SOIL CLASSIFICATION

Part 2

Lecture 5
 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
Definition & Historical Background
•Consistency refers to texture and firmness of a soil and is often
directly related to strength.
•Consistency is conventionally described as:
o Soft
o Medium stiff
o Stiff
o Hard
It is a property related to clayey soils.

First attempt to describe consistency using a standardized
method was in the early 1900s by a Swedish scientist called
Albert Atterberg.

With some modifications introduced by Arthur Casagrande, the
method was developed to become what is known today as the
Atterberg Limits.
 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
Interaction of Clays with Water

The transition between different degrees of consistency is guided by

the moisture content.

-Relatively dry clay behaves as a solid (very low moisture content)

-Highly saturated clays behave like fluid (very high moisture content).

⇒Consistency of clay changes with varying moisture content.

⇒Atterberg Limits are moisture contents at certain limiting or critical

stages in clay behavoir.

•SHRINKAGE LIMIT (SL): moisture content at which the transition from solid to semi soli state.

•PLASTIC LIMIT (PL): moisture content at the transition point from semi solid to plastic state.

•LIQUID LIMIT (LL): moisture content at the transition point from plastic to liquid state.

THE ABOVE PARAMETERS ARE KNOWN AS THE ATTERBERG LIMITS.

 CONSISTENCY OF SOIL
Atterberg Limits

Shrinkage Plastic
Liquid limit
limit limit

0%
PLASTIC ZONE Water
Brittle Semi - Plastic Liquid content w%
solid solid

decreasing moisture content Increasing moisture content

Higher strength Lower strength

Stress-strain characteristics at different Atterberg limits.

SL PL LL
 LIQUID LIMIT-LL
Definition

CASAGRANDE METHOD

• (ASTM D4318)

•Professor Casagrande standardized

the test and developed the liquid

limit device.

•Multipoint test: at least four tests

at varying moisture contents.

 LIQUID LIMIT – LL
Casagrande Method
DEVICE:

N=25 blows
Closing distance =
12.7mm (0.5 in)

The water content, in percentage, required

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981) to close a distance of 0.5 in (12.7mm)
along the bottom of the groove after 25
blows is defined as the liquid limit
LIQUID LIMIT – LL
Test apparatus
 LIQUID LIMIT – LL
Plotting the results

Das, 1998

N
Best-fit straight line is plotted for the test results. This is called the flow curve.
The slope of the flow curve is called the flow index IF
 PLASTIC LIMIT-PL
Definition

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

The plastic limit PL is

defined as the water
content at which a soil
thread with 3.2 mm
diameter just crumbles.

ASTM D4318, BS1377: Part

2:1990:5.3
 SHRINKAGE LIMIT-SL
Soil volume: Vi
Soil mass: M1

Soil volume: Vf
Soil mass: M2
Definition of
shrinkage limit:
(ASTM D427)
SL = wi (%) − ∆w(%)
The water content at
 M1 − M 2   Vi − V f 
=  (100) −  ( ρ w )(100) which the soil volume
 M2   M2  ceases to change is
defined as the
(Das, 1998)
shrinkage limit.
Typical Values of Atterberg Limits

(Mitchell, 1993)
 INDICES
•Plasticity index PI •Liquidity index LI
•For describing the range of •For scaling the natural water
water content over which a content of a soil sample to
soil was plastic the Limits.
•PI = LL – PL w − PL w − PL
LI = =
PI LL − PL
Liquid C
State w is the water content
Liquid Limit,
LL
P Plastic B
I State Plastic Limit, LI <0 (A), brittle fracture if
Semisolid A PL
sheared
State
Shrinkage Limit, 0<LI<1 (B), plastic solid if
SL
Solid sheared
State
LI >1 (C), viscous liquid if
sheared
 INDICES (CONT.)

•Sensitivity St (for clays)

w > LL
Strength (undisturbed )
St =
Strength (disturbed)
Unconfined shear strength

(Holtz and Kavocs, 1981)

13
 SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Purpose
•Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in terms
of simple indices, can provide geotechnical engineers a
general guidance about engineering properties of the soils
through the accumulated experience.

Communicate
between
engineers
Classification Estimate Achieve
Simple
system engineering engineering
indices
(Language) properties purposes
GSD, LL, PI
Use the
accumulated
experience
 CLASSIFICATION SYSTEMS
Common Types

Two commonly used systems:

•Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

•American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System
UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
(USCS)

Origin of USCS:

This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande (1942) for the
purpose of airfield construction during World War II. Afterwards, it was
modified by Professor Casagrande, the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams,
foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).

Two broad categories:

(1) Coarse-grained soils that are gravely and sandy in nature with
<50% passing through #200 sieve.
(2) Fine-grained soils with more than 50% passing through the #200
sieve.
 DEFINITION OF GRAIN SIZE
USCS

No specific grain size

use Atterberg limits

Gravel Sand Silt and

Boulders Cobbles Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 75 No.4 No.200

mm mm 4.75 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
mm
2.0 0.425
mm mm
 GENERAL GUIDANCE
USCS
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay

NO. 4 NO.200
4.75 0.075
mm mm

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL LL>50

•Cu •Plasticity chart LL <50
•Cc

Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit
 SYMBOLS
USCS

Soil symbols: Liquid limit symbols

•G: Gravel (for fine grained soils):
•S: Sand •H: High LL (LL>50)
•M: Silt •L: Low LL (LL<50)
•C: Clay Gradation symbols
•O: Organic (for coarse grained soils):
•Pt: Peat •W: Well-graded
•P: Poorly-graded
Example: SW, Well-graded sand
Well − graded soil
SC, Clayey sand 1 < C c < 3 and C u ≥ 4
SM, Silty sand, (for gravels)
MH, Elastic silt 1 < C c < 3 and C u ≥ 6
(for sands)
 PLASTICITY CHART
•The A-line generally separates the more claylike materials from silty materials, and the
organics from the inorganic.
•The U-line indicates the upper bound for general soils.
Note: If the measured limits of soils are on the left of U-line, they should be rechecked.

L H

PI

LL

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

PROCEDURES FOR CLASSIFICATION
USCS

Coarse-
grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-
grained
material
LL, PI

Highly

(Santamarina et al., 2001)

Example

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

Passing No.4 sieve 70 %

LL= 33

PI= 12

PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line

PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49

SC
(≥15% gravel)
Clayey sand with
gravel Highly

(Santamarina et al., 2001)

 ORGANIC SOILS

• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)

− A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various stages of
decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous texture, a dark-
brown to black color, and an organic odor should be designated as a
highly organic soil and shall be classified as peat, PT.

• Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

− “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 % of its
liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is true, then
the first symbol is O.
− The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and LL
(not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.
BORDERLINE CASES (DUAL SYMBOLS)
•For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should be used.
– Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
−About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of the
coarse-grained media by orders of magnitude.
−The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well
or poorly graded. The second symbol describes the contained
fines. For example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt.
– Fine-grained soils with limits within the shaded zone.
(PI between 4 and 7 and LL between about 12 and
25).
−It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike
materials.
−CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.
– Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.
− possible dual symbols GM-ML
AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF STATE
HIGHWAY AND TRANSPORTATION
OFFICIALS SYSTEM (AASHTO)

Origin of AASHTO: (For road construction)

This system was originally developed by Hogentogler and

Terzaghi in 1929 as the Public Roads Classification
System. Afterwards, there are several revisions. The
present AASHTO (1978) system is primarily based on the
version in 1945. (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
 DEFINITION OF GRAIN SIZE
AASHTO

No specific grain size-

use Atterberg limits
Boulders Gravel Sand Silt-Clay

Coarse Fine

75 No.4 No.20
mm 0
4.75
mm No.40 0.075
mm
0.425
mm
 GENERAL GUIDANCE
AASHTO

– 8 major groups: A1~ A7 (with several subgroups) and organic soils A8

– The required tests are sieve analysis and Atterberg limits.
– The group index, an empirical formula, is used to further evaluate soils
within a group (subgroups).

A1 ~ A3 A4 ~ A7

Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials

≤ 35% pass No. 200 ≥ 36% pass No. 200
sieve sieve
Using LL and PI separates silty Using LL and PI separates silty
materials from clayey materials materials from clayey materials
(only for A2 group)

– The original purpose of this classification system is used for road

construction (subgrade rating).
 GROUP INDEX
The first term is determined by the LL

GI = ( F 200 − 35 ) [0 . 2 + 0 . 005 ( LL − 40 ) ]
+ 0 . 01 ( F 200 − 15 )( PI − 10 )
The second term is determined by the
PI
For Group A-2-6 and A-2-7

GI = 0.01( F200 − 15)(PI − 10) use the second term only

F200: percentage passing through the No.200 sieve

-If GI is negative, it is taken equal to zero.

-GI is rounded to the nearest whole number.
-GI=0 for groups A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, & A-3
-In general, the rating for a pavement subgrade is inversely proportional to the group
index, GI.
CLASSIFICATION

Das, 1998
 CLASSIFICATION (CONT.)

Das, 1998

Note:
The first group from the left to fit the test data is the correct AASHTO classification.
CLASSIFICATION (CONT.)
 EXAMPLE
Passing No.200 86% GI = ( F200 − 35 )[0 .2 + 0 .005 ( LL − 40 ) ]
LL=70, PI=32 + 0 .01( F200 − 15 )( PI − 10 )
A-7-5(33)
LL-30=40 > PI=32 = 33 .47 ≅ 33 Round off