^Iq W

AS TM-1998-107249, Cha
NASA/Chapter 8 r

Structures and Mechanical Properties of

Natural and Synthetic Diamonds
Kazuhisa Miyoshi
Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

June 1998
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NASA/TM-1998-107249, Chapter 8

Structures and Mechanical Properties of

Natural and Synthetic Diamonds
Kazuhisa Miyoshi
Lewis Research Center, Cleveland, Ohio

National Aeronautics and

Space Administration

Lewis Research Center

June 1998
 Available from
NASA Center for Aerospace Information National Technical Information Service
7121 Standard Drive 5287 Port Royal Road
Hanover, MD 21076 Springfield, VA 22100
Price Code: A03 Price Code: A03
Chapter 8
Structures and Mechanical
Properties of Natural and
Synthetic Diamonds
8.1 Introduction and Historic Perspective
Diamond is an allotrope of carbon, joining graphite and the fullerenes as the
major pure carbon structures. Diamond has a unique combination of properties:
hardness, thermal conductivity, chemical and thermal inertness, and abrasion
resistance. These properties make diamond attractive for a wide range of tribologi-
cal applications, including solid lubrication. Presently, modern diamonds fall into
four distinct categories: natural, high-pressure synthetic, chemical vapor deposited,
and diamondlike carbon.
Natural diamond is produced at high pressures and temperatures in volcanic
shafts. Rough natural diamonds (i.e., uncut and unpolished) were known and prized
in antiquity [8.1 ]. They were first reported in India 2700 years ago. From India
diamond trading moved gradually westward through Persia and the Roman Empire.
However, the full beauty of diamond was not uncovered until faceting and polishing
techniques were developed in the 14th and 15th centuries. Natural diamond is the
primary source of diamond gemstones and by far the leader in terms of monetary
value. However, in the last 100 years or so the scarcity and high cost of natural
diamond have been challenged by the large-scale production of synthetic diamond.
The high-pressure synthesis essentially duplicates the natural high-pressure,
high-temperature process [8.1, 8.2]. The French chemist A. L. Lavoisier found in
1772 that the product of diamond combustion was singular: carbon dioxide (CO2).
In 1814 the English chemist H. Davy proved conclusively that diamond was a
crystalline form of carbon. He also showed that burning diamond produced only
CO 21 without the formation of aqueous vapor, indicating that it was free of hydrogen
and water. Since that time many attempts have been made to synthesize diamond
by trying to duplicate nature. These attempts, spread over a century, were unsuc-
cessful. It was not until 1955 that the first unquestioned syntheses were achieved in
the United States (General Electric), in Sweden (AESA), and in the Soviet Union
(Institute for High-Pressure Physics). The advent of synthetic diamond and the rapid
rise of industrial applications, particularly in wear, abrasive, and tool applications,

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

2

have drastically altered the industry. More changes, like the recent development of
chemical-vapor-deposited diamond and diamondlike carbon, will undoubtedly take
place in the future. Although high-pressure synthetic diamond and natural diamond
are used in the industrial market, their use in tribological applications has been
limited because of their small size and high cost and their need to be bonded to a
substrate in a separate operation.
Low-pressure diamond synthesis was discovered in the 1970's [8.3, 8.4]. In the
1980's synthetic diamond was produced in coating form by using a variety of low-
pressure, vapor-phase synthesis techniques under relatively benign conditions. The
low-pressure, vapor-phase process is based on chemical vapor deposition (CVD),
a relatively inexpensive process similar to carbide and nitride processing. The
material produced is often called CVD diamond, vapor-phase diamond, or diamond
coating. CVD diamond coatings 1 mm or more thick are now routinely
produced. After removing the substrate a free-standing shape of CVD diamond
coating, normally polycrystalline, remains with good integrity and properties
similar to those of single-crystal natural and high-pressure synthetic diamond.
Another new form of carbon coating was developed in the 1980's and is now
available. A metastable carbon produced as a thin coating by low-pressure synthe-
sis, it is known as diamondlike carbon (DLC). Although DLC has properties similar
to those of CVD diamond, it cannot be obtained as thick monolithic shapes, at least
with the present technology. A revolution in diamond technology and the diamond
business is in progress as the low-pressure process becomes an industrial reality. It
will soon be possible to take advantage of the outstanding properties of diamond to
develop a myriad of new applications. The production of large diamond films or
sheets at low cost is a distinct possibility in the not-too-distant future and may lead
to drastic changes in the existing technological and business structure.
In the field of tribology synthetic diamond film technology looks promising and
could edge into tribological and tooling applications. However, coating specialists
and researchers still tackle such problems as enhancing adhesion to substrates
(including steel), increasing bending strength, lowering deposition temperature,
speeding up deposition (production) rates, and lowering costs. CVD diamond and
DLC coatings offer a broader potential in the field of tribology than do natural and
high-pressure synthetic diamond because size and eventually cost will be less of a
limitation. For example, CVD diamond has been deposited on a 20 -cm-diameter
area, and DLC has been deposited on a 200 -cm knife-edge. For large areas (>5 mm2)
CVD diamond and DLC are the only forms of diamond or diamondlike materials
that seem economically viable. These films open the door to tribological technology
and design engineering that can take full advantage of diamond's intrinsic proper-
ties to make solid-lubricating, wear-resistant, erosion- and corrosion-resistant, and
protective coatings. These CVD diamond and DLC materials could offer lively new
solutions to important engineering problems and exciting challenges to the tribolo-
gist or designer who seeks to cost-effectively exploit their potential. The develop-

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

ment of safe and economic applications for diamond materials in competition with
conventional tribological materials requires understanding their behavior and
taking innovative approaches to manufacturing.
This chapter reviews the structures and properties of natural and synthetic
diamond to gain a better understanding of the tribological behavior of these
materials and related materials to be described in the following chapters.

8.2 Atomic and Crystal Structure of Diamond

Understanding diamond's behavior and properties requires a clear picture of the
atomic configuration of the carbon atom and the various ways in which it bonds to
other carbon atoms [8.1-8.8].

8.2.1 Tetragonal spa Orbital and Trigonal sp 2 Orbital of Carbon Hybrid

The six electrons of the carbon atom in the ground state (i.e., a single atom) are
configured as 1 s 2 2s22p2 (i.e., two electrons are in the K shell (1 s) and four are in the
L shell, two in the 2s orbital and two in the 2p orbital). The 1 s 22s22p 2 configuration
of the carbon atom does not account for the tetrahedral symmetry found in structures
such as diamond or methane (CH 4). The carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon
atoms in the case of diamond, or to four atoms of hydrogen in the case of methane.
In both cases the four bonds are of equal strength.
To have an electron configuration that would account for this tetrahedral
symmetry, the structure of the carbon atom must be altered to a state with four
valence electrons instead of two, each in a separate orbital and each with its spin
uncoupled from the other electrons. This alteration occurs when hybrid atomic
orbitals form in which the electrons in the L shell of the ground-state atom are
rearranged, one 2s electron being promoted (or lifted) to the higher orbital 2p. The
new orbitals are called hybrids, since they combine the 2s and 2p orbitals. They
are labeled sp a , since they are formed from one s orbital and three p orbitals.
The hybridization accounts for the tetrahedral symmetry and the valence state of
4, with four 2sp 3 orbitals in the diamond atomic structure. The orbitals are bonded
to the orbitals of four other carbon atoms with a strong covalent bond (i.e., the atoms
share a pair of electrons) to form a regular tetrahedron with equal angles to each
other of 109°28', as shown in Fig. 8.1(a).
In addition to the sp a -tetragonal hybrid orbital, two other orbitals complete the
series of electronic building blocks of all carbon allotropes and compounds: the sp2
and sp orbitals. Whereas the sp a orbital is the key to diamond and aliphatic
compounds, the sp2 (or trigonal) orbital is the basis of all graphitic structures and
aromatic compounds: graphite, graphitic materials, amorphous carbon, and other
carbon materials.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

4

(a)

1L)1
Figure 8.1.—sp 3 and sp2 hybridization of carbon orbitals.
(a) Four sp a orbitals of carbon atom. (Negative lobes
omitted for clarity) (b) Planar section of sp 2 hybrid
orbitals of carbon atom.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 The mechanism of the sp 2 hybridization is somewhat different from that of the
spa hybridization. The electrons in the L shell of the ground-state atom are
rearranged, one 2s electron being promoted and combined with two of the 2p
orbitals (hence, the designation sp 2) to form three sp2 orbitals and an unhybridized
free (or delocalized) p orbital electron. The valence state is now 4.
The calculated electron-density contour of the sp2 orbitals is similar in shape to
that of the sp a orbitals. Like the spa orbital the sp2 is directional and is called a sigma
((T) orbital; and the bond, a sigma bond. These three identical sp 2 orbitals are in the
same plane, and their orientation of maximum probability forms equal angles to
each other of 120° as shown in Fig. 8.1(b).
The fourth orbital (i.e., the delocalized, nonhybridized p electron) is directed
perpendicular to the plane of the three sp 2 orbitals and becomes available to form
the subsidiary pi (n) bond with other atoms.

8.2.2 Carbon Covalent sp a and sp2 Bonds

In diamond each tetrahedron of the hybridized carbon atom combines with four
other hybridized atoms (tetrahedra) to form a strongly bonded, three-dimensional,
entirely covalent lattice structure, as shown schematically in Fig. 8.2. The covalent
link between the carbon atoms of diamond is characterized by a short bond length
(0.154 nm) and a high bond energy (711 U/mol).

0 Carbon atom
c=> Region of high electron probabilities
(covalent bonding)

Figure 8.2.—Three-dimensional representation of

spa covalent bonding (lattice structure).

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 Diamond has two crystalline structures, one with cubic symmetry (by far the
more common and stable) and one with hexagonal symmetry (found in nature as the
mineral lonsdaleite). Cubic diamond will be referred to simply as "diamond" in this
book. Table 8.1 summarizes the structure and properties important to tribologists
and lubrication engineers. For comparison the table includes the structure and
properties of graphite.
The cubic structure of diamond can be visualized as a stacking of puckered
infinite layers (the { 111 } planes), as shown in Fig. 8.3(a). The stacking sequence of
the { 111) planes is ABCABC, so that every third layer is identical.
Graphite is composed of a series of stacked parallel layers (Fig. 8.3(b)) with
trigonal sp 2 bonding. Within each layer the carbon atom is bonded to three others,
forming a series of continuous hexagons in what can be considered as an essentially
infinite two-dimensional molecule. Each sp 2 -hybridized carbon atom combines
with three other sp 2 -hybridized atoms to form a series of hexagonal structures, all
located in parallel flat layers (Fig. 8.3(b)). Like the spa bond the sp 2 bond is covalent.
It is also short (0.1415 nm) and strong (524 U/mol) because of the three sp 2 valence
electrons and the small size of the atom. The fourth valency (i.e., the free delocalized
electron) is oriented perpendicular to this plane. The hybridized fourth valence
electron is paired with another delocalized electron from the adjacent layer by a
much weaker van der Waals bond (a secondary bond arising from structural
polarization) of only 7 U/mol (n bond). Thus, graphite's physical properties have
marked layerlike anisotropy.
The most common stacking sequence of the graphite crystal is hexagonal (alpha)
with a —ABABAB— stacking order (i.e., the carbon atoms in alternate layers are
superimposed over each other, Fig. 8.3(b)). Carbon is the only element to have this
particular layered hexagonal structure. The crystal lattice parameters (i.e., the
relative positions of its carbon atoms) are ao = 0.246 nm and co = 0.6708 nm.
Hexagonal graphite is the thermodynamically stable form of graphite.

TABLE 8.1.--CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE

Structure Diamond Graphite
Carbon bonding (bond energy. Covalent sp a (711) Covalent sp' (524) ; van der
U/mol) Waals (7)
Crystalline form Cubic; hexagonal Hexagonal; rhombohedral
Crystal lattice parameter, nm Cubic, 0.3567 Hexagonal:
ap = 0.246
co = 0.6708
Common crystal face (I 111, 10111, {0011 (0001 }, (1010), (10111, 110121
Cleavage and slip plane ( 111 1 10001)

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 7

• Carbon atom

Plane
A

0.154 nm 0.251 nm
(a)

Plane im
A-

B 0.6708 nm

(b)
Figure 8.3.—Schematic diagrams of crystal structures of
diamond and graphite. (a) Cubic structure of diamond
(ABC sequence). (b) Hexagonal structure of graphite
(ABAB sequence).

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

8.3 Impurities
One universally accepted classification of diamond is based on the nature and
amount of impurities contained within the structure (Table 8.2). Diamond, synthetic
or natural, is never completely free of impurities. These impurities are divided into
two principal types: (1) lattice impurities (type I), which consist of foreign elements
incorporated into the crystalline lattice, the foreign atom replacing a carbon atom;
(2) inclusions (type II), separate particles that are not part of the lattice and usually
consist of aluminum, magnesium, or calcium, such as olivine and garnet. Only
nitrogen and boron are known with certainty to be incorporated into the diamond
lattice. These two elements have small atomic radii and fit readily within the
diamond structure. Nitrogen is present in all natural diamond, with up to 2000 ppm
in type Ia diamond. Boron is present in natural type IIb diamond (up to 100 ppm)
and in specifically doped type IIb synthetic diamond (270 ppm). Many other
impurities have been detected but are believed to be inclusions. For example, up to
10 ppm of aluminum is frequently found in natural diamond, and synthetic diamond
may contain nickel or iron inclusions that occupy as much as 10% of the crystals.
The properties of diamond are susceptible to these impurities, and even a minute
amount of a foreign element such as nitrogen can cause drastic changes. These
effects are shown in Table 8.2 and discussed in Section 8.4.
The tetrahedral bonding configuration (Fig. 8.2) and the strong carbon-carbon
bond give diamond its unique properties (summarized in Table 8.3). For compari-
son the table also includes the properties of graphite. Determining the properties of
diamond is difficult, and published data are still limited. Small specimen size,
imperfections, and impurities contribute to the considerable spread in reported
values often found in the literature.

TABLE 8.2.—CLASSIFICATION AND CHARACTERISTICS OF DIAMOND

Lattice Thermal Electric Color Impurity Synthetic Abundance
impurity conduc- resistivity, diamond in natural
type tivity, ohm-cm diamond.
w/m-°C percent
Nitrogen, Others,
PPM Pprn
la 800 ' ]0°-1016 Clear to 6=2000 None =98
yellow
]b 800– '101-1016 Green to `101-10' 1
°10 -105 Powder =0.1
1700 brown
Ih 2000 '1016 Yellow `1-100 — Single =0.1
crystal
Ila 2000 ' 10 16 Colorless, =1 — Single 1-2
clear crystal
IIh 110-101 Blue =1 8 =100 Single =0
crystal
'Insulator. `High purity.
'Platelet form. `Semiconductor P type.
`Dispersed in lattice. 'Boron.
°Solvent metals.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 TABLE 8.3.PROPERTIES OF DIAMOND AND GRAPHITE
Property Diamond Graphite
Density, g/em' 152 2.26
Young's modulus, GPa '910-1250 Single crystal:
1060 (a direction)
36.5 (c direction)
Pyrolitic graphite, 28-31
Molded graphite, 5-10
Poisson's ratio '0.10--0.29 -----
Compression strength, GPa 8.68-16.53 0.065-0.089
Vickers hardness, GPa 60-100 Pyrolitic graphite, 2.4-3.6
Molded graphite, 3.9-9.8
Thermal conductivity at 25 °C, W/m-°C 600-1000 (type Ia) Pyrolitic graphite:
2000-2100 (type II) a and b directions, 190-390
c direction, 1-3
Molded graphite, 31-159
Coefficient of thermal expansion at `0.8-4.8 Pyrolitic graphite:
25 to 200 °C, 10'/deg C a and b directions, —1 to 1
c direction, 15-25
Molded graphite, 3.2-5.7
Specific heat at 25 °C, kJ/kg-K 0.502-0.519 0.690-0.719
'Typical values, 1050 and 1054.
'Typical value, 0.2.
`1.5 to 4.8 at 127 to 927 °C.

8.4 Mechanical Properties of Diamond

The properties described here are those of both natural and synthetic diamond.
See the reference list [8.9-8.25] for further reading.

8.4.1 Strength and Hertzian Fracture Properties

Materials with high hardness are usually brittle and diamond is no exception.
Diamond behaves as a brittle solid and fractures along its cleavage planes. The
fracture behavior of diamond is dominated by cleavage on the 1111 ] plane, but
cleavage fracture has also been observed along the other planes, such as 12111,
11101, and 1322), since the theoretical cleavage energy differences between planes
are small, as shown in Table 8.4. The cleavage energies are consistent with the order
of the cleavage planes, from easiest to hardest to cleave.
Knowledge of the fracture stress and crack patterns produced in diamond is
important in understanding tribological phenomena, such as wear, erosion, and
abrasion. Such knowledge can be gained from crack patterns produced in natural
and synthetic diamond by spherical indenters under normal loading. An indenter
loaded onto the surface of a specimen generally produces a local damage zone
comparable to the dimensions of the contact area (Fig. 8.4(a)). These results have
interest for two reasons. First, it is important to know diamond's fracture behavior,
particularly the crack patterns and fracture stress under conditions arising in its
tribological applications. Second, indentation techniques are the main method for
measuring the strength of materials.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

10

TABLE 8.4.—THEORETICAL CLEAVAGE

ENERGIES FOR DIAMOND
Plane Angle between plane Cleavage energy,'
and 11111 plane J/m'-
III 0°, 70°32' 10.6
332 1010' 11.7
221 15°48' 12.2
331 22°0' 12.6
110 35°16', 90° 13.0
322 11°24' 13.4
321 22°12' 14.3
211 19°28' 15.0
320 36°48' 15.3
210 39°14' 16.4
311 29°30' 16.6
100 54°44' 18.4
'To obtain fracture surface energy, divide by 2.

/P
R ^

2a

(a)
Hertzian cone (ring) crack
o
(b)

Q r, max
i F-Contact pressure p
(normal stress)
a r = (rr,max (alr)2

(c) (d) r=a

Figure 8.4.—Geometry of Hertzian cone (ring) crack and stress distributions
formed by sphere loaded normally onto plane surface of brittle material.
(a) Hertzian ring crack. (b) Contact area (radius of contact circle a).
(c) Distribution of normal stress p. (d) Distribution of tensile stress vr.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 I
The basis for treating the contact problem is the elasticity analysis of Hertz [8.91.
In the Hertzian method of measuring fracture stress a hard, spherical indenter is
pressed against the solid under normal loading P, and the load at fracture is
measured. The radius of the contact circle a (Fig. 8.4(b)) is given by

a3=4PR^I EVl + 1 EV2 (8.1)

I 2 J

where R is the radius of the spherical indenter and E,, v l and E2 , v2 are the Young's
modulus and Poisson's ratio of the solid and the indenter, respectively. The radius
of the contact circle is proportional to P113. And then the area of contact 7ra2
is proportional to P213. The mean pressure (normal stress) over the contact area
p113. This normal stress is not uniform over the circular area
Pmean = P1M 2 varies as
of contact but is highest at the center and falls to zero at the edge. Figure 8.4(c) shows
the distribution of normal stress; the maximum normal stress, at the center of the
contact circle, is 3/2 times the mean normal stress. Within the contact circle the
stress field becomes largely compressive, but outside the contact circle there is a
tensile stress field in the surface.
The tensile stress 6r in the plane surface has a maximum value 6,.,max at the edge
of the contact area (r = a), given by

6 r,max = (I — 2v l ) Pmean /2 (8.2)

Pmean = Pl70 2(8.3)

The maximum tensile stress 6r,max acts radially and parallel to the surface and gives
rise to fracture.
This tensile stress falls off with increasing radial distance (Fig. 8.4(d))
according to

^1-2vI)P
6 (8.4
r— 27rr2 )

6r = 6r,max(alr)2 (8.5)

r being the radial distance from the center of the contact. Below the surface and
outside the contact area the component of tensile stress diminishes rapidly with
depth and distance. A tensile "skin" layer consequently exists beyond the immediate
indentation site, thereby affording highly favorable conditions for crack initiation.
At some critical loading the elastic limit of the specimen will be exceeded, and

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

12

irreversible deformation will occur. In a brittle specimen the critical event is marked
by the sudden development of the so-called Hertzian cone (ring) crack (Fig. 8.4(a)).
With a brittle solid, such as glass, a ring crack forms in the tensile region. Such
ring cracks have also been found and studied on diamond surfaces. When ring
cracks develop in brittle materials, they usually start a little beyond the edge of the
contact circle (i.e., not at the point predicted by the Hertzian analysis to have the
maximum tensile stress). Several workers have tried to explain this result in terms
of a size distribution of defects in the solid surface.
Another important factor is the interfacial shear stresses that arise when the
indenter and indented materials have different elastic properties. In this situation
when the solids are pressed into contact, the materials on either side of the contact
interface will want to move by unequal amounts. Relative movement at the interface
will be affected by frictional forces. Clearly, the Hertzian stress field, which
neglects such interfacial effects, will be modified. If the indenter is the more rigid
material, the interfacial stresses reduce the movement of the indented solid surface.
The modified peak radial tensile stress is now less than that given by Eq. (8.4) and
exists slightly farther out. In other words, the material fails at an artificially high
fracture load and should do so at r > a. When the indenter is the more compliant
material, the effect is to intensify the radial stresses, resulting in an artificially low
fracture load. If this interfacial effect is small, it can be neglected.
Comparison of diamond with sapphire (alumina) and silicon. —Cleavage
cracks emerging on a crystalline surface form inherent patterns on the surface.
Figure 8.5, for example, shows well-developed ring cracks produced on silicon
1 1001, sapphire {0001 1, and natural diamond 11 11 1 during experiments in which
the specimens were indented with 200-µm- or 500-µm-radius spherical diamond
indenters [8.22]. Cleavage occurred mostly along the 1 1111 planes in both silicon
and diamond and along the 110121 planes in sapphire. In silicon the ring cracks
(following the 1 1111 cleavage planes) on the 1 1001 plane formed a_ square pattern
in the (110) direction. In sapphire the ring cracks (following the 110121 cleavage
planes) on the 100011 plane formed a triangular or hexagonal pattern. In diamond
the ring cracks (following the 1 1111 cleavage planes) on the I I 1 I 1 plane formed
a triangular or hexagonal pattern in the (110) direction.
Figure 8.6 presents the maximum tensile stress 6r max, or the tensile strength,
which acts normal to cleavage planes at the edge of the Hertzian contact circle and
gives riseto fracture on silicon 1 1001, sapphire 100011, natural diamond f 1111, and
synthetic diamond 11111 as a function of indenter radius. Indenter radius had a
marked effect on Hertzian fracture and on the maximum tensile stress to fracture.
The greater the indenter radius, the lower the maximum tensile stress to fracture.
Further, the values of maximum tensile stress (tensile strength) shown in Fig. 8.6
are of the same order as the theoretical strengths for the corresponding materials.
The theoretical strengths are approximately l/10th of the Young's moduli, which
are 167 GPa for silicon, 380 GPa for sapphire, and 1020 GPa for natural and
synthetic diamond. The tensile strengths of the materials investigated herein were,
in ascending order, silicon, sapphire, natural diamond, and synthetic diamond.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 13

(a) 100 lam

30 gm

30 µm
Figure 8.5.—Typical ring cracks in various
specimens. (a) Silicon {100}. Indenter radius,
500 µm. (b) Sapphire {0001}. Indenter
radius, 200 µm. (c) Natural diamond {111}.
Indenter radius, 200 µm.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

14

100
m Material Cleavage
a plane
C7
O Silicon {100}
E q Sapphire {0001}
b p Natural diamond {111}
O Synthetic diamond {111}
vi
2
N 10
2
C
N
2q
E A
7 q A
E El
X
M
O
O O
1
1 10 100 1000
Indenter radius, R, µm
Figure 8.6.—Maximum tensile stress normal to cleavage plane at edge of
contact circle for silicon, sapphire, and natural and synthetic diamond as
function of indenter radius.

Anisotropy in tensile strength.— Figure 8.7 presents ring cracks formed on

polished (111 1, (1001, and (1101 surfaces of cutting-tool-grade natural diamond
by spherical diamond indenters [8.21 ]. All cleavage fractures occurred along the
{ 111) planes in diamond. On the (111) and (110} diamond surfaces ring cracks
formed a triangular or hexagonal pattern in the (110) direction. On the (1001
diamond surface ring cracks formed a square pattern in the (110) direction. As
shown in Fig. 8.8 the anisotropy in the mean maximum tensile stress to fracture on
the { 1 I 11, 1100), and (110} diamond surfaces is small, but the critical load to
fracture greatly varies with the surfaces [8.211.
Effect of impurities on tensile strength. —As shown (especially in Fig. 8.8)
determining diamond's properties is difficult, and there is considerable spread in the
values reported in the literature. Impurities, particularly nitrogen, considerably alter
the tensile strength, as shown in Fig. 8.9. When the (100} surfaces of single-crystal
synthetic diamond containing I ppm to nearly 300 ppm of nitrogen were indented
with a 5-µm-radius spherical diamond indenter, nitrogen altered the maximum
tensile stress to fracture (tensile strength). The tensile strength decreased with an
increase in nitrogen concentration. In other work, when the { 1001 surfaces of
natural diamond containing approximately 2000 ppm of nitrogen were indented
with a 5-µm-radius spherical diamond indenter, the tensile strength consistently
decreased with an increase in nitrogen concentration and ranged from 15 to 25 GPa.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 15

Indenter radius, Indenter radius,

0.2 mm 0.014 mm

50 µm 10 µm
Figure 8.7.—Ring cracks on various polished surfaces
of cutting-tool-grade natural diamond. (a) {111}.
(b) {100}. (c) {110}.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

16

8.4.2 Indentation Hardness

As described in the previous section, spherical indenters develop tensile stresses

around the contact area that encourage brittle fracture rather than plastic flow.
Pyramidal indenters (used by Knoop, Vickers, and Berkovich), however, produce
rhombohedral, square, and triangular indentations, respectively, which are plasti-
cally deformed.
The property measured by an indentation hardness test is the plastic strength of
the material (i.e., the amount of plastic deformation produced). All pyramidal
indenters have a further advantage in that they yield values, in terms of units of
pressure, that can be compared directly with other mechanical properties, such as
yield stress, yield strength, and Young's modulus.
Comparison of diamond with othersolids. —It has already been established that
the hardness measured for crystalline solids is very much dependent on indenter
shape, normal load, temperature, crystallographic orientation of the indenter with
respect to the indented plane, and impurities. The diamond crystal is the hardest
known material, although theoretical works suggest that the hypothetical com-
pound (-C3N4 should be as hard or even harder than diamond. This fact makes it
difficult to measure diamond's hardness, since only another diamond can be used
as an indenter, and may help to explain the wide variations in reported values of
diamond hardness. For example, although the Knoop indenter gave a hardness
range of 73.5 to 88.2 GPa for diamond { 111 } and the Berkovich indenter a hardness
range of 17.6 to 20.1 GPa for sapphire f 0001), only the median values are shown
in Fig. 8.10 [8.24]. For a given crystal the Knoop hardness values are generally
lowest, and the Vickers and Berkovich indenters give similar results.
Anisotropy in indentation hardness. —The indentation hardness, like the tensile
strength, is intrinsically anisotropic. Figure 8.11 presents the anisotropic phenom-
enon in the two major types of diamond indented at room temperature with a
9.8-N load on mechanically polished surfaces. The results clearly show the type II
diamonds to be significantly harder than the type I. The anisotropy in the hardness
of crystals is controlled by their crystallographic structures and the relevant
operative slip systems. The observed anisotropy of diamond was predicted and
explained by models based on resolved shear stresses developed on the primary
{ 111 } (110) slip systems in the bulk of the crystal beneath the indenter. The easiest
plane to indent by a Knoop indenter is the { 111 } in the K 110) direction. Contrary
to indentation measurements the { 111 } planes are generally the most difficult to
abrade.
Effect of impurities on indentation hardness.—Impurities, particularly nitro-
gen, considerably alter the indentation hardness. Polished ( 1001 surfaces of single-
crystal synthetic diamond (type Ib) containing 1 ppm to nearly 100 ppm of nitrogen
and natural diamond (type Ia) containing up to 2000 ppm of nitrogen were indented
with a Knoop diamond indenter. As shown in Fig. 8.12 type Ia natural diamond
invariably contained more nitrogen impurities (e.g., nitrogen platelets) and thus had
greater ranges of hardness values.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 17

Measured
10 value
n 9 O Highest
q Mean
O
N a`°
o 8 A Lowest
7 O O
E
b 6 q q q
X A
5 A A
cz
(a)
4
{111 } {100} {110}
Indented surface

180

160

140
z
a 120

100
0 80
ca
0
60
U

U 40

20

0
{1 11 } {100} {110}
Indented surface
Figure 8.8.—(a) Maximum tensile stress (strength) normal to cleavage
plane at edge of contact circle for and (b) critical load to fracture on
{111}, {100}, and {110} surfaces of cutting-tool-grade natural diamond.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

18

CO 35
a

30
E

ui 25

m 20
.N
C

15
1 2 4 6 10 20 40 60 100 200 400
Nitrogen concentration, ppm
Figure 8.9.—Maximum tensile stress (strength) of
synthetic diamond in Hertzian contact with 5-mm-
radius diamond indenter as function of nitrogen
concentration.

120

100 O Knoop
(n Vickers
IL
0 O Berkovich
80
U)
m
C

cu 60
C
0

ca
C
40
a>
C
20

Diamond Cubic BN Sic Sapphire Quartz

{1 11 } {111 } (0001) {0001} {0001}
Material
Figure 8.10.—Indentation hardnesses for diamond and other solid
materials.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 19

120

100

ro

4 80
N
N
0 60

Lro
a
o 40
c
Y
20

0
0 0 0 o Icy
r o
r X
r r Xo
O r X
r
X r X
O O
X r
O O
O O
r
V
v V
Crystallographic plane and direction
Figure 8.11.—Anisotropic Knoop hardness for two types of diamond.

250

• Natural diamond
♦ Synthetic diamond

200
ro
a
cs
N
y
d
0 150

ro T 1L
0
O T
2♦I^

Y
100

50
10 1102 103 104
Nitrogen concentration, ppm
Figure 8.12.—Knoop hardness of synthetic and natural diamond as function
of nitrogen concentration.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

20

80

70

001)

60

CU
50
C7
vi
a^
40
m
a
0
°c 30
Y

20

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature, °C

Figure 8.13.—Knoop hardness of diamond {111} and sapphire

(alumina) { 1010 } surfaces as function of temperature.

Effect of temperature on indentation hardness. — Hardness values for single-

crystal diamond and alumina were obtained by using a Knoop indenter oriented in
(112) on { 11 I } and (0001) on { 1010 1, respectively. The results (Fig. 8.13) confirm
that, although its hardness decreased with increasing temperature and there was a
corresponding increase in plastic deformation, at 1200 °C diamond was still harder
than alumina at room temperature. Also, because diamond has the highest thermal
conductivity of any material at room temperature, cracking due to thermal shock is
not likely to be a problem, in contrast to alumina.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

 21

References
8.1 H.O. Pierson, Handbook of Carbon, Graphite, Diamond and Fullerenes: Properties, Processing,
and Applications, Noyes Publications, Park Ridge, NJ, 1993.
8.2 J.E. Field (ed.), The Properties of Diamond, Academic Press, New York, 1979.
8.3 R.E. Clausing, et a]. (eds.), Diamond and Diamondlike Films and Coatings, Plenum Press,
New York, 1991.
8.4 P.D. Gigl, New synthesis techniques: properties and applications for industrial diamond, Presented
at the IDA Ultrahard Materials Seminar, Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 1989.
8.5 P.G. Lurie and J.M. Wilson, The diamond surface, Surf. Sci. 65: 4761198 (1977).
8.6 J. Wei and J.T. Yates, Jr., Diamond surface chemistry: I-A review, Crit. Rev. Surf. Chem. 5:
1-71 (1995).
8.7 A.G. Guy, Elements of Physical Metallurgy, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, MA, 1959.
8.8 J.P. Hirth and J. Lothe, Theory of Dislocations, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968,
pp. 353-363.
8.9 H. Hertz, Uber die Beruhrung fester elastischer Korper, J. Reine and Angew. Math. 92:
156-171 (1881).
8.10 S. Timoshenko and J.N. Goodier, Theory of Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1951, p. 372.
8.11 F.C. Frank and B.R. Lawn, On the theory of Hertzian fracture, Proc. R. Soc. (London), Ser. A 299:
291-306 (1967).
8.12 B.R. Lawn, Hertzian fracture in single crystals with the diamond structure, J. Appl. Phys. 39, 10:
4828-4836(1968).
8.13 B.R. Lawn and M.V. Swain, Microfracture beneath point indentations in brittle solids, J. Mater.
Sci. 10: 113-122 (1975).
8.14 B.R. Lawn and T.R. Wilshaw, Fracture of Brittle Solids, Cambridge University Press, 1975.
8.15 S. Tolansky and V.R. Howes, Induction of ring cracks on diamond surfaces, Proc. Phys. Soc.
(London), Sect. B 70: 521-526 (1957).
8.16 M. Seal, The abrasion of diamond, Proc. R. Soc. (London), Ser. A 248: 379-393 (1958).
8.17 V.R.Howes, The critical stress forthe production ofpressure crackfigureson diamond faces, Proc.
Phys. Soc. 74: 48-52 (1959) .
8.18 C.A. Brookes, Indentation hardness of diamond, Diamond Research, 1971, pp. 12-15.
8.19 W.R. Tyson, Theoretical strength of perfect crystals, Phil. Mag. 14: 925-936 (1966).
8.20 N. Ikawa, S. Shimada, and H. Tsuwa, Microfracture of diamond as fine tool material, CIRP Ann.
31, 1: 71-74 (1982).
8.21 N. Ikawa, S. Shimada, and T. Ono, Microstrength of diamond, Technology Reports of Osaka
University 26, 1298: 245-254 (1976).
8.22 N. Ikawa and S. Shimada, Microstrength measurement of brittle materials, Technology Reports of
Osaka University 31, 1622: 315-323 (1981).
8.23 S. Bhagavantam and J. Bhimasenachar, Elastic constants of diamond, Proc. R. Soc. (London), Ser.
A 187: 381-384 (1946).
8.24 C.A. Brooks, Plastic deformation and anisotropy in the hardness of diamond, Nature 228:
660-661(1970).
8.25 R.M. Chrenko and H.M. Strong, Physical properties of diamond, General Electric Technical
Information Series No. 75CRD089, 1975, pp. 1-45.

NASA TM-107249, Chapter 8

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Structures and Mechanical Properties of Natural and Synthetic Diamonds

WU-523-22-13-00
6. AUTHOR(S)

Kazuhisa Miyoshi

7. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION NAME(S) AND ADDRESS(ES) 8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION

REPORT NUMBER
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Lewis Research Center E-9863-8
Cleveland, Ohio 44135-3191

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AGENCY REPORT NUMBER
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
Washington, DC 20546-0001 NASA TM-1998-107249,
Chapter 8

11. SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES

Responsible person, Kazuhisa Miyoshi, organization code 5140, (216) 433-6078.

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Unclassified -Unlimited
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This publication is available from the NASA Center for AeroSpace Information, (301) 621-0390.
13. ABSTRACT (Maximum 200 words)

A revolution in diamond technology is in progress as the low-pressure process becomes an industrial reality. It will soon
be possible to take advantage of the demanding properties of diamond to develop a myriad of new applications, particu-
larly for self-lubricating, wear, and superhard coatings. The production of large diamond films or sheets at low cost, a
distinct possibility in the not-too-distant future, may drastically change tribology technology, particularly solid lubricants
and lubricating materials and systems. This chapter reviews the structures and properties of natural and synthetic diamond
to gain a better understanding of the tribological properties of diamond and related materials to be described in the
following chapters. Atomic and crystal structure, impurities, mechanical properties, and indentation hardness of diamond
are described.

14. SUBJECT TERMS 15. NUMBER OF PAGES

27
Solid lubrication; Coatings; Tribology; Fundamentals; Applications 16. PRICE CODE
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