Resilience

UNIT 10 OPTIMISM AND HOPE*

Structure
10.1 Learning Objectives
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Optimism
10.3.1 Dispositional Optimism

10.3.2 Learned Optimism

10.3.3 Unrealistic Optimism

10.4 Development of Optimism

10.5 Benefits of Optimism
10.6 Hope
10.7 Development of Hope
10.8 Benefits of Hope
10.9 Let Us Sum Up
10.10 Key Words
10.11 Answers to Self Assessment Questions
10.12 Unit End Questions
10.13 References
10.14 Suggested Readings

10.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

After studying this Unit, you would be able to:
• Explain the meaning of optimism and describe its different types;
• Describe the benefits of optimism;
• Define hope and describe the benefits of hope; and
• Discuss the measurement of hope.

10.2 INTRODUCTION
Sudha is doing her graduation and wants to get into a decent job after
completion of her graduation degree. What makes the case of Sudha unique is
that she comes from a family where she is the first girl to study upto graduation
level. In her community, girls are not allowed to study and do jobs to earn
money. However, Sudha despite her hard situation since the beginning of her
education, looks forward to completing her graduation and join a good job to
be financially independent.
167
Dr. Shalini Sharma, Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology, Ramanujan College, University of
*

Delhi, Delhi
Positive Cognitive To achieve her dreams, she takes determined steps and follows a charted out
States and Processes path to achieve what she has thought out for her life.
The above case provides an example of optimism and hope in Sudha. Optimism
and hope are two vital elements for maintaining positive mental health. Positive
mental health is a key to happiness and satisfaction in life. It is state of wellness
where individuals can function fully and deal effectively with the challenges
of life. Hope and optimism both may seem to be very similar and overlapping
constructs, based upon positive future expectancies; however, there are
differences in how they have been conceptualized by theorists. In this Unit, you
will learn about these two positive constructs in detail.

10.3 OPTIMISM
Optimism is a cognitive expectancy for desirable events or things to happen
in future. On the other hand, pessimism denotes expectancy for undesirable
outcomes to happen. Optimism is also characterized as a disposition or trait,
which people are endowed with in varying degrees. It is considered to be a
relatively stable and enduring trait, which guides how people perceive and
address particular situations.
The early understanding and usage of the term was either neutral or negative, as
evident from the works of eminent philosophers and psychologists like Descartes,
Freud, Hegel, and Nietzsche (Domino & Conway, 2001). This was because of
dominant negative outlook towards human nature in the field of psychology
at that time. With advancements in research in psychology and dominance of
humanistic school of thought towards the end of twentieth century, there was a
change in perspective towards the concept of optimism.
Based on contemporary research, there are two dominant approaches and
theoretical models to optimism: Dispositional Optimism Model by Scheier and
Carver (1985) and Optimism as an Explanatory Style by Seligman (1990).

10.3.1 Dispositional Optimism

Scheier and Carver first discussed the concept of optimism in their theory of
self-regulation, where it was conceptualized to be a personality dimension. Later
they coined the term ‘dispositional optimism’. They defined it as ‘the extent to
which people differ in regard to having expectancies of favorable outcomes in
their future’ (Carver et al., 2010). The model proposed by Scheier and Carver
is considered to be the most popular model of optimism, and has relatively
stronger construct validity evidence (Bryant & Cvengros, 2004).
The definition highlights optimism as a general expectancy and does not relate
it to any specific context (Carver et al., 2010; Scheier & Carver, 1985). Being
a personality dimension, it differentiates between optimists and pessimists,
where optimist are people who have an orientation towards having positive
expectations and predictions about their life in general, as compared to pessimists
who have a tendency to expect negative future outcomes in life (Carver et al.,
2010). They argued that optimists would have much stronger valued goals,
and a higher persistence to pursue those goals in the face of difficulties using
effective coping mechanisms leading to a higher likelihood of them achieving
168 their goals (Scheier, Carver and Bridges, 2000). In contrast, pessimists being
more doubtful and hesitant, have more negative affect. Scheier and Carver Optimism and Hope
believed it to be a relatively stable and fixed dimension of personality.
Many research studies supported this stability dimension of optimism, although
it was lower in value than other personality traits (Carver et al., 2010). However
some studies have found the optimism trait to be changeable over time to some
extent. The results of Segestrom (2007) longitudinal study over ten years showed
shifts in optimism of participants over the course of study. This and some other
researches also (Feldman et al, 2015) point towards the changes over time in
optimism, and how it can be enhanced with interventions.

10.3.2 Learned Optimism

The other perspective in the conceptualization and measurement of optimism
is ‘Optimism as an explanatory style’ or Learned optimism model by Martin
Seligman. The theory of optimism as an explanatory style derives from theory
of attribution and theory of learned helplessness (Seligman, 1990). Explanatory
style is defined as the manner in which an individual explains the events of his/
her life, making attributions for their causes. Attributions can be made on the
three dimensions: internality/externality, unstability/stability and specificity/
globality (Weiner, 1985). Internality/externality dimension refers to individuals’
tendency to ascribe either internal (self, dispositional) or external (people or
situational) reasons while explaining their life events. Stability denotes causes
that are fixed and stable over time, while unstable causes are variable and do not
remain same over time and context. Globality refers to propensity to generalize
the causes to all situations, or causes are specific to situations.
Learned helplessness is a feeling resulting from inability to escape from
obnoxious or painful stimuli. The model of learned helplessness attempted to
explain the phenomena of depression. Abramsom and colleagues (1978) realized
the capability of certain attributions to explain the learned helplessness. They
found that learned helplessness can be a result of attributing internal (‘it was
due to my carelessness’), stable (I will be like this forever) and global (‘my
carelessness will spoil everything I will do’) causes to negative life events.
Taking it forward, Seligman coined the term ‘Learned Optimism’ to describe
the tendency of ascribing external (‘I met with a car accident because of faulty
traffic signal’), unstable (‘It does not happen all the time to me’), and specific
(‘I didn’t notice the faulty signal, otherwise I am observant’) causes to negative
life events. Optimists thus are not too disturbed by the setbacks or negative
life events; they see these events as occasions for learning and hope for better
outcomes in future.
Seligman (2003) pointed out that the essential difference between the optimist
and the pessimistic explanatory style was the differential appraisal of the reasons
for success and failure; the prevalence of good and bad events and capability to
sustain hope. Explanatory style is modifiable according to Seligman, and can be
transformed from pessimistic to optimistic style (Seligman, 2013).

10.3.3 Unrealistic Optimism

There can be a tendency of attribution which can entail holding particular
perceptions and self-evaluations that are unduly positive, too exaggerated to
169
Positive Cognitive be called objective or fair. This perception of self or others is called unrealistic
States and Processes optimism; this might appear impractical but can serve the purpose of calming
people when worried and doubtful in challenging situations, and can aid them
in persisting towards their goals.
Unrealistic optimism can be defined as a general propensity to anticipate a
higher probability of positive events to happen to self, and a greater likelihood
of negative events occuring to others (Weinstein, 1980). The concept is similar
to what is called ‘Positive illusions’ (Taylor and Brown, 1988, 1994) which is
common among so called mentally healthy, happy, and well- adjusted people.
Positive illusions consist of an over exaggerated assessment of one’s abilities,
an amplified sense of control and unrealistic optimism about future. People
with unrealistic optimism are less likely to think about the possible risks or
hazards involved in a problem situation, and visualize themselves in situations
where they are successfully dealing with the challenge.
Other than the above mentioned concepts, literature also cites many related
constructs like unrealistic pessimism (Heine, & Lehman, 1995), defensive
pessimism, selective attention, self-deception, and strategic optimism (Norem,
& Cantor, 1986).
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. ______ optimism considers optimism as a personality dimension.
2. Optimism as an explanatory style is also known as _________
optimism.
3. Learned optimism model is given by ___________________.
4. What are the three dimensions in which people usually make
attributions?

10.4 DEVELOPMENT OF OPTIMISM

The presence of optimism as a disposition or explanatory style is dependent
on number of factors, the most important being parental socialization. Parents
play a very important role in development of optimism through role modelling
and reinforcement of optimistic behaviors (Abramson et al. 2000). Parental
mental health is a determining factor and it has been shown that there are higher
chances for optimists to belong to families in which none of the parents are
suffering from depression. Optimists are more likely to come from families
where parents use optimistic explanatory style and are good role models in
that. Children who belong to families that have witnessed many traumas and
struggles, display optimism when their families show resilience and healthy
coping strategies. This is because parents in such situations encourage children
to cope with stressors and challenges in a positive way and reinforce optimistic
behaviors and perseverance.
On the other hand pessimists are believed to come from those households
where either parents are complaining, use self-criticism or criticism of child, are
depressed or use a pessimistic explanatory style. Inattention to child, child abuse
and rejection are other factors which can lead to a development of pessimistic
170 explanatory style (Carr, 2004).
 Optimism and Hope
10.5 BENEFITS OF OPTIMISM
Optimism has many useful consequences for people ranging from mental
health, healthy psychological functioning, performance to effects of aging etc.
(Rudhig, Perry, Hall, & Hladkyj, 2004). The topic of optimism has gained a
lot of popularity among researchers since the last two decades because of these
affirmative outcomes. Research indicates that people having positive beliefs
about (i) their capabilities to achieve desired goals, (ii) a positive perception of
their personal attributes and (iii) their future, perform better than those who are
pessimistic or doubtful (Brown & Marshall, 2001).
a) Optimism and Academic Performance
A number of studies have been conducted to understand the relationship of
optimism with student’s academic performance. The effect of expectancies
on task performance among undergraduate students was studied by Brown
and Marshall (2001) in the lab setting. They found that under difficult task
condition, students having high or moderately high expectancies for task
performance performed better academically in comparison to those who had
low expectancies. In another study, Solberg Nes, Evans, and Segerstrom (2009)
investigated the effects of optimistic orientation on the rate of college retention
in undergraduate college beginners. Their findings revealed optimism was a
favorable personality dimension that influenced the motivation and adjustment
of students, thereby playing an important role in retention of college freshers in
their first years.
b) Optimism, Physical Health and Well-being
There is plethora of researches that support the positive contribution of optimism
in enhancing the well-being and health of individuals. There is a strong evidence
to support the claim that optimists are healthier than pessimists (e.g., Carver et
al., 2010; Gallagher & Lopez, 2009; Rasmussen, Scheier, & Greenhouse, 2009).
The likelihood of a strong link between optimism and health is plausible and
can be explained by the self-regulation model, which proposes optimists are
likely to be more focused towards self and goals, which lead to goal attainment
for optimists and avoidance of goals for pessimists. Another reason for higher
well-being in optimists is their attribute of constructive thinking. Optimism as
a trait is associated with positive expectancies and constructive thinking in life
(Lobel, DeVincent, Kaminer, & Meyer, 2000).
Optimism is believed to result in better physical health, by lowering experienced
stress. Optimists tend to have higher self-efficacy or perception of control over
situations and more positive thought processes because of which they perceive
situations to be manageable and consequently experience lower level of stress
(Carver & Scheier, 2014). Studies also point towards the role of optimism in
promoting health protecting behaviors and refraining from health compromising
behaviors resulting in a healthy lifestyle (Carver & Sheier, 2014). This healthy
lifestyle boosts their immune system and prevents them from developing illness.
Even on developing illness, they tend to comply more with medical advice for a
faster recovery (Carr, 2004). On the contrary pessimism was linked to negative
health effects (Carver et al., 2010). Pessimism was also found to be correlated
positively with involvement in health compromising behaviors like substance 171
abuse, suicide (Carver et al., 2010).
Positive Cognitive c) Optimism and Psychological Well-being
States and Processes
Optimism also contributes to enhanced psychological well-being. Research
shows that people with dispositional optimism are more likely to use reappraisal,
problem focused coping and adaptive emotion focused coping at the time of
stressful situations. Pessimists, on the other hand have a higher tendency to
use avoidant coping strategies like escape avoidance or denial in the face of a
challenge (Carver et al, 2010).
Looking at the positive outcomes of optimism in different spheres of person’s
life, it is crucial that optimism be developed from childhood. Programs have been
developed by researchers (Seligman, 1998) to assist individuals of different age
groups to alter their explanatory style from pessimism to optimism. Participants,
in these programs, get trained to recognize and analyse the situations which are
mood altering, and thereby change their negative beliefs by positive reappraisal
so that it leads to optimistic explanatory style. Thus knowledge of one’s ability
to change and transform one’s thought processes towards optimistic thinking
can be really empowering and advantageous in the direction of positive mental
health and well-being.
It is important to understand that optimism may not always result in positive
outcomes. There may be certain risks associated with over optimism. Such
people may fail to assess and judge personal risks, e.g., being unwilling to go
for medical screening thinking that diseases like cancer is less likely to affect
them. This is unrealistic optimism.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. Constructive thinking is one of the reasons for higher well-being in
optimists. True or False.
2. Reappraisal is more likely to be used by the pessimists than the
optimists. True or False.
3. Overly positive and optimistic people are always able to recognize and
judge the potential risk. True or False.

10.6 HOPE
Hope is an interdisciplinary concept studied in different disciplines like
Anthropology, Sociology, Psychology, Philosophy, Nursing/Medicine and
Theology. In philosophy, it is studied as a spiritual virtue; in nursing literature,
hope is associated with survival and coping. Psychology conceptualizes hope
as goal achievement. Hope, according to Staats (1989), is “the interaction
between wishes and expectations.” Stotland (1969) investigated the function
of expectancies and cognitive schemas in the development of hope, which he
defined as a set of important goals with a high perceived possibility of realization.
According to Gottschalk (1974), hope is having positive expectations about
particular favorable consequences, and it motivates a person to overcome
psychological challenges.
A number of conceptual frameworks have been proposed by theorists
like Nekolaichuk (1999), Scioli et al (1997), and Snyder (1994). Within a
172 multidimensional framework, Nekolaichuk et. al. (1999) suggest a hope model
that highlights three dimensions of hope: personal spirit (an individual dimension), Optimism and Hope
risk (a contextual dimension), and authentic caring (a relational dimension).
According to Scioli (1997), individuals realize hope through four dimensions:
mastery (goals), survival (coping), attachment (trust) and spirituality (faith).
Several other perspectives to hope such as, “hopeful thinking or cognition”
(Snyder, 2000), “positive emotional experience” (Fredrickson, 2009), as a
“character strength” (Peterson and Seligman, 2004) and also a “transcendental
phenomenon” (Emmons, 2005, Vaillant, 2008) have been proposed.
From a Positive psychology perspective, hope involves positive feelings
like optimism, but it is also a cognitive- motivational state that comprises of
individual’s beliefs about the self and one’s actions that shapes attainment of
desirable results. Developed by Professor Charles Richard Snyder (1994), the
concept of hope is conceptualized to consist of three components: (i) goals, (ii)
thoughts about means or pathways to achieve specific goals, and (iii) thoughts
about the agency or abilities to attain those goals. Hope is believed to be the
sum of ‘pathways’ and ‘agency’ components. In other words, hope is the
combination of perceived abilities to choose routes towards desirable goals and
the perceived motivation to make use of those routes. It indicates the person’s
belief that s/he will be able to find the path towards the desired goals and utilize
these pathways for attainment of goals. As evident from the definition, Snyder
emphasized hope to be a cognitive-motivational phenomena, and emotions to
be a byproduct of these thoughts. Hope theory predicts that unhindered goal
pursuit should result in positive emotions, but goal impediments may result in
negative emotions.
Snyder (2000) believed hope to be a multi-dimensional concept which can act
both like a stable personality trait and contextual state. As a trait, people can
have individual differences in the extent to which they possess the trait. People
high on hope are thought to use different means to reach their goals, they have
more clarity about the alternate routes and are more likely to have a strong
belief about accomplishing their goals, as compared to people who are low on
hope (Bailis and Chipperfield, 2012).

Fig. 10.1: Snyders’s Model of Hope

Source: Adapted from Snyder (2000) 173
Positive Cognitive According to Snyder’s model as depicted in Fig 10.1, hope will be high
States and Processes when it involves goals that are valued and there is average or above average
probability of realizing the goals in the face of obstacles that are difficult but
not overwhelming. Hope loses its relevance where one is sure of reaching the
goals; and hopelessness results when it is believed that goals are not achievable.
Hopeful thoughts lead to positive emotions and hopelessness results in negative
emotions. Snyder pointed out that at any point in time and situation, hope is
determined by the interplay of three factors:
• The extent to which any goal is valued
• The pathways/means and expectancies about the effectiveness of these
pathways in attainment of desirable goals, and
• One’s agency or energy, abilities and self-efficacy in using these pathways
to goals
The above mentioned factors do not operate in a vacuum, the thoughts about
pathways and agency are dependent on past experiences. The developmental
learnings related to correlation and causality in pathways thinking and agency
thoughts derived from one’s experiences in the past guides one’s expectancies
in the present.
In addition to goals, pathways thinking and agency thinking, Snyder also talked
about the barriers to goal achievement. Goal attainment is not always a smooth
process and involves number of blockages. When faced with obstacles to goals,
most people can think of at least one alternative route, but there are some who
can think of multiple routes to the desired goals. This ability to find multiple
pathways is more characteristic of high hope people (Snyder, 1994a, 1994b).
False Hope
True hope is thought to have a basis in reality, on the other hand, false hope is
believed to result from recognizable distortions of reality. Many scholars and
psychologists have raised concerns about the potential dangers of “false” hope
(Snyder, Rand, King, Feldman, & Woodward, 2002).
According to literature, false hope tend to occur for three reasons: when
expectancies are based on illusions instead of reality (e.g., Beavers & Kaslow,
1981); when unreasonable goals are chased (Rule, 1982, as cited by Snyder
et al., 2002); and when inadequate approach and procedures are followed to
attain the desirable goals (Kwon, 2000, 2002). However, Snyder argued that
false hope was not necessarily a result of distortions in reality. He believed that
high hope individuals can make use of positive illusions that can shape their
perception of reality, but they do not inevitably involve in counterproductive
illusions resulting in major reality distortions (Snyder, 1998)
Another important topic investigated by researchers is the phenomenon of
Collective Hope (Snyder & Feldman, 2000). Collective Hope indicates the extent
of goal-directed thinking of a group of people or communities. Collective hope
becomes functional when a large number of people pursue a goal that cannot be
achieved by any single individual. The operation of collective hope is visible in
community efforts towards common goals like environment protection, health
174 promotion, and government plans.
 Optimism and Hope
10.7 DEVELOPMENT OF HOPE
Although hope is conceptualized both as a trait and state, it has not been found
to have any hereditary component (Snyder, 1994b). It is believed to be a
cognitive set about goal-directed thinking that is completely learnt and shaped
by the socialization process. The elements of hope - the pathway and agency
thinking are coached by parents or caregivers and are visible by the tender
age of two in children, although these thoughts are acquired much before that.
Agency thoughts in babies is their recognition of their self to be a causal factor
in many cause and effects events in their surroundings. Healthy attachment
to caregivers which is based on trust is important for development of hope in
children (Snyder, 1994b). Threatening environment and traumatic experiences
during childhood like loss of parents have been associated with decrease in
hope (Rodriguez-Hanley & Snyder, 2000).
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Differentiate between hope and optimism.
2. According to Snyder (1994), hope consists of ____________ and
_________ components.
3. What is ‘false hope’?

10.8 BENEFITS OF HOPE

Hope has been found to have beneficial results in the area of academics, sports,
physical health, adjustment, and psychotherapy.
a) Academic Performance
A number of research investigations involving various student populations
have revealed a link between hope and academic performance. Snyder et al.
(1991) identified the characteristics of high-hope students as self-assured,
inspired, enthusiastic, and driven by their intended goals. Higher Hope Scale
scores at the start of college have been shown to predict better overall grade
point averages and whether students will continue school (Snyder, Shorey, et
al., 2002). Furthermore, among college students, higher levels of hope were
linked to higher academic life satisfaction and higher use of problem-solving
skills and coping mechanisms (Chang, 1998). The studies are reflective of hope
being a potential human strength aiding in improving achievement.
b) Health and Well being
As a personal attribute, hope has been linked to a number of positive health
benefits (Snyder, 2002). Snyder (2002) linked high levels of hope to higher
participation in preventative actions that help people avoid developing physical
and mental illnesses. For example, people scoring high on hope showed a greater
involvement with cancer prevention initiatives (Irving, Snyder and Crowson,
1998) and higher motivation to do physical work out (Harney, 1990 in Snyder,
2002).
The correlation between hope and psychological functioning has also been
revealed in numerous research studies. Higher levels of hope were associated 175
Positive Cognitive with improved mental health in high school students (Marques, Pais-Ribeiro,
States and Processes & Lopez, 2011), reduced levels of depression in undergraduates (Snyder et al.,
1991), and better life satisfaction scores in law school students (Rand et al., 2011).
High hope in cancer patients was also associated with reduced psychological
distress in them (Berendes et al, 2010). Elliott, Witty, Herrick, and Hoffman
(1991) carried out a study on 57 persons with major physical disabilities and
found that hope had a favorable impact on depressive symptoms and dealing
with physical handicap. People with higher levels of hope had lower degree of
depression and had stronger social relationships in comparison to individuals
with lower levels of hope.
Michael (2000) studied the effects of hope on anxiety reactions. His study
discovered that hope can be used as a resource to keep anxiety from overpowering
and incapacitating the patient. As a result, hope seemed to have a moderating
influence on anxiety; hopeful individuals have the ability to overcome the
ramifications of anxiety by consciously focusing on achieving their goals.
Energy produced by anxiety can also be channeled into goal-oriented action.
Hope is thus considered to be a valuable human strength with the potential to
result in beneficial outcomes with regard to health and well-being (Seligman
and Csikszentmihalyi, 2000).
c) Coping and Adjustment
A large number of studies have investigated the effects of hope on dealing with
stress. Snyder (2000) showed a positive effect of dispositional hope on ability
to cope with problems. Based on research findings, Snyder and Pulvers (2001)
stated that individuals low in hope are more likely to have a tragic view of future,
as compared to high hopers who tend to use healthy and productive coping
strategies on a regular basis. It is intriguing to know if there is a difference
between high hopers and low hopers in terms of types of coping strategies used
by them. This question has been dealt by one of the studies by Slezackova
& Piskova (2017). The study was carried on 196 adults in the age range of
19-33 years old. They found that people scoring high on hope used coping
strategies like problem-solving, positive cognitive restructuring and support
from family, friends. These people exhibited a higher level of happiness and
positive perceptions of health. Individuals with low hope scores, on the other
hand, displayed coping strategies like wishful thinking, self-criticism and social
withdrawal.
In the domain of personal and social adjustment, higher Hope scale scores have
been linked to numerous indices of increased happiness satisfaction, positive
emotions, quality of social relationships, and so on (Snyder, Harris, et al., 1991).
Furthermore, hope has been proposed as a common component underpinning
the positive effects of psychological therapeutic treatment. (Snyder, Ilardi,
Cheavens, et al., 2000).

10.9 LET US SUM UP

In this Unit, you learned about two important constructs in positive psychology,
that is, optimism and hope. Development of optimism and hope was described
and their benefits were also elaborated. Both have been found to be strongly
176 related to happiness, physical wellness, academic performance and psychological
well-being for people of all ages. It is important to develop these from early Optimism and Hope
childhood. They can play a significant role in the present unprecedented times,
and improve our well-being.

10.10 KEY WORDS

Optimism is a cognitive expectancy for desirable events or things to happen in
future.
Explanatory style is defined as the manner in which an individual explains the
events of his/her life, making attributions for their causes.
Learned Optimism refers to the tendency of ascribing external, unstable and
specific causes to negative life events.
Unrealistic Optimism refers to the tendency of attribution which entails
holding particular perceptions and self-evaluations that are unduly positive, too
exaggerated to be called objective or fair.
Hope refers to having positive expectations about particular favorable
consequences, and it motivates a person to overcome psychological challenges
(Gottschalk, 1974).
Collective Hope indicates the extent of goal-directed thinking of a group of
people or communities.

10.11 ANSWERS TO SELF ASSESSMENT

QUESTIONS
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 1
1. Dispositional
2. Learned
3. Martin Seligman
4. Internality/externality, unstability/stability and specificity/globality
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 2
1. True
2. False
3. False
Answers to Self Assessment Questions 3
1. Hope involves positive feelings like optimism, but it is also a cognitive-
motivational state that comprises of individual’s beliefs about the self and
one’s actions that shapes attainment of desirable results.
2. pathways and agency
3. False hope results from recognizable distortions of reality.

177
Positive Cognitive
States and Processes 10.12 UNIT END QUESTIONS
1. Discuss the two dominant perspectives in optimism.
2. Discuss Snyder’s Model of Hope citing relevant examples.
3. Elaborate on the various benefits of hope.

10.13 REFERENCES
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Elliott, T. R., Witty, T. E., Herrick, S. M., & Hoffman, J. T. (1991).
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10.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Brown, Brene (2010). The gifts of imperfection: Let go of who you think you’re
supposed to be and embrace who you are. Hazelden Publishing.
Frankl, Victor (2013). Man’s Search for meaning: The classic tribute to hope
from the Holocaust. Ebury Publishing.

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