Gender Studies: An Introduction

It is a discipline which discusses the many ways in which gender of people affects/may affect their
status in society; how people’s health, education, economy, social treatment and access to resources
may vary with their gender.

Sex versus Gender:

Sex refers to the biological characteristics distinguishing male and female. Distinction made in terms of
chromosomes, anatomy, hormones, reproductive systems and other physiological components. Sex is a
fixed category and is ascribed. It means being male or female.

Gender has social, cultural psychological connotation. It is dynamic, achieved, taught and learnt. It
means being masculine or feminine. Gender refers to practices and behaviors propagated and enforced
by society, culture and ideologies on the basis of biological and sexual difference between men and
women.

Gender Studies: Background, Nature and Scope:

In the early 20th Century, women were struggling for their rights.

Feminist movement was behind this struggle.

Struggle for political rights, suffrage (right to vote) was a distinct feature. Women were successful in this
struggle.

There had been a growing consciousness that men and women had been treated differently. After
attaining right to political participation, there was a realization that women could attain equality with
men in all spheres of life which in turn would change their status in the society.

Feminist movement became intense over the decades. In the 1960s, when the second wave of
movement was intense, there was a strong realization that the traditional curriculum needed to be
revisited and changed. Women perspective was to be added.

There had been a demand for adding Women Studies to the curriculum. Subsequently, programs in
Women Studies were introduced.

Mary Ritter Beard in said to have developed perhaps the first such course in 1934.

The course “A Changing Political Economy as it Affects Women” was designed by her. She developed a
54-page syllabus for this purpose. The course could not be formally used for teaching.

The first formal program in Women Studies in the US was approved in 1970 by San Diego State
University.

The first milestones were followed by many other universities by introducing programs and departments
of WS across the globe.
In Pakistan, the first department of WS was established in 1989 in Karachi by the Ministry of Women
Development.

GS has a wide scope and it covers a broader horizon of topics of interest.

It discusses issues from gender perspective, involving Psychology, Sociology, health, religion, politics, art
and literature, environment, law, economic development, leadership, and much more.

A student having GS can go into research, teaching, Government organizations or NGOs.

The International and Pakistani Perspective: Shift from WS TO GS

For many years the programs in WS focused of different aspects of women’s life alone.

With the growing influence of third wave changes in perception were taking place like men and
masculinity, men movement.

In the 1980s there was an awareness and realization that Gender rather women needed to be focused
on.

The agendas of Gender Equality cannot be attained unless all the gender categories are kept in view.

Use of terms like gender development by international agencies such as UN.

Multidisciplinary Nature of Gender Studies:

Anthropologists, psychologists, sociologists, lawyers and other experts with a background of gender
research are contributing to GS.

Research on every aspect of life from gender perspective.

Foundation course in many programs.

Sociology is most closely related to GS as it studies the social institutions which affect socialization which
is related to gender roles and development of gender identities.

Sociological perspectives on Gender:

Two levels of analysis: macro and micro-sociological

Macro: Focus on data on large scale social phenomena (health, economy, politics, education etc.)

Micro: Focus on small groups (family, spouses, close friends and their interactions.)

Basic Sociological Aspects:

Status: is a category or position a person occupies that is a significant determinant of how she or he will
be defined and treated. It can be ascribed or achieved. People may be holding a number of statuses at
the same time (status Set)
Social Ratification: A system whereby members of a society are categorized according to their status
and these statuses are further ranked.

Social Norms: Behaving according to the status he has achieved. Determine and affect the way these
roles are performed; WHICH behavior will be performed, WHEN, WHERE and HOW. They serve as
standards.

Stereotypes: Oversimplified conceptions that people who occupy the same status group share certain
traits in common. Commonly held beliefs.

Gender Roles: The expected attitudes and behaviors a society associates with each sex.

Sexism: Generally having positive attitude towards one’s own gender and negative towards the other
gender. Emerges from sexism the belief that the status of female is inferior to the status of male.

Patriarchy: male-dominated social structures leading to the oppression of women. A social system
headed by men---as heads of the family, institution, tribe.

Andro-centrism: Male centered norms operating throughout all social institutions that become the
standard to which all persons adhere. Finds roots in patriarchy and male view point in central.

Sociological Perspective on Gender Roles:

Structural Functionalism: Society is a system that consists of interconnected and inter dependent parts
that operate to contribute to the functioning of the whole society. End goal is social equilibrium in the
whole society and focus on understanding how elements of social structure contribute to its overall
social stability balance and equilibrium. Role specialization of men and women seen as a functional
necessity in preindustrial societies. They were assigned different tasks

Men used to hunt and gather, children learned their roles in agricultures and domestics activities and
women depended on men for food and protection and value was added to man’s role.

This perspective seems to ignore egalitarian families and egalitarian attitudes towards gender roles.

Conflict Theory: Focuses on the conflict between powerful and powerless or the less powerful. It
emerged from the written words of Karl Max and Friedrich Engels.

The society is perceived as a stage where people are acting out their roles in the struggle for power and
dominance… the struggle is primarily between social classes over the means of production/resources.
The dominant class has control over the means of production, makes maximum profit out of the work of
the subordinate class, and wants to maintain status quo. The workers keep working to make ends meet.
The realization that they are all being oppressed leads to development of class consciousness, unity and
struggle for challenging the inequitable system. The conflict arises between the master and slave,
exploiter and the exploited and the bourgeoisie and the proletariat.
Engels applied this model to the understanding of family and by extension to gender roles. According to
her, “Women’s domestic labor is no longer counted beside the acquisition of the necessities of life by
the man; the latter was everything, the former an unimportant extra.” The household is an autocracy,
and the supremacy of the husband is unquestioned.

How is women emancipation possible?

“The emancipation of women will only be possible when women can take part in production on a large
social scale, and domestic work no longer claims but an insignificant amount of her time.” Engels

Contemporary Conflict Theory: Refined form of original conflict theory. It talks about social change with
an egalitarian orientation rather than a revolutionary approach.

Symbolic Interaction/ Interaction Perspective: Most influential perspective today. Society is the product
of social interactions that take place between individuals. Focus is on people’s behavior in face to face
social settings. Social interaction is a dynamic process.

Herbert Blumer: Perception of events and settings is what matters.

Social Construction of Reality: The different categories in which people are divided such as race or
ethnicity are a product of a socially constructed process. Their existence is subjective.

Gender emerges not as individual attribute but something that is accomplished in interaction with
others. People therefore are doing gender.

Erving Goffman’s introduced dramaturgy approach to social interaction as it is similar to theatrical

Gender Roles;

Are defined as socially or culturally expected roles, attributes, mannerisms, behaviors, attitudes,
activities, an duties associated with male and females.

Gender Identity: the Self-Concept of individuals about themselves as being male or female. It is basically
acquired by human beings through socialization process. It is the way a person identifies with a specific
gender.

Gender Equity and gender equality:

Gender equity is the state of fairness and justice. It is about fair and just distribution of resources and
benefits as well as responsibilities between men and women according to their needs.

Equity sets the base for equality where men and women are treated the same way. Gender equality is
the end goal whereas gender equity is the means to that end.
“Gender Equality, equality between men and women… does not mean that women and men have to
become the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether
they were born male or female. UNESDOC”

“Gender equity means fairness of treatment for men and women according to their respective needs.
This may include equal treatment or treatment that is different but which is considered equivalent in
terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. UNESDOC”

Gender discrimination occurs when fundamental rights are denied to one sex. Violence is an outcome of
gender discrimination. And gender discrimination has roots in sexism.

The Feminist Movement:

The feminist movements emerged from women’s struggle for:

Education for all, women political and other rights, women’s independence and financial decision
making.

A movement or way of thinking that proposes, advocates, supports, and struggles for social equality of
men and women. Look at the differences from gender perspective rather than sexist approach.

The feminists advocate that:

Change is important and eliminate gender stratification. All forms of violence to be emitted and sexual
autonomy is important.

The Three Waves of Feminism;

First Wave: Focused on women’s issues, legal issues, women suffrage. More prominent in UK, US and
Canada in 19 and 20th centuries. Fought for right of child custody, property in their name, profession
choosing, right to vote, divorce and educational access.

Second Wave: In early 1960s started and spread throughout western world and ended in 1980s. Women
political participation was happening. Claims for women’s reproductive rights. Appealed for legal and
social recognition of domestic violence, sexual harassment, child sexual abuse, sexual assault and
women in workplace as well in military. Sex based oppressive laws were repelled.

Legal Victories of second wave:

In 1963, John F. Kennedy formulated presidential commission on the status of women. Many acts were
approved. 1963 Equal Pay Act, 1964 Civil Right Act, 1972 Women Education Equity Act, 1974 Equal
Credit Opportunity Act, 1978 Pregnancy Discrimination Act.

Third Wave: Began in 1990s. Focus on more individual identity rather than on law and political process.

Addressed the variation among the women in color, religion, ethnicity, cultural backgrounds . It
criticized sexist and derogatory language against women and new self-celebrating words and forms
were invented. 1992 was year of women when 4 women entered US Senate. 1992 family and medical
leave acts passed.

Historical Developments of Movements:

A brief history of the feminist struggle: Christine de pizan: Generally considered the first feminist writer.
Wrote in the 14th and 15th century and was known as the first full time female writer.

In the 17 and 18th century women propagated the significance of women’s education. Lady Mary wortley
Montagu and marquis de Condorcet worked on women edcaution.

1785: the first scientific society for women established in Middleberg, Dutch republic. Women’s journal
writings on science and other similar issues became popular.

During the French revolution the two first truly feminists pieces of literature or documents were written.

1791 Declaration of the Rights of Women and the Female Citizen developed by Olympe Gouges.

1789 the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen was paraphrased.

Foundation stone for Women suffrage Movement: 1792 mary wollstonecraft wrote: a vindication of the
rights of woman. She called for full particpipation of women in the rights and duties of citizenship. She
said that women were fragile and dependent upon men as a result of the way the society operates.she
advocated equality of education and opportunity bw men and women.

The modern feminist movement emerged from the west. Men also contributed to the cause of
improving women’s status in society.

Focus was on political, economic and social spheres. Society was perceived as patriarchal, male
dominated. Treated as second rate citizens with limited intelligence.

19th century Reform Movement was a landmark in the history of women liberation.

1848 New York: the first women’s Rights convention . J.S. Mill wrote the subjugation of women in the
mid 1800s influenced by his wife Harriet Taylor.

Emmeliine Pankhurst formed WSPU/Women’s social and political union., she was one of the prominent
founders of the suffragette movement. Motto was votes for women. She struggled for exposing the
institutional sexism in the British society.

Suffragettes: female supporters of the movement.

1776 new jersey first women suffrage . people were called people and not men.

1838 the Pitcairn islands; women were allowed suffrage in.

1861 south Australia restricted women suffrage

1944 president de gaulle reinstated the rights.

1907 finland had the world’s first female member of parliament and 19 after election.

1928 all british women were granted suffrage.

Pakistani women had the right in 1947

Branches of Feminism:

Liberal Feminism: 196-1970s had roots in classic liberal thought. Women should have the same rights as
men.

Also called egalitarian or mainstream feminism: the most moderate branch. No discrimination because
of gender. No need to restructure whole society; incorporate into equitable roles. Women can work in
pluralistic system and achieve their potential. And bring social change.

Socialist and cultural feminism:

Socialist: also known as Marxist feminism, rather than seeking liberation at individual level, men
andwomen should be together in this pursuit. Prominent in second half of the 20 th century, significant
roles of the Marx-Engels model, inferior position of women is related with class-based capitalism.
Sexism and economic oppression support and reinforce each other. Sexism can be eliminated by
eliminating capitalist system. Socialists principles need to be implemented at the workplace as well as
home. The power structure at home is reflected in the society. The state should be responsible for
uplifting women’s status. Socialist and Marxist feminism are very close in terms of their understandings
of issues but there are differences too in terms of emphasis.

Cultural: introduced by brooke Williams in 1975. Social change is a must. Societies need to accept and
appreciate traditionally feminine values. Belief that women will be freed via an alternate women’s
culture. Traditional male behaviors are harmful and women’s attitudes can make world a better
place.women need to be included in decision making at all levels.

Radical: Emerged in 1960 . cultural notion of gender needs to be eliminated. Men are oppressors and
women are oppressed. Racial or social class follows the same model. Kate millet and shulamth firestone
were two earliest proponents. Women should not try to be like men they should recognize and embrace
their femininity and sisterhood. Need to create women centered institutions.

Approach of all is not very different

Global Feminism: a movement with belief in global change. The vision is for change beyond regional
boundaries.change women’s improved condition and empowerment. How and where gender meets
and intersects race and class. How women are exploited in different parts of world. It contends that no
women is free until the conditions that oppress women worldwide are eliminated. Ensure fundamental
rights.

Ecofeminism: link bw degradation of the ecosystem and the degradation of women.

Earlier feminist writers:

The Torch bearers :

Mary Wollstonecraft: A vindication of the rights of women.

Elizabeth cady Stanton L American social activist and suffragist. History of women suffrage written by
her.

Alice Stone Blackwell” women’s journal.

Virginia woolf: noted that misogyny and militarism tend to go together. Brought women inner life to the
forefront. Books: Mrs. Da,oway and a Room of one’s own.

Feminist writers of the 20th century:

Simon de Beauvoir: the second sex in 1949, laid foundation of contemporary feminism

Betty Friedan wrote the feminine mystique in 1963 cofounded national orgranizaion for women in 1966

Sylvia plath: wrote on bold issues. The bell bar novelaudre lorde challenged racism.

Golria Steinem: her article After Black Power, Women’s Liberation 1969 made her most famous as a
feminist. She cofounded Women’s Media center with colleagues in 2005 .

Judith Butler: Gender trouble: Feminism and the subversion of identity. And Bodies that matter: On the
discursive limits of sex 1993.

Women’s movements in the sub continent:

Women’s movement in Pakistan: 2 women memebrs in the first legislature of Pakistan: jahanara
shahnawaz and shaista ikramullah. 1948 : the budget debate included women’s economic rights .
womens’ activism. 1948 the muslim peronsal law of shriat came into effect. Right to inherit property
was recogzined. Charter of womens’ rights prepared by jahanra shahnawaz included equality of status
and opportunity and inheritance rights 1951 muslim peronsal law of shariat was effective. Women had
the right to inherit agricultural land. 1956 constitution female suffrage for women.s reserved seats. Dual
voting for both general and reserved women’s seats.

1948 womens voluntary service initiated by Begum Ra’ana Liaqauat ali.

1948 : All-pakistan women Association

1954 karachi business and profressional women club.

1948 the Democratic womens association

1955 . united front for women’s right.

Other organizations family planning association, red cross and girl guides.

1961 the muslim family laws ordinance (mmarraige and divorce, child custody )

1971 the new constitution gave equal status to women. Women appointed as governor vice chancellor,
deputy speaker of national assembly.

1975 International women year launched

1976 13 member women rights committee was set up

1981 women action forum initiated.

1995: Benazir represented pak at 4th world conference on women in Beijing. Pak acceded to the
convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women.

Challenges and successes: stereotypical beliefs about women ability, perception of conflict with
religious beliefs, womens perception of own ability, interest of political parties and the ruling parties,
patriarchal barriers, lack of organizations,

Black feminism; non white women needed attention and examination. Intersectionality of gender
identity, sexism class oppression and racism. The intersectionality should be acknowledged. National
black feminist organization founded in 1973.

Postmodern feminism: gender is constructed through language. Gender as a discursive construction and
performance rather than a biological fact. Women subjugation has no single cause and no single
solution.

Feminist sociological theory: Intersectionality bw feminist perpective conflict theory and symbolic
interaction. Structured social inequality bw privileged and oppressed. The inequality is maintained when
the two classes share ideologies. When the oppressed class has enough resources, they challenge the
ideologies

Developmetn of gender roles:

Nature versus nurture: Do heredity, biology and genes determine gendered behavior or is the
environment and culture responsible for learning of gendered behaviors?

Sociological explanation: culture rather than biological factors determine masculinity and femininity. The
Margaret mead’s “sex and temperament in three primitive societies” is classic investigataion of gender
and cultural influences. Studied thre primitive socities in new guinea. She said males and females
become what their culture makes them

Arapesh: from the conventional western point of view, they were feminine in their extremely similar
attitudes and behaviors. Both men and women were gentle, sensitive to other and cooperative.

Mundugumore: were cannibals and head hunters. Men and women had similar roles, masculine

As opposed to arapesh they were typically selfish and aggressive.

Tcambuli: Gender differentiation . clearly defined gender roles. Men performed roles traditionally
performed by females in other societies. Men were submissive emotional and nurturing towards
children women were dominant.

Thus people were taught to be masculine or feminine.

Genetics and biology: may not cause gender roles but facilitate performance of certain gender related
behavior.

The psychological perspective: various psychological dimensions;

A) Biological approach:
B) Behavioral approach can be explained in terms of classical conditioning , operant conditioning
and learning by obersvation
C) Cognitive approach focus on mental schema and social experience . information about gender is
organized into sets of beliefs about the sexes.
D) Psychoanalytical approach
E) Humanistic approach
The socialization process:
Process of transmission of culture from one generation to the other.
Gender socialization: process through which cultural behavior of femininity or masculinity is
learnt by individuals that is associated with biological sex of male and female
Theories of gender socialization:
Social learning theory
Cognitive development theory : JEAN PLAGET’S interest in identifying children’s gradual
development of intelligence, thinking and reasoning laid the foundation for congnitive
development. Through continuous social interaction at every cognitive stage, cognitive abilities
are developed and behavior also depend on person/s perception of social situations.
Kohlberg’s CDT: gender constancy. Children understand gender just like anything else. Make
notes of what males and females do, and behave accordingly. 3 stages of occurance: gender
identity, gender stability and gender consistency
Gender schema theory:
Masculinity Norm:
Antifeminine norm: stigmatizing all stereotyped feminine characteristics
Interpersonal relations: reserved nature and restraint in emotional openness.
Success norm: men strive for success no matter what it takes
Gendered occupation:
Toughness, aggression, sexual prowess, tenderness, intellectual.
The burden of being a man…meeting the norms
Gendered Violence:
Sociological Perspective: Sexual terrorism is common in patriarchal sociteites where men are
allowed to subordinate women. It includes sexual intimidation, threat of violence and overt
violence.
Negative coorelation bw gender equity and gendered violence
Egalitarian families have the lowest rate of domestic violence
Reasons for non availability of exact statistics on family violence and abuse:
Privacy of the family, reluctance of police to share information and take action, lack of
consistent legal standards, accepted masculinity norms
Violence and sexism: violence has roots in sexism; a biased attitude and behavior towards one
sexgender, usually the women.

Mens’ Movement: National organization for men against sexism was established
Gender and Development:
Dimensions of development: economy, social, resources, territorial, sustainability
Powerful gender will have access to resources and men are actively involved in the development
process
GAD: strengthening the effectiveness of development work kn a manner that the situation of
both women and men is improved.
Gender parity and disparity
Barriers to women participation in development
Gender and access to resource
Feminist view on development