UNIT 5: WRITING SKILLS

Content:

i) Paragraphing

ii) Punctuation

iii) Essay writing

Learning objectives:

By the end of the topic, you should be able to:

i) Write a complete paragraph

ii) Use punctuation marks correctly in writing

iii) Define different types of essays

iv) Write the different types of essays

COURTESY IN WRITING
Courtesy in writing is achieved by the following:
(a) Appropriateness of format for that kind of writing.
(b) Appropriateness of content information
(c) Appropriateness of tone: This is created by the word choice and choice of content
information, i.e., what information is communicated versus what is left out. It also
involves use the courtesy words please, thank you, excuse me and sorry as the situation
requires.
(d) Appropriateness of language use, i.e., Word choice and expression that show respect and
recognition of the audience. It also involves formality or informality of language used.
(e) Expression of appropriate feeling according to the situation. For example, sympathy
when someone suffers, good wishes when someone begins something new, and
congratulation when someone achieves something.

PARAGRAPHING
A paragraph is a set of related sentences dealing with a single topic. There is no rule about the length
of a paragraph. It varies according to the need. In a story or a novel, there are somelong paragraphs
and some short ones. In a book that discussed concepts such as Economics, there may be long
paragraphs. In business letters, the paragraphs are short; in a report theparagraphs may be long.
A good paragraph has the following characteristics:
1. Topic sentence:
A topic sentence is a sentence that indicates in a general way what idea the paragraph is going to
deal with. It includes the topic and a controlling idea. It may be in the form of a question.Look
at these sentences:
• Personal relationships such as parent-child, husband-wife, brothers and sisters suffer
becausemost people in cities have busy schedules.
• Talking to a sympathetic listener can have a great therapeutic effect.
• Skill in Public Speaking is not necessary for everyone.
• Shouldn't smoking in public places be made illegal?
2. Adequate development
Add supporting ideas to the topic sentence, to develop it fully and adequately. There should be
3 to 6 ideas to support the topic sentence. Of course, this varies from paragraph to paragraph,
depending on your purpose. Add RENNS (reasons, examples, names, numbers, senses), which
give details and further explain the supporting ideas. Some methods to add supporting details
are:
(b) Use examples and illustrations
(c) Cite data (facts, statistics, evidence, details)

(d) Examine testimony (what other people say, such as quotes and paraphrases)
(e) Define terms in the paragraph
(f) Compare and contrast
(g) Evaluate causes and reasons
(h) Examine effects and consequences
(i) Analyze the topic
(j) Describe the topic
(k) Offer a chronology of an event (time segments)
3. Concluding/ clincher sentence.
The concluding sentence is the last sentence of the paragraph. It should leave the reader with
something to think about. It can be written by restating the topic sentence in different words.Look
at these sentences:
a) Being a sympathetic listener is therefore a satisfying experience.
b) I think it is in the interest of public health to make it illegal to smoke in public places.
c) Since there are many occupations that do not have any occasion for speaking in
public,everyone need not acquire public speaking skills.
Write a concluding sentence for each of the topic sentences given earlier.
Example:

For our government to be stable and effective, we must fight corruption. We

shouldensure that leaders and government agents become answerable to the tax payer.
In addition,the public should be educated on the ills of corruption while those who
have stolen public funds are made to return it and face the full force of the law. Again,
people known to have stashed money in foreign banks should be forced to repatriate
that money so as to improvecash flow in our economies. This is will put our countries on
the road to prosperity.

ESSAY WRITING
Like a paragraph, an essay also has introduction in which the essay topic is first introduce, the body
in which issues concerning the topic are discussed, and a conclusion which ties up your
arguments about the topic.
Writing essays is an essential skill that every student needs to master. There are many different
types of essays, but expository, argumentative, descriptive, and narrative essays are among the
most common academic essays.
Introductory summary:
• Narrative essays engage readers through storytelling with vivid descriptions and
personal experiences.
• Argumentative essays present and defend a particular argument with evidence and
counterarguments.
• Descriptive essays create an immersive experience by using sensory details.
• Expository essays explain or analyze a topic concisely with evidence and examples.
NARRATIVE ESSAYS
If you are telling a story, it is probably a narrative essay. Narrative essays are about telling personal
stories.
But sometimes, you may need to write an imaginary reflection or storytelling, depending on
your essay instructions.

Narrative Essay Example

My First Life Lesson

When I was five years old, I always favored exploring new things in streets and different places. I
found deep satisfaction in analyzing the things I found when I was walking as a kid. [Background:
You set the background of your story My grandfather taught me a life lesson that I still don’t
forget: Always think good for other people.] [Theme: You introduce the theme of your narrative
essay.]
As usual, I was looking for different objects in our backyard, covered with apple trees. When I
came down from a tree, I came up with an exceptionally exciting pin needle. The pinhead was
cubic, and I could easily put it on the floor, heading upwards. I really didn’t want to hurt someone.
I was only shocked by the fact that I found a pin needle with a cubic head, and I started playing
with it. [Description: This part expands on author’s feelings and story.] My grandfather, who was
around his 60s, saw me placing the pin needle heading upwards. He warned me – “You can hurt
someone walking by putting the pin needle like this, watch out!” [Character introduction: This
part introduces the teacher of the story.] After a while, I somehow left it heading upwards rather
than getting rid of the pin needle. When I was running towards the backyard, I stepped on the
needle and felt a crazy pain in my hell. Yes, I totally forgot the needle, and I was the one who
stepped on it. When the doctor came, I instantly remember my grandfather’s advice.
[Development: Here you develop and detail your story.]

The experience has taught me to think more “deeply” when making an action—It may hurt
someone even if you don’t want to. I also learned that I should listen to older adults as they have
much more experience than us. [Conclusion: You conclude your essay, preferably with a
memorable sentence.]
As you see from the example, narrative essays are much more creative and personal.
While writing one, focus on the structure. It generally follows the traditional essay structure:
introduction, body paragraphs, and conclusion at the end.

DESCRIPTIVE ESSAYS
Descriptive essays are used to describe something. Similar to narrative essays, you may use a more
creative and detailed language.
Instead of telling the whole story or incident, you better dig deep into a subject and describe it in
detail.

Descriptive Essay Example

League of Legends Nights
On weekend afternoons, I love to play League of Legends in my study room. The game is online,
addictive, and enjoyable, but I usually have a good time when I play with my friends.
[Introductory sentences: You introduce the scene/setting.] I am in my own space without work
and daily stress. I feel the competitive environment resulted from this game’s nature. [Impression:
You state your feelings and personal impression.] Usually, we play a 5v5 ranked game, and we
always start with a rush to enemy resources. As usual, I follow my support player as my champion
is an attack damage carrier and extremely vulnerable. The rest of the team positions themselves to
get kills and, of course, enemy resources. [Description: This part expands on the story.]
Meanwhile, I need to position myself to damage enemy tanks, which are hard to combat. I save
my leap for their engagement and press it when they rush on me. While my support tries to protect
me, I damage enemy champions and try not to die soon. Because without me, my team wouldn’t
be able to win the fight. But, whenever I use my leap, I have no choice but to die. [Analogy: This
part describes the behavior.] Waiting in the base to respawn, I feel hopeless and pray for my
friends to win the fight without me. However, I still have high hopes of winning the game as there
are many combats to fight. After all, I lost the first fight, but why not try another? [Conclusion:
You conclude by highlighting the author’s feelings.]
The formatting may be loose when compared with the other types. But be careful at choosing your
words (see taboo words, transition words) and the gradual development of the paper.
Note: When writing a descriptive essay, choose clear and to-the-point words that describes the
setting or a thing perfectly.

ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAYS
Argumentative essays are one of the most common types of essays. You present a detailed and
evidence-based claim or argument, which is the thesis (topic) statement.
Remember, the aim is to persuade the reader when writing an argumentative essay, so making use
of scientific evidence and arguments are essential for this type.

Argumentative Essay Example Paragraph

The excessive use of social media is a concern for many psychologists. [Topic sentence: What
will the paragraph be about?] Its prevalence among society is extremely high; research found that
almost every individual has a social media account (Radovic et al., 2017). However, many studies
have stressed a strong link between heavy social media and an increased risk for depression,
anxiety, loneliness, self-harm, and even suicidal thoughts (Scheinbaum, 2017). [Evidence: You
state and cite your evidence.] Psychologists are not mistaken to think that social media can have
serious impacts on human psychology; however, a further and expanded investigation is also
necessary. [Interpretation: This part evaluates the evidence.] At this point, many psychologists
stress the negative aspects of social media, but scholars have also highlighted the positive impacts
of social media such as the availability of social networks, the feeling of belonging, and numerous
business opportunities (Akram & Kumar, 2017). [Counter-argument: You present a counter-
evidence to argue against the original claim.] Therefore, the use of social media has positive sides
that help individuals look for opportunities and different communities. [Final sentence: You state
your point made in this paragraph.]
Argumentative essay formatting
Argumentative essay requires a strong formatting. Don't forget to follow a traditional essay
structure, from introduction to conclusion of your essay.

EXPOSITORY ESSAYS
This type of essay requires a specific and focused explanation of a subject or topic.
In other words, you don’t need to have an original argument. Instead, explain a topic in your own
words. The example below presents insights into the expository essays.

Expository Essay Example Paragraph

The political shape of the world has drastically changed after the Second World War. [Topic
sentence: What will the paragraph be about?] A new era for each country involved has begun.
We have seen the rise of two superpowers: the United States (USA) and the Soviet Union (USSR).
They have become competitors and engaged in the Cold War. Also, the Allies created the United
Nations to prevent a possible third world war. The devastated Western nations formed a union,
which is now called European Union. [Explanation: You explain your topic in detail.] After all,
one can highlight that the world political formation has rapidly transformed into new alliances and
unions that would lead to a more peaceful environment. [Concluding sentence: You summarize
your key point.]
The formatting of expository essays is not as demanding as argumentative essays. While writing:
• Provide some background, and present details in the body paragraphs.
• Summarize all your information and findings in the conclusion and finish the paper.

Expository essay topic example

Explain how the Second World War changed the political shape of the world.
OTHERS:

✓ Definition Essay: This type of essay requires you to collate different definitions of a term
or concept and create your own understanding of the topic. For example, your tutor may
require you to write a definition essay on the meaning of “Justice,” “democracy,”
“religion,” “love,” “happiness,” etc.
✓ Reflection Essay: In this type of essay, you are asked to give your personal reflection or
response about a topic. Sometimes this type of academic essay is called a personal response
essay. Based on the information you get from reading a text or attending a class, the teacher
will ask you to write your own reflection or response to the same. Response essays can
range from a 250-word essay to 3,000 or more words depending on the material you are
responding to, and the goal of your response essay.
✓ Critical Analysis Essay: this type of essay requires the essay writer to critically analyze
and discuss the content of a specific course. The writer should show their critical
understanding of the topic. You may be required to critically analyze a book, a chapter, a
topic, or a course. This type of essay requires you to interpret or use examples to show your
application of concepts learned in the topic.
✓ Cause-and-effect essay: in this type of essay, you are required to show the causal
relationship between two or more variables. For instance, you may endeavor to expunge
on the causes and effects of binge drinking or drug abuse. You may find that genetic factors
contribute to drug abuse behavior, or that there is no relationship between drinking and the
genetic makeup of a person.
 ✓ Explanation Essay: This is an essay category that entails a step-by-step interpretation of a
process or idea. A person writing an explanation essay answers the question “how?” You
provide a detailed instruction about how something occurred, looks like, or should be done.
For example, you may require an essay help on the cooking process. An expert writer will
aptly explain the process of cooking food such as hamburgers.

PUNCTUATION MARKS
The following are commonly used punctuation marks in writing:
(a) Comma
(b) Colon and semicolon
(c) Exclamation mark
(d) Full stop
(e) Hyphen
(f) Question mark
(g) Ellipsis
(h) Brackets
(i) Quotation

Introduction

Punctuation is a system of symbols that helps the writer to express oneself effectively and
assist the reader to understand the structural relationship within thesentence and the intention
of a sentence. Punctuation marks can link, separate, enclose, indicate omissions, and terminate
or classify items in sentences.

Punctuation is used in relation to grammatical requirements and the writer’s intention. The
following is information on the use of some commonly used marks of punctuation.

14.1 Period/Full stop (.)

A period, also called full stop or end stop plays a number of functions in writing.

(a) You can use a period to mark the end of a declarative sentence (a sentence that makes a
statement), polite command or indirect question.
Example 14.1:

I like watching western films.

(statement) Please send me the
report. (command)
The host asked us what we wanted to eat. (indirect question)

(b) To indicate abbreviations

When worlds are used in abbreviated forms, a full stop is used.

Example 14.2:

Mr. and Mrs. Kidonga.

Dr. Batuli of K.C.M.C. Hospital.

Note that a period is not used in acronyms (words formed from initials of a multiword title).

Example 14.3:

• NATO for North Atlantic Treaty organization RADARfor Radio detecting and Ranging
• COBOL for Common Business Oriented Language.

(c) To mark letters or numerals used in vertical list

When you list items using letters or numerals, place a period between the letter or numeral and the
item being listed.

Example 14.4:
The police are concerned with three kinds of crime

1. drug trafficking

2. cross border smuggling

3. poaching

If you give information in a sentence, enclose the letters or numbers within brackets and omit the
periods.

Example :14.5

The police are concerned with three kinds of crime

1. drug trafficking

2. cross border smuggling

3. poaching

14.3. The Comma (,)

The comma has a wide variety of uses in writing. It can link, enclose, separate or show omissions
to a clause. Effective use of the comma depends upon the writer’s own understanding of how
ideas fit together. When used properly the comma can add clarity and emphasis to written text.
In addition to that the comma can prevent ambiguity by separating sentence elements that
might otherwise be misunderstood.
Uses of the comma

(a) To Link

Use the comma to link long independent clauses that are joined by coordinating conjunction
(and, but, or, nor, so, yet). The comma usually precedes the conjunction.

Example 14.6

The whistle blew, and the big game started.

Julius never attends military parades, for he hates war.

When the clauses to be linked are short and closely related, many writers tend to omit the
comma. A transitional word or phrase like moreover or furthermore is usually followed by a
comma.

Example 14.7

Moreover, the villagers wanted to know how their money was used. In addition, they asked to
be given thebank statement.
(b) To Enclose

Use the comma to enclose non-restrictive adjective clauses. A non-restrictive adjective clause is
one that does not identify the antecedent but simply gives information about it.

Example 14.8

Our new history teacher, who began teaching last month, had invited us. We can, of course,
expected thelawyer or the police to summon us.

(c) Direct Address

Example 14.9:

Your will note, Elizabeth, that you do not qualify for this job. That comment was not meant for
you, Janet.
Phrases in
apposition
Example 14.10
Our company, the Makuti Co. Limited, has done very well this year.

(d) Participial Phrases

Example 14.11:
The fullback, sensing danger, kicked the ball outside the field.

(e) To Separate

Use the comma to separate introductory elements from the rest of the sentence, to separate
items in a series, to separate subordinate clauses from main clauses.
(i) Separating introductory elements

• It is generally a good rule to put a comma after an introductory clause or phrase unless it is very
short.

Example 14.12

Since many students fail English examinations, it is wise to start teaching them English in
standard One. The tests completed, students in each class organized a picnic.
Yes, I will make sure you get your salary

Indeed, I will send you further information soon.

• Use comas to separate more than two words in a series

Example 14.13

At the market Ruth got all she had wanted textiles, foods, utensils and
furniture. A big, old, dilapidated house stood on the corner.
Note that a comma precedes the ‘and ‘that links the final item to the others.

(ii) Separating subordinate clauses

Use a comma between the main clause and a subordinate clause when the subordinate clause comes
first.

Example 14.14
When you were reading the book, we managed to sneak to the sea shore.

• Separating two contrasting thoughts or ideas:

Example 14.15

The project was finished in time, but not within the budge

• Separating direct quotation from its introduction:

Example 14.16

The country mouse said, “I am going to the village tomorrow”.

(f) To Show Omissions

A comma sometimes replaces words in certain elliptical constructions. Use a comma when you
want to omit a verb you have already used in a clause.

Example 14.17

Some members were punctual: others, late.

(g) Setting off dates, addresses, greetings and large numbers

• Use a comma to set off items of a date or address.

Example 14.18

Kiletu was born on the morning of July 1, 1961.

The address she gave us was Makongo Farm, P.O. Box 32727, Dar es Salaam.

• Use a comma after a greeting expression in a friendly or informal written exchange also
after the closing remark.

Example 14.19

My dear Agnes, I hope

you’re OK Dear Aunt
Majuto,
Yours sincerely,
Anthony Faithfully
your customer, Ally
• Use commas to separate digits in large numbers beginning from one

Example 14.20

3,000 shillings

130,000 people

• Misuse of the Comma

A number of writers make writing errors by placing the comma where it does not belong. These
errors often occur because writers assume that a pause in a sentence should be indicated by a
comma. It is true that commas usually signal pauses but not every pause should be indicated
by a comma.

Some of the common mistakes of using the comma are the following:

(i) Separating subject and predicate

Do not place a comma between a subject and verb or between a verb and
its object The big black hawk, ate all our chicken. (wrong)
The big black hawk ate all our chicken. (right)

(ii) Separating elements of a compound subject or compound predicate

Neither the chairman, nor his secretary came to the meeting.

(wrong) Neither the chairman nor his secretary came to the
meeting. (right)

(iii) Placing a comma after a coordination conjunction

Do not place a comma after a conjunction such as, and, or, but.

The chairman was reported to be sick but, members doubted about it.
(wrong)The chairman was reported to be sick but members doubted
about it. (right)

(iv) Placing a comma in a list of items

Do not place a comma before the first item or after the last item of a series

It was a, fast, clean, comfortable, train. (wrong) It was a fast, clean, comfortable train.
(right) Along the corridor were placed, bags, shelves and stools. (wrong)
Along the corridor were placed bags, shelves and stools. (right)

Summary

Use a comma to link two independent clauses joined by and, for, but, for. so, or, nor, yet
Use a comma to separate introductory phrases, clauses and words from the rest of the sentence.

Use a comma to set off phrases and clauses that are not essential to the basic meaning of the
sentence.

14.4 Semi-Colon (;)

The semi-colon is used to link independent clauses or other sentence elements of equal
grammatical rank or status. The semi-colon indicates a greater pause between clauses than a
comma would, but not so great a pause as a period would.

(a) Linking clauses of a compound sentence

• Use a semi-colon to join two or more closely related independent clause which are not
joined by acoordinating conjunction.

Example 14.21

In the first week there was constant rain; in the second week it was constant
sunshine. No one applied for the job; the job was too difficult.

(b) In Complex sentences with strong connectives

• Use a semi-colon before transitional words or phrases (that is for example, namely) that
introduce examples or further explanation.

Example 14.22

The aid was for the underprivileged; namely the children from poor families.

(c) In complex sentences with conjunctive adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are words which specify a relation between one clause and another.
They indicate relations as listed here.

(i) To indicate addition

Use a semi colon before words like besides, furthermore, moreover or in addition.

Example 14.23

The president inspected an official parade; furthermore, he promoted a number of soldiers.

(ii) To indicate likeness/similarity

Use a semi-colon before words like likewise, similarly or in the same way.
Example 14.24
Young Tanzanians condemned Idd Amin’s invasion of their country; likewise, they condemned
the massacreof innocent people in Rwanda.

(iii) To indicate contrast

Use a semi-colon before words like however nevertheless, still, nonetheless, conversely, otherwise,
instead, in contrast or on the other hand.

Example 14.25

Darwin’s theory was rejected in the beginning; however, many of his ideas have now been
confirmed.

(iv) To indicate cause and effect

Use a semi-colon before words like accordingly, consequently, hence therefore, as a result, for this
reason.

Example 14.26

The window was not well made; consequently, it fell off during the strong wind.

(v) To indicate a means-and-end relation

Use a semi-colon before words like thus, thereby, this means or in this manner.

Example 14.27

Amos passed well the first-degree course; thereby clearing his way for a brighter future.

(vi) To indicate reinforcement

Use a semi-colon before words like for example, for instance, in fact, in particular or indeed.
Example 14.28

Transport will be improved in the rural areas; in particular railway transport to the southern parts.

(vii) To indicate time

Use a semi-colon before words which express time like meanwhile, then, consequently, afterward,
earlier, and later.

Example 14.29

First chop the onions in small slices; then fry them for some time.

Please note, when a conjunctive adverb is used at the beginning of a clause no punctuation is
used on eitherside of it. Such conjunctive adverbs include, then in fact, still, otherwise and hence.

Exercises
Join the following sets of clauses by using a semi-colon and a conjunctive adverb to form a single sentence.

1. Schooling may give one a well-paying job. It cannot guarantee success in life.

2. Many children do not learn English at home. They must do so at school.

3. Every month I make plans how to spend my salary. I have never managed to keep any of them.

4. You can travel to Tabora for three days by train. You can reach there in two hours by train.

5. The discovery of gold in Maganzo created the gold rush. The discovery of ruby in Ulanga created a
ruby rush.

6. Use full stops and commas in correct places in the following sentences.
i. Please forward my letters to Mrs. Magida of Tanganyika Blankets
ii. P O Box 1771 Songea
iii. The crowd gathered along Nyerere road to greet President N. Mandela
iv. A total of 15500 cattle perished in the floods.
v. On 8th March 1996 a comet Harleys was sighted
vi. The delegation reached Machakos Kenya on 3 April 1951
14.5 Question Mark (?)
This is one of the punctual marks which are usually used to end
sentences. The question mark is used in the following situations.

(a) To mark the end of a direct question

Example 14.29

Why did you ignore the early

warning? To what extent are
the poor assisted?

(b) To indicate that one is not certain about a word within a statement.

Example 14.30

On reaching the house someone (a watchman?) appeared from behind the hedges.

Misuse of the Question Mark

A common mistake on the use of the question mark is using it in an indirect question,

• Do not use a question mark at the end of an indirect question.

Example 14.31

Don’t say: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book?

Say: Jose wanted to know who wrote the book.

The question mark is commonly used with the idea of asking for
information. It has the following distinct uses:
• Use the question mark at the end of a sentence that is a direct question.

Example 14.32:
 When are you presenting the report?

• Use the question mark at the end of a statement that is declarative in form but ask a question.

Example 14.33

Is the president coming today?

• When you want to cite a title that has a question mark retain the question mark.

Example 14.34

Her first novel was Why Are We Blessed?

• When used with quotation marks, the question mark may indicate whether it is the writer
who is doing the quoting or the person being quoted asks the question. The question mark is
placed outsidethe quotation marks when it is the writer who asks the question.

Example 14.35

Did you say, “She won’t come today”?

On the other hand, if the quotation itself is a question, then the mark is placed inside the quotation
marks.
Example 14.36

She asked him, “Can you help me?”

• When an interrogative sentence has separate items all items will carry a question mark.

Example 14.37

Can you tell us more about the house? Its size? Surroundings? Whether it is occupied?

• Never use a question mark at the end of an indirect quotation.

Example 14.38
Wrong: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband?

Correct: Surrah asked me whether I had seen her husband.

Exercise

The history of life on earth wrote Nyerere has been a history of struggle between the haves and the
have nots

Did Matano Juma define a fool as a person who does not know something but thinks that he knows
it

Shaaban Robert once wrote skin colour is but Gods decoration

14.6 Quotation Marks (““)

Quotation marks are used to enclose spoken or written words which are directly repeated. You
may enclosein quotation marks only words which are quoted word for word (direct quotation)
from spoken or written text.

Example 14.39

She said clearly, “I am not happy with you.”

• Do not enclose in quotation marks speech which is indirectly quoted. An indirect

quotation is usually introduced by that, it represents a paraphrase of a speaker’s words
or ideas.
Example 14.40

She said clearly that she was not happy with us.

• When you quote from written text, use quotation marks in the same way: place words
you wish to quote in quotation marks.

Example 14.41

Direct: The report sums up, “If the environment is not cared for the earth is going to become
extinct”.

Indirect: The report concludes that if the environment is not cared for, the earth is going to
become extinct.

• When the quoted text exceeds four lines, it is normally indented and lines are single
spaced. When presented in this way you should not use quotation marks.
• When you want to present a quotation within a quoted text, use single quotation marks
(similar toapostrophe) to enclose the quotation that appears within the main quotation.

Example 14.42

Alex said, “I heard her calling out, ‘thief, thief’”.

• Use quotation marks to enclose titles of short stories, articles, speeches, radio or TV
Programs.

Example 14.43

Have you read Mandela’s Rivonia speech, “History will Absolve me?”

• Titles of books and periodicals are underlined or printed in italics.

Example 14.44
I find David Mangui’s The Common Man a fascinating book.

• Quotation marks may also be used to represent the words, same as above.

• When a word is written directly below a similar one in vertical listing.

14.7 Apostrophe (’)

The apostrophe is used to indicate possession, to mark the omission of

letters in aword.
• Use an apostrophe before an ‘s’ to show singular possession in some nouns.

Example 14.46

Both Juliata’s and Asha’s school are closed.

Dar es Salaam city’s residents have had no water for two days now.

• In plural possession, the apostrophe is placed at the end of the noun following the ‘s’.

Example 14.47

The girls’ dormitory is being repaired.

The headteachers’ meeting ended in the evening.

• When the noun to which possession is to be indicated ends in an ‘s’, place on apostrophe after
the ‘s’.

Example 14.48

Moses’ story frightened his

listeners. The neighbors
helped Tans’ capture
• The apostrophe is not used with possessive pronouns.

Example 14.49

Theirs, yours, its, his, ours, whose.

• You may use an apostrophe to mark the omission of letters in a word or date.
Example 14.50

Can’t, I’m, I’II

The peasant revolts of the early ‘60s

Exercises
Punctuate the following passage.
Everyone is talking about Kisa Katopes novel its plot is based on Incidents which occurred to him in

seen them one character is portrayed as being keen in stealing soldiers uniforms. He’s finally caught and
ends up in the city’s Famous makindye prison

14.8 Exclamation mark (!)

The exclamation mark is used in writing to indicate an expression of strong feeling. It can be
surprise, fear, indignation or excitement. It is a punctuation mark more commonly used in
fiction and social written communication than in academic or technical discourse.

14.8.1 Uses of exclamation mark

• The exclamation mark is most commonly used after a word, phrase, clause or sentences to
indicate surprise, pain, and jubilation.
Example 14.51

Ouch! You have hurt

me. Wow! What a
wonderful dress.
• Too many exclamation marks in a sentence will make text dull, do not overuse them. When
you use the exclamation mark together with quotation marks, the former goes inside unless
what is quoted is an exclamation.

Example 14.52

Salima called out, “Watch out!” Hearing this, Peter jumped like a hare.

Exercise
Put correct punctuation marks to the following letter
Ngoheranga mission
P.o. box 321
Malinyi

I am sorry I have to worry you with my troubles but when I have explained I am sure you will understand I

today he said that her condition is critical he advised us to observe absolute quiet for her to recover it all
began recently when she started having bad nights and could not get enough sleep. the purpose of writing
this letter is to ask you to spare a weekend preferably this coming one so that you could come here and

come pass my best regards to your children yours sincerely peter

References

Multicultural Voices. (pp 139-150). Hanover: Middlebury College Press.

New York.

Connor, Ulla (1984); A Study of Cohesion and Coherence in English as Second Language. Papers
In Linguistics 17: (301-316)