material; ac is the
thickness of the removal layer; rn is the radius of the tool edge; k is a constant (k = 0.1~0.2);
φ represents the shear angle; β represents the friction angle; and γ0 represents the tool
front angle.
Therefore, when the edge radius rn increases, Fr decreases. Combining this with For-
mulas (7) and (8), it can be concluded that the increase in the edge radius of the milling
cutter can reduce the burr height of the workpiece surface after milling.

3. Study on the Influence of Tool Mesoscopic Characteristics on the Surface Burr of

Titanium Alloy
3.1. Materials and Methods Test Conditions and Data Collection
(1) Test materials
The blade model is BNM-200, with two teeth and zero rake angle. The brand is YG8,
and the tool holder is made of hard alloy. The workpiece material is Ti6Al4V titanium
alloy square material, as shown in Figure 3.
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 6 of 19

Figure 3. Test materials: (a) Cutter; (b) Cutterhandle; (c) Workpiece; (d) Clamping method; (e) Mill-
ing; (f) Machine tool.

(2) Orthogonal test design of tool micro-texture

The selected cutting parameters are as follows: the cutting speed v is 150 mm/min,
the cutting depth ap is 0.3 mm, and the feed rate f is 70 µm/z [20]. These cutting parameters
remain unchanged, and a three-factor and three-level orthogonal test was designed with
micro-texture distance L, micro-texture diameter D, and micro-pit spacing L1 as factors. A
set of non-textured tools was set up for comparison test. The specific test design is shown
in Table 1. A total of 10 groups of tests were designed.

Table 1. Orthogonal test design.

Factor
L (µm) D (µm) L1 (µm)
Level
1 110 40 130
2 110 50 150
3 110 60 170
4 130 40 150
5 130 50 170
6 130 60 130
7 150 40 170
8 150 50 130
9 150 60 150

(3) Single-Factor test design of tool edge

Continue to use the same cutting parameters. The test design focuses on a single fac-
tor, with the edge parameters serving as the variable. The edge parameters are set at 20
µm, 40 µm, and 60 µm, with a total of three groups of tests.
(4) Texture and blade preparation
Using a Zhengtian fiber laser and creating a micro-texture distribution model using
CAD, we imported it into the computer and utilized a fiber laser to complete the prepara-
tion of the toolʹs micro-texture. Following the preparation process, sandpaper was used
to remove burrs, and an ultrasonic cleaning machine was employed to eliminate impuri-
ties from the texture. The preparation of the cutting toolʹs blunt round edge employed the
sandblasting treatment method, with quartz sand as the abrasive, as depicted in Figure 4.
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 7 of 19

Figure 4. Workpiece preparation test equipment.

(5) Construction of the test platform

The test utilized a Hikmicro industrial infrared thermal imager, model H26, to collect
milling temperature data. The rotary dynamometer Kistler was used to collect the milling
forces in three directions in the machining process, as shown on the right side of Figure 5,
and the resultant force was calculated to obtain the final milling force data. Figure 5 illus-
trates the clamping sites for temperature collection on the workpiece, for measuring mill-
ing force, and for positioning the thermal imaging instrument.

Figure 5. Milling test equipment.

3.2. Research on the Influence of Tool Micro-Texture Parameters on the Surface Burr
Characteristics of Titanium Alloy Workpieces
The workpiece image detection system SH-VS4K and 4K fixed-time coaxial white
light lens were used to observe the surface burr morphology of the workpiece after pro-
cessing. Finally, the image was imported into the Image-Pro Plus6.0 software, and the burr
size was measured by magnification of 100 and 1000 times.
Figure 6 depicts the morphology and test results of burrs on the workpiece surface after
milling titanium alloy using a micro-textured milling cutter. Groups 1 to 9 represent the test
results of textured milling cutters, while group 10 represents the test results of non-textured
ball-end milling cutters. By observing the data, it can be found that the preparation of micro-
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 8 of 19

texture on the milling cutter can inhibit the generation of milling burrs to a certain extent.
The average height of burrs produced by the micro-textured milling cutter was about 99.01.
Compared with non-textured milling cutter, the average height of burrs produced by mill-
ing was reduced by 21%. The burr height on the workpiece surface after milling titanium
alloy with textured tools was lower than that when using non-textured tools. During the
cutting process, abrasive wear and adhesion may occur on the tool and specimen surfaces
due to mechanical friction. The resulting chips underwent secondary cutting with the work-
piece. As cutting temperature rose, chips accumulated and formed larger burrs at the outlet
end. As shown in Figure 7, micro-textures mitigated this by storing and reducing abrasive
particles during cutting. As milling progressed, micro-textures on the milling cutterʹs front
face caused some high-temperature abrasive particles to adhere to the pits. Compared to
non-textured cutting tools, the presence of micro-textures on the tool surface reduced force
and temperature during milling, thereby suppressing the formation of some burrs.

Figure 6. Milling test titanium alloy burr image.

Figure 7. Schematic diagram of micro-texture on cutting.

The correlation between force, temperature, and burr height was tested by Pearson cor-
relation coefficient. It is generally accepted that a correlation coefficient exceeding 0.7 indi-
cates a very close relationship between two samples. According to the data of Figures 8–10,
we can conclude that the correlation coefficients between force, temperature, and burr
height were 0.81 and 0.71, respectively, both surpassing 0.7. Hence, it can be deduced that
milling temperature and milling force are significant factors influencing burr height, with a
statistically significant correlation between the test data.
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 9 of 19

Figure 8. Trend diagram of milling temperature and burr height.

Figure 9. Trend diagram of the milling force and the burr height.

Figure 10. Pearson correlation images of milling force, milling temperature, and burr height.

Burr formation is a consequence of the workpiece undergoing plastic deformation

due to the force exerted by the tool, particularly in the cutting area where plastic defor-
mation is significant. The resultant plastic work is predominantly converted into heat,
causing a rise in temperature. Moreover, the greater the plastic deformation in the cutting
area, the more heat is generated, leading to higher temperatures and subsequently in-
creased burr height. Higher temperatures also correlate with greater hardness, making
the removal of burrs formed at elevated temperatures more challenging compared to
those formed at lower temperatures.
With an increase in milling force, the applied load on the surface of the workpiece
intensified, resulting in higher levels of plastic deformation within the contact region of
the tool. Consequently, the area of the fourth deformation zone at the outlet end expanded.
As shown in Figure 11. This led to the emergence of an extended negative shear band. The
augmentation of negative shear bands modified the path of plastic flow in the workpiece
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 10 of 19

material during the cutting operation. More material transitioned from upward flow to
rotational flow, thereby increasing the size of the burrs formed at the outlet (Figure 11).

Figure 11. Milling force action diagram.

Through the range analysis of the burr height L, milling force, and milling tempera-
ture measured in the test designed in Table 1, the K value and R value were calculated,
and the influence of micro-texture parameters on the three was sorted to obtain the data
in Table 2. According to the range analysis shown in Table 2, it can be seen that the micro-
texture distance L and the micro-texture spacing L1 had the most significant impact on
burr size, while the micro-texture diameter D had the least impact on milling burr size.

Table 2. Burr height extreme difference analysis table.

Burr Height (µm) Milling Force (N) Milling Temperature (°C)

Target
L (µm) D (µm) L1 (µm) L (µm) D (µm) L1 (µm) L (µm) D (µm) L1 (µm)
K1 94.3 97.8 96.6 260.2 257.4 262.7 254.4 256.1 256.8
K2 98.5 99.8 99.1 259.6 267.9 257.4 261.1 262.1 259.5
K3 104.2 99.4 101.3 275.3 269.9 275.0 266.5 263.7 265.7
R 9.9 2.0 4.7 15.7 12.5 17.6 12.1 7.6 8.9
Sort 1 3 2 2 3 1 1 3 2

The height of a burr was positively correlated with L. As the micro-texture was far-
ther away from the cutting edge, the area of micro-texture action decreased, reducing the
number of micro pits available to store abrasive particles and chips during cutting. Con-
sequently, the wear resistance of micro-textured cutting tools became worse, leading to
increased friction force and main cutting force in the cutting area, as well as the heightened
plastic flow phenomenon of the titanium alloy, thereby increasing the size of burrs. Addi-
tionally, due to the increase in friction, the temperature of the tool-chip contact area in-
creased, and the resulting outlet burr had high hardness and low strength, which is diffi-
cult to remove.
The height of a burr was positively correlated with L1. A higher L1 value resulted in a
slight reduction in the quantity of micro pits within the contact region, causing a decrease
in the effective micro pit area per unit area. Consequently, the wear resistance of the ball-
end milling cutter decreased, making the tool more susceptible to adhesive wear and abra-
sive wear, which in turn increased force and heat during the milling process. The sharp
increase in temperature led to adhesive wear on the tool surface and an increase in burr size.
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 11 of 19

3.3. Research on the Influence of Blunt Round Edge of Cutting Tools on the Surface Burr
Characteristics of Titanium Alloy Workpieces
The test results of the surface burr height of the workpiece under different blade pa-
rameters are shown in Figures 12 and 13. The enhancement of thermal characteristics in
ball-end milling of titanium alloy was evident with the increase in blade radius. Since the
burr height was predominantly influenced by milling temperature and milling force, it
decreased accordingly.

Figure 12. Test results of blunt circular edge radius on burr height layer.

Figure 13. The effect of blunt circular edge radius on milling temperature and milling force.

As shown in Figure 14, when the radius of the blade was small, the blade was sharp,
but the contact area between the blade and the workpiece was small, which made it easy
to cause stress concentration at the edge and blade collapse. Both force and temperature
were high. With an incremental increase in the cutting edge radius, the contact area be-
tween the tool and the workpiece expanded, resulting in the dispersion of stress at the
cutting edge. This expansion of contact area also aided in the diffusion of localized heat
within the contact area of the tool chips. Consequently, both milling force and tempera-
ture decreased. This led to a reduction in plastic deformation on the workpiece surface,
an increase in the support stiffness of the workpiece, and heightened constraint on the
materialʹs plastic flow during cutting, to some extent restraining the expansion of the
fourth deformation zone. Therefore, increasing the cutting edge radius had an inhibitory
effect on burrs at the milling outlet.
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 12 of 19

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of stress concentration influence.

In summary, as the cutting edge radius increased, the force and temperature during
the milling process decreased, consequently reducing the burr height of titanium alloy
workpieces. These test results aligned with previous theoretical findings, thereby validat-
ing the accuracy of the theoretical model.

4. Study on the Influence of the Interaction between Mesoscopic Geometric Features

and Cutting Parameters on the Surface Burr of Titanium Alloy
4.1. Interactive Test Design
In order to examine the combined impact of cutting parameters, cutting edge radius,
and micro-structure parameters on burr formation, an interaction test was formulated for
investigation. Based on relevant research, the distance L between the micro-texture and
the cutting edge ranged from 110 to 150 µm, while the micro-texture diameter D ranged
from 40 to 60 µm. The micro-texture spacing L1 varied from 130 to 170 µm, and the radius
R of the blunt circular edge ranged from 40 to 60 µm. The cutting speed v ranged from 140
to 180 mm/min, the cutting depth ap ranged from 0.3 to 0.5 mm, and the feed rate f ranged
from 60 µm/z to 80 µm/z [21]. An orthogonal test table was designed to account for inter-
active effects, as shown in Table 3. A total of 27 groups of tests took place.

Table 3. Mesoscopic geometric feature ball-end milling cutter interaction test design, milling force,
and milling temperature data.
Factor Temperature Force
R (µm) L (µm) R × L (µm × µm) D (µm) L1 (µm) ap (mm) R × ap (µm × mm) v (mm/min) f (µm/z)
Level (°C) (N)
1 40 110 1 40 130 0.3 1 140 0.6 256.31 255.35
2 40 110 1 40 150 0.4 2 160 0.7 254.83 278.23
3 40 110 1 40 170 0.5 3 180 0.8 277.64 285.32
4 40 130 2 50 130 0.3 1 160 0.7 268.39 256.89
5 40 130 2 50 150 0.4 2 180 0.8 285.97 263.21
6 40 130 2 50 170 0.5 3 140 0.6 274.85 287.62
7 40 150 3 60 130 0.3 1 180 0.8 311.27 262.35
8 40 150 3 60 150 0.4 2 140 0.6 282.89 299.25
9 40 150 3 60 170 0.5 3 160 0.7 297.41 291.01
10 50 110 2 60 130 0.4 3 140 0.7 272.94 245.32
11 50 110 2 60 150 0.5 1 160 0.8 288.65 256.63
12 50 110 2 60 170 0.3 2 180 0.6 293.73 249.69
13 50 130 3 40 130 0.4 3 160 0.8 244.85 262.01
14 50 130 3 40 150 0.5 1 180 0.6 296.85 280.71
15 50 130 3 40 170 0.3 2 140 0.7 274.15 270.33
16 50 150 1 50 130 0.4 3 180 0.6 306.72 288.55
17 50 150 1 50 150 0.5 1 140 0.7 261.54 273.97
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 13 of 19

18 50 150 1 50 170 0.3 2 160 0.8 269.73 308.85

19 60 110 3 50 130 0.5 2 140 0.8 252.63 243.65
20 60 110 3 50 150 0.3 3 160 0.6 251.87 268.32
21 60 110 3 50 170 0.4 1 180 0.7 259.81 251.74
22 60 130 1 60 130 0.5 2 160 0.6 258.69 284.31
23 60 130 1 60 150 0.3 3 180 0.7 268.74 262.65
24 60 130 1 60 170 0.4 1 140 0.8 241.98 265.98
25 60 150 2 40 130 0.5 2 180 0.7 278.94 279.63
26 60 150 2 40 150 0.3 3 140 0.8 263.42 282.64
27 60 150 2 40 170 0.4 1 160 0.6 272.85 278.54

4.2. Analysis of the Results of Interaction Test Force Thermal Characteristics

The measurement results of milling temperature and milling force in the interactive
test are shown in the two columns on the right side of Table 3. Range analysis of the mill-
ing temperature and milling force test results was conducted to generate Figures 15 and
16. As depicted in Figure 15, the factors with a significant impact on milling temperature
were cutting speed v and cutting edge radius R. With an increase in cutting speed v, the
milling temperature also rose. Conversely, there was a negative correlation between the
cutting edge radius R and milling temperature, where an increase in the cutting edge ra-
dius R resulted in a decrease in milling temperature. Additionally, the interaction between
the cutting edge radius R and the micro-texture distance L significantly influenced milling
temperature. However, the influence of the interaction between the cutting edge radius R
and the cutting depth ap on milling temperature was negligible and can be disregarded.

Figure 15. Milling temperature range analysis diagram.

Coatings 2024, 14, 670 14 of 19

Figure 16. Milling force range analysis diagram.

As illustrated in Figure 16, the factors significantly influencing milling force include
the distance from the micro-texture to the cutting edge L, as well as the distance between
micro-textures L1. Milling force increased with an increase in the micro-texture distance L
from the cutting edge and the micro-texture spacing L1. Furthermore, the interaction
among the cutting edge radius R, the distance from the micro-texture to the cutting edge
L, and the cutting depth ap also had a notable impact on milling force. The feed rate f had
the most significant effect on the milling force, while the micro-texture diameter D and
cutting speed v had the least significance.

4.3. Analysis of Burr Height Test Results

The burr height data of the workpiece surface after milling is shown in Figure 17.
Table 4 shows the range analysis of the test results. It is concluded that the micro-geomet-
ric characteristic parameters R and L were the key factors that significantly impacted the
height of the burr. The cutting parameters were mainly affected by the cutting depth ap
and cutting speed v. The interaction between the blunt radius of the edge R and the cutting
depth ap had a significant impact on the burr height. Based on the results of the interaction
test force thermal characteristics, it can be concluded that as L increased, the milling force
increased, and the burr height also increased. The dominant source of cutting force during
milling was primarily attributed to the frictional force exerted on the front face. In this
case, the bonding zone contributed a higher proportion to the overall cutting force com-
pared to the sliding zone. As the distance from the micro-texture to the cutting edge L
increased, the actual area of the micro-texture’s action decreased, the effective effect of
micro-texture was weakened, the frictional performance of the front face decreased, the
friction force in the tool-chip contact area increased, and an increase occurred in the main
cutting force during the milling process. The increase in cutting force caused the entire
milling process to be in a very severe negative rake-cutting state, with severe serious de-
formation at the outlet edge of the workpiece. The plastic flow path of the material was
longer, forming a flipped exit burr with the undivided chips, resulting in an increase in
burr size. As the cutting edge radius R increased, the height of the burrs gradually de-
creased, and the milling force decreased. This occurred because as the cutting edge radius
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 15 of 19

increased, the tool–workpiece contact area increased, reducing the load on the tool per
unit area from the workpiece. The surface deformation of the workpiece was reduced, and
the resistance of the milling cutter to overcome the plastic deformation of the workpiece
material decreased as well. The decrease in cutting force and cutting heat between the tool
and the workpiece led to a reduction in the size of the fourth deformation zone formed in
the cutting area. Therefore, the burr size was smaller.

Figure 17. Interaction test burr height test results.

Table 4. Range analysis table.

Burr Height R L R×L D L1 ap R × ap v F

K1 86.3 77.7 83.1 83.8 81.8 82.4 79.7 80.7 82.5
K2 81.0 81.8 81.8 81.2 83.4 80.5 81.8 83.9 80.4
K3 79.3 87.2 80.1 83.0 84.5 83.9 85.2 82.3 83.2
R 7.0 9.5 3.0 2.6 2.7 3.4 5.5 3.2 2.8
Sort 2 1 6 9 8 4 3 5 7

As the cutting depth ap increased, the actual cutting layer thickness gradually ap-
proached and reached the critical cutting thickness value for generating chips. At this
point, the number of chips accumulated at the cutting-edge decreased, thereby reducing
the formation of outlet burrs due to insufficient cutting. When the cutting depth ap contin-
ued to increase, the actual cutting thickness exceeded the critical cutting thickness value
for generating chips, causing more material to enter the cutting edge and more chips to
accumulate together, thereby increasing the size of burrs generated. Therefore, with the
increase in the cutting depth ap, the burr height decreased first and then increased. As the
cutting speed v accelerated, the amount of plastic deformation in the cutting area in-
creased, resulting in faster heat generation and an increase in milling force and milling
temperature, as well as an increase in burr size. Utilizing the Central Composite Design
response surface optimization method, we analyzed the interaction terms and depicted
the findings in Figure 18.
Observing Figure 18, it is evident that R*ap had an interactive effect on the height of
burrs. Due to this interaction, the actual cutting depth ap decreased as the cutting edge
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 16 of 19

radius R increased. The cutting edge radius was small, but the actual cutting depth was
larger, leading to greater stress concentration at the cutting edge, resulting in reduced tool
strength and a propensity for edge bouncing. Consequently, as the cutting depth in-
creased, the low-strength tool experienced greater load impact, significantly diminishing
the cutting performance. This resulted in a higher force exerted between the tool and the
workpiece, causing a substantial accumulation of material cut by the edge, leading to de-
formation and outward rolling, thus forming large-sized burrs. Conversely, with a larger
blunt radius of the cutting edge, the actual cutting depth decreased, thereby enhancing
tool strength. This decrease in cutting depth also reduced the vibration generated between
the workpiece and the cutting edge during the milling process, subsequently decreasing
milling force and milling temperature. Additionally, the accumulation of material at the
cutting edge decreased, reducing the size of the burrs. Consequently, it can be concluded
that the interaction between R and ap positively influenced the reduction of force temper-
ature and force, as well as the reduction in burr height.

Figure 18. R × ap interaction response surface plot for burr height.

According to the analysis results, the mesoscopic geometric features of the ball-end
milling cutter and cutting parameters selected according to the minimum burr height eval-
uation principle are as follows: the diameter of the micro circular pits D was 50 µm, the
spacing of the micro-textures L1 was 170 µm, the distance between the micro-texture and
the cutting edge L was 110 µm, and the cutting edge radius R was 60 µm. Furthermore,
the cutting depth ap was 0.4 mm, the cutting speed v was 180 mm/min, and the feed rate
per tooth f was 70 µm/z.

5. Optimization of Mesoscopic Geometric Feature Parameters of Cutting Tools for

Burr Features on Workpiece Surface
A regression analysis model for designing objective functions based on micro-texture
parameters of ball-end milling cutters was designed, with the micro-groove diameter D,
adjacent micro-texture spacing L1, micro-texture distance from the edge L, blunt edge ra-
dius R, cutting depth ap, cutting speed v, and feed rate f as independent variables, and the
surface burr height H of titanium alloy workpieces as the dependent variable. This model
was formulated in the form of an exponential function. We established the mathematical
model as follows:

H = 100.0586 ⋅ R −0.0810 ⋅ L0.3797 ⋅ D −0.0386 ⋅ L10.2841 ⋅ a p 0.0209 ⋅ V 0.0966 ⋅ f 0.0385 (14)

The data in Table 5 show that the P-values of the burr height in the empirical regres-
sion equation were 4.78275 × 10−17, which was significantly lower than the effective level
of 0.05. Through the F-test critical value table, it can be concluded that F(m, n – m − 1) =
F0.05(8, 18) = 2.510, and the actual values of the statistic F were far greater than 2.510,
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 17 of 19

indicating the existence of significant differences. Therefore, the regression models for
burr height established through the empirical regression equation were highly significant.

Table 5. Variance analysis of burr height by empirical regression equation.

Freedom Regression Sum of Squares Mean Square F Value Significance p

Regressive analysis 8 855.8865196 106.98581 263.6475 4.78275 × 10−17
Residual 18 7.304240201 0.4057911 —— ——
Total 26 863.1907598 —— —— ——

Using a simulated annealing algorithm [22], based on various evaluation indicators,

the optimized texture parameters, cutting edge radius, and cutting parameter range were
used as constraint conditions to set the parameter optimization limit range as blunt circu-
lar cutting edge radius R of 20–60 µm. The distance between the micro-texture and the
cutting edge ranges L was 110–150 µm. The texture diameter D was 40–60 µm. The texture
spacing L1 was 130–170 µm. The cutting depth ap was 0.3–0.5 mm, the cutting speed v was
140–180 mm/min, and the feed rate f was 0.06–0.08 mm/z. We performed dimensionality
reduction on the model, established a simulated annealing algorithm optimization func-
tion based on the dimensionalized model, assigned a burr height weight of 0.5, set the
number of iterations to 1000, selected the annealing function as Boltzmann annealing for
the simulated annealing algorithm optimization solution, and solved the interface. The
final optimization result is shown in Figure 19. The parameter optimization result was a
blunt circular edge radius of 33.242 µm, texture to blade distance of 114.621 µm, texture
diameter of 59.820 µm, texture spacing L1 of 131.410 µm, cutting depth ap of 0.310 mm,
cutting speed v of 140.019 mm/min, and feed rate f of 60 µm/z.

Figure 19. MATLAB R2022a simulated annealing algorithm to solve the interface and optimization
results.

The optimized parameters were verified by milling experiments under the same ex-
perimental conditions. The surface burr size of the workpiece after processing was meas-
ured. The measured data were weighted to obtain the final experimental results. We
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 18 of 19

recorded the final optimization result ʹfʹ and experimental results as shown in Table 6. It
can be seen that the relative error between the optimization results and the experimental
results was within 5%, which proves the feasibility of optimizing the parameters of the
mesoscopic geometric feature ball-end milling cutter.

Table 6. Experimental results.

Final Optimization Result f Results Relative Error

36.9 38.4 3.91%

6. Conclusions
Through the combination of theory and experiment, it was verified that the ball-end
milling cutter with mesoscopic geometric characteristics can effectively improve the sur-
face quality of milling titanium alloy and reduce the burr height. The mesoscopic geomet-
ric characteristic parameters and milling parameters with ideal effect were obtained. The
conclusions are as follows:
(1) Based on the titanium alloy milling export burr model, a theoretical relationship be-
tween mesoscopic geometric characteristic parameters and the burr height of a ball -
end milling cutter for titanium alloy milling was established. It was found that the
insertion of micro-textures will reduce the effective friction area Qn, thereby reducing
the friction force Ff and the heat generated by friction q2, resulting in a decrease in
burr height. Increasing the radius R of the cutting edge led to a decrease in the pri-
mary cutting force, thereby reducing the formation of outlet burrs.
(2) A test platform for milling titanium alloy with a hard alloy ball-end milling cutter
with mesoscopic geometric features was established. By integrating the thermal char-
acteristics of force during milling of titanium alloy with a ball-end milling cutter, an
investigation was conducted into how the mesoscopic geometric attributes affect the
surface burr height of the workpiece post-milling. The obtained micro-texture re-
duced the milling force and temperature during the milling process, thereby sup-
pressing the formation of some burrs. The blunt rounded edge improved the force
thermal characteristics of ball-end milling cutters in milling titanium alloys and re-
duced the height of burrs.
(3) A mesoscopic geometric feature ball-end milling cutter interaction test platform was
established to analyze the influence of the interaction between mesoscopic geometric
feature parameters and cutting parameters on the force thermal characteristics of
ball-end milling cutters for milling titanium alloys. The interaction between R and ap
had a positive effect on reducing milling force and temperature, as well as reducing
burr height.
(4) We stablished an exponential regression analysis prediction model with burr height
as the evaluation indicator and optimized the regression model using a simulated
annealing algorithm. The optimized cutting parameters resulted in a blunt circular
edge radius R of 54.14 µm. The distance between the micro-texture and the cutting
edge ranges L was 110.05 µm. The texture diameter D was 60.00 µm, and the texture
spacing L1 was 130.05 µm. The cutting depth ap was 0.43 mm, the cutting speed v was
140.10 mm/min, and the feed rate f was 60 µm/z.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, X.T. and S.W.; methodology, Q.Q.; validation, S.W. and
Q.Q.; formal analysis, S.W.; investigation, X.W.; resources, X.T.; writing—original draft preparation,
S.W.; writing—review and editing, X.T.; funding acquisition, X.T. All authors have read and agreed
to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant no.
52005140.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Coatings 2024, 14, 670 19 of 19

Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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