Blessing Project
Blessing Project
Blessing Project
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
survival. When polluted, its value is lost and can become a threat to organisms
inhabiting it Uyo and Nwaniba [1]. Fresh water sources such as lake, river and
streams are open to anthropogenic activities [2]. This results in changes in the
Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) etc. Variation in these water properties greatly
influences the distribution patterns of aquatic insects, since some of them are
The data of heavy metals and sediment in the present work, revealed that
there is highly significant difference between the four stations, the in increased
factors such as industrial effluents, agricultural waste and municipal. Water levels
on the four stations showed higher concentrations of lead (0.31, 0.04), Cobalt
(0.03, 0,03ppm), Nickel (0.43, 0.09ppm), Copper (2.00, 0.16 ppm), Manganese
(1.42, 0.11ppm), Zinc (15.27, 016ppm) and Iron (2.69, 0.37 ppm). Meanwhile,
2
0.06ppm), Cobalt (0.83, 0.07 ppm), Nickel (0.69 0.05 ppm), Copper (0.66, 0.09
ppm), Manganese (2.97, 0.09 pmm). Zinc (22.80, 0.35 ppm) and Iron (24.11, 0.18
ppm). The highest accumulated metals were Mn, Fe and Zn in both water and
which brings about changes that affects our normal lifestyles adversely. Pollutants
are the key elements or components of pollutants of pollution which are generally
waste materials of different forms. Pollution disturbs our ecosystem and the
pollution has reached its peak: giving rise to global warming, water toxicity,
Pollution occurs in different forms, air, water, soil, noise, radioactive, light
and heat/thermal. Every form of pollution has two sources of occurrence, the point
and the non-point sources. The point source area easy to identify, monitor and
Pollution can come from chemical waste dumped into rivers, factories
spewing. Toxins into the air, scavengers burning e-waste to extract valuable
Pollution is one of the most underreported and undefined global issues. Pollution
life. In Nigeria, no one realized that lead pollution was the cause of hundreds of
child deaths. Parents were bringing lead filled ore back to their homes for
processing. The problem was not uncovered until doctors found almost no
children in some villages on their immunization visits. Heavy metals and THC are
his environment, the disposal of materials into the environment by man has
the world around the cause continual change by removing, recycling and
eruption discharges gases; rain erodes and transporting soil particles and a wide
variety of other particles, plants remove nutrients from the soil, recycle them
through food webs and return them in different concentrations. The physical
Man as a social being has created a new order of products, which have
increased in volume fasters than population growth, and these have been
may provide a warning sign, unless it is the result of human activities and it is
regard pollution in practical terms as an example of one set of human interest such
as the use of leaded petrol in cars, burning of coal, the transportation of petroleum
products, the generation of electricity, the disposal of waste products etc. they also
scientific values, etc. environmental manipulations and other human activities are
Recently, there has been a growing concern worldwide that near shore
marine and fluvial ecosystems are being affected by man-made pollutants leading
decomposition of dead wild life from this incidence aggravated the situation by
generating obnoxious odor and exerting high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).
5
endangered and some have already reached a stage in which is due to a strong
increase in the quantity of industrial waste, domestic sewage and agricultural run-
off which accumulate in the very limited river and discharge into the oceans.
According Smith et al (1996), urban effluents always contain heavy metals and
source of water and activities in the urban environment. Heavy metals are widely
used in industrial processes and so are hydrocarbons, especially as fuel oils. The
generally the case in this study area. The lack of waste treatment facilities
inNwaniba, the main urban area here is probably responsible for (possible)
increase in the levels of toxicants in rivers and eventually the marine environment.
Some of the important rotential heavy metal pollutants from industrial sources are
Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Hg, Pb, Ni, Mo, Sn, B and Zn (Ogri, (2002), Pf Thesis, university
of Uyo).
These pollutants are transported through runoffs, streams and rivers to the
estuary. Besides, the atmospheric fall outs introduce metals into estuary and sea
(WHO, 1994). Other sources of pollution include direct discharge into the rivers
and the estuaries of Nwaniba waste (WHO, 1994). The singular most important
the estuarine water (WHO, 1994). River-borne metals tend to settle to the bottom
eventual transportation into the open sea (WHO, 1994). The estuarine and coastal
areas have been polluted with heavy metals by sedimentation of the pollutants
sediments.
The apparent lack of information on the level and distribution of heavy metals and
THC in water and sediments along Uyo main drainage system spurred this study,
2 To determine the concentration of heavy metal (Pb, Ni, Fe, Zn, Mn, Co,
3 To determine the level and concentration of the heavy metal (Pb, Ni, Fe,
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Water and sediment for heavy metals and total hydrocarbon has been used
for detecting pollution sources and for selecting criteria site for routine water
rate of discharge of effluent water has also heightened the tear of degradation
Ntekim (1987) has studied the heavy metal concentration in water and
sediment of Qua Iboe River. His result shows that there is a non-uniform
distribution of heavy metals in the river. His results however revealed that Qua
tolerance limits of 19.4, 0.16 and lppm respectively. He therefore advised that
In the other parts of the parts of the river, Ntekim (1987) and Ekpo and Ibok
(1998) in their study of sediment and water of Uyo River compared the index of
9
geo-accumulation with previous research and found that Nwaniba river sediments
were polluted.
Cross River estuary sediments. Their study revealed that high concentration of
Cu, Zn and Mn. These elements are known to be very toxic i f they exceed the
tolerable limit.
river sediment. Their results revealed that soluble organic matter content (668.3-
Many studies have been carried out internationally on the levels and
using water and sediments samples collected to assess the extent of total
hydrocarbon pollutions in the river. Their results revealed that high levels of
petroleum were found in the whole of the study area, with no definite trend. This
Pb and Zn in water sample and sediments and came to a conclusion that water and
metals in water of the Courtenay bay area of St. Jon Barbour in Canada.
Ekpo et al, (1992) carried out an investigation on the Uyo River to determine the
abundance and distribution of heavy metals in trash water and fish using samples
The result of this investigation or study showed that the Nwaniba River is
moderately polluted by Fe, Zn and Cd. While Cu, Mn, Cr, and Pb are well below
the WHO maximum permissible limits. These results, however, serve as a base
line data against which future impact assessment will be based. The lack of trend
agricultural inputs and atmospheric fallout, whose direct impact were not
quantitatively assessed in the study. The result of the analysis of heavy metals and
THC level studies show moderate levels of the metals that do not pose health
hazards.
Ede et al. (1996) carried out a study on level and distribution of heavy
metals and THC in drainage, which they discovered that enhanced concentration
of Cd, Ni, Pb and Cu were present in surface water of Akwa Ibom State-Nigeria.
industries in South Eastern Nigeria. In the Southern part of the state, there was
fresh water aquifer and pollution due to activities of oil companies in the
localities. They also proposed that one approach which may be useful interpreting
According to their study, the presence of heavy metals and THC in review
is mostly attributed to oil pollution while metals like Zn, Mg, Co and Fe are in
Also they revealed that the entrance of heavy metals in water and
sediments is not necessarily fixed for all times but may be recycled via biological
and chemical agent both within the sedimentary compartment and also back to the
water column.
activities in the Nigerians soil environment. Their work has expose the hazard and
pollution in the oil environment and trace it opt the origin of some of the heavy
metal concentration in the body of water and sediment and their effect on the
Olalade Lajide and Amoo (2008) examined the distribution of heavy metals in
12
stream bed sediment from an oil-producing region in Nigeria in the two seasons
(dry and wet) of the year. Comparison of sediment with guidelines values
Adefemi, Olaofe and Abaolu (2007) studied the seasonal variation in heavy metal
concentration of most metals appears higher in dry season than those recorded for
Adekola, Eletta and Atanda (2002) carried out the determination of levels
of some heavy metals in urban run-off sediments and water in Illorin and Lagos,
Nigeria. Zn, Fe, and Cd were found in very high concentrations in the urban
Adejare and Odeyemi (2007) investigated the levels of total hydrocarbon content,
in surface soils and water from the vicinity of Agbabu bitumen field. The research
showed that some stations have high concentration of THC except one, which
Fleavy metals are known as metals with density greater than 5g/m 3 and atomic
number > 20. With these; I will note that, heavy metals are metals which have
Heavy metals are also refers to as heavy metals, and they are in good proportion
biochemical functions (Cu, Zn, Fe, Hg) are toxic when present in higher
concentration.
They are known as heavy metals because, they are toxic to the body and the
Cu, Zn, Co Fe) but can be toxic in large amounts or certain forms. (Baldwin £
Marshall, 1999).
Heavy metals occur as natural constituent of the earth crust, and are
Metals occur naturally on the earth curst as stated above, and are release to
the soil and water during physical and chemical weathenng of rocks (igneous and
controlled by the geologic characteristic of water shed, some of this metals are
naturally abundant and have high concentration, examples are (Iron and
Manganese) other metals are rare and have low background solenium, lead,
cooper, cadmium, zinc etc), this rare metals are refer to as toxic metals at low
concentration, they are toxic and harmful to human health ( Hawkes, 1999).
Wastes are being discharge to drain areas untreated, which accumulates in gutters
and drainage channels: these heavy metals and other extraneous materials which
include sand, salt and dry particles are transported or carriedby run-off process
into rivers and even the soil which in turn contaminate the water we used and also
Though, these heavy metals are found naturally in the earth crust, it can be
increase ambient temperature among other factor, and have become major
Most heavy metals are released from food chain and potentially cause
adverse effects on human health (Hutton & Symon, 1986). Discharge of industrial
wastes and the various tropic levels of animal's result to these metals and these
metals endanger the environment say they ultimately find their way into food
However, run-off which is one of the ways these metals get into the rivers is
influenced by soil type, water storage capacity, amount of rainfall, slope of the
Most of the major sources of heavy metals pollution along drainage are
anthropogenic in urban areas while the natural sources predominately in the rural
areas.
those associated with fossil fuel and coal combustion, industrial efficient, solid
waste disposal, fertilizer application and mining at present, the impact of these
pollutants is contained mostly in the urban centers with large population, high
Among the heavy metals, the most serious effect of pollution is presently
associated with lead (Pb) emission. Heavy metals also come from industrial and
activities.
layouts are also sources of heavy metals such as cooper (CN), Nickel (Ni) and
Several factors are reported to affect heavy metals pollutions. Heavy metals
depend on the nature or state of the metal (particulate, colloidal and solution). The
(Lauren, 1986). Most heavy metals are more toxic in free ionic states, which are
The various processes taking place in the drainage systems affect heavy
ligands which precipitate out of solution or settle out of the water column. The
ions have a marked effect on heavy metals pollution (Scerbo and Barghigiani,
1998). Heavy metals pollution also depends on the nature of the water. High water
absorption of heavy metals depends also on the type of sediment, pH, completing
industrial wastes before being discharged into the drainage, which in turn flows
into rivers, sea (Johansen et al, 1980). These deadly and toxic wastes have
densities different from that of the natural sea water and also such denote mix,
rather settle down at the bottom of the river as sludge, which may be several
17
meters as sludge, which may be several meters and with time undergo fluxing,
Wiltman, 1983).
carbon and hydrogen. Total hydrocarbon content gets into water and sediment
through oil and grease content around that area, in small amount but posse’s
Drainages contain these THC which are being discharged into rivers from
industrial wastes, especially along Nwaniba industrial layouts or lane and in the
coasted environment. THC can also be passed into the coastal environment
through run-off (which includes, poorly treated effluent, oil spillages) (Blumer,
1976). THC has been given less attention especially in water and sediments in
time past, but studies on the level and distribution of THC have improved in
recent years.
occur. Such spillages may lead to damage and loss of biodiversity, depletion of
arable land, and depletion of available portable water and blockage of water ways
petroleum (crude oil fuel oils). Low molecular weight aromatic compounds are
THC can be gotten from dredge metals which are known to contain
hydrocarbon containments (Jarvis and Clarke, 1990). This report was a result of
their analysis of dredged materials by United States Army engineering along the
Crude oil and its pollutants are rich in hydrocarbon its derivatives are also
compounds. Also tar balls are good sources of hydrocarbon and tar balls are
Several factors have been reported to be responsible for THC pollution, these
Floodgate, 1973).
19
Metals are particularly toxic to the sensitive and rapid developing system
of the fetus, infants and young children. According to Johansen et al (1980) some
metals such as Pb and Hg, easily cross the placenta and damage the foetal brain
some metals can result in learning difficulties, memory impairment, damage to the
activity,
At higher dose Vary et al (1989) maintained that heavy metal can cause
Paluden-miller et al (1993). Food source such as vegetable gains, fruits fish and
shellfish can become contaminated from surrounding soil and water (WHO 1991).
serious health damages in man which include reduced growth and development,
center organ damage, nervous system damage and in extreme cases (when WHO
High level of THC level in water causes fish tainting and cloggs the gills of
fish and fishing gears. Floating particulates (floating tars) contribute to increased
turbidity of aquatic system causing danger to juvenile fish species and sometimes
the adult fish are affected since the fishes can ingest the juvenile fish directly as
oxygen consumption, teaching, excretion and scope for growth, cellular Reponses
(e.g. specific lysobomal latency and digestive cells) and biochemical responses
hydrocarbon contamination.
This was confirmed by Nadeau & Berquisi (1997) on their report on the
i4
zoe colcotronic” oil spill hear Cabo Rajo, Puerto Rico. It was also studies that, it
impairs vision in humans which can sometimes lead to blindness (Clark 1982).
21
CHAPTER THREE
south-south Nigeria (Figure. 1). The area has an annual rainfall of about 2500mm
main source of this river is the Uyo- Itu River which runs from the Atlantic
Ocean. During high tides it flows to Oron River and returns during low tides. The
River has a beach called Nwaniba beach which serves as habour for logging
activities, peasant fishing and other domestic activities like bathing and laundry.
The bank of the river is mostly covered with grass such as elephant grass
swamp vegetation also included shrubs and trees such as white mangrove
along the river is the Le Meridian Hotel and Tourist Resort (Ibom Five Star Hotel)
Four water samples were collected at each site of the drainage. The
morning. Samples were collected using a beaker of 50ml into well labeled bottles
ABCD and filtered in the laboratory using Whatman filter 45vm pore size and
Four (4) sampling sites were collected along a stretch of 5km between each
23
sampling site. Sediments were collected at a depth of 0.2cm using mini spade
Samples were collected within a triangular grid (2cm), demarcated at each side of
the four parts of the drainage and thoroughly mixed to form composite sample.
Samples were taken in a cold bucket at 4°c to the laboratory for pre-treatment and
analysis.
2004). A pH meter (model 2601) was used to measure the pH level of each of the
spectrophotometer. Meter, sky Ray, 9501 model after solvent extraction using a
mixture of xylene and Hexane of ratio 60:40 (ICES, 1991). The water sample was
Sediment Pre-Treatment
Sediment samples (5g each) were derived in an oven in a temperature of 50°c for
two days crushed and passed through 2mm mesh sieve to remove course
materials. The resulting materials were recrushed, homogenized and split into sub
24
samples.
The filtered samples were taken for digestion mixed with 40% concentrated
Hydrofluoric acid (HF) and 70% nitric (v) acid (2cm 3), and the mixture was
placed on the heating plates (hot plates) between a temperature range of 150°C to
200°C. heating continued until complete digestion to ash- gray residues and then
cylinder of 100ml. boric acids crystals (2.8) were added (to reduce excessive
corrosion by HF) shaken briefly to dissolved made to 50cm mark with distilled
water. The solution was allowed to settle for two (2) days and analyzed for heavy
Apparatus
• Test tube
Precautions
The test tubes and the volumetric flasks were washed and rinsed before used. And
the AAS was working properly without errors before it was used.
25
Unicam model 919 solar spectrometer equipped with a universal burner, air
acetylene fame.
Zinc (Zn)
of zn at wavelength of 213.9nm.
The sample was analyzed using atomic absorption spectroscopy (Unicam model
Manganese (Mn)
Atomic absorption spectroscopy, (AAS), Unicam model 919 was used for
readings.
Lead (Pb)
10ml of the pretreated sample was analyzed using atomic absorption sectrophoeter
Nickel (Ni)
About 10ml of the pretreated samples was prepaid to a standard solution of 0.001-
0.0606 figlg for Nickel with wave length 232.Onm. Then, atomic absorption
Copper (Cu)
10ml of the pretreated sample was analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometer
10ml of the pretreated sample was prepaid to a standard solution of 0,1 - 5.006 |
readings.
model, 100ml of the sample was transferred into a separating funnel, plus 50ml of
extracting xylene and shake vigorously for two (2) minutes and left to settle. The
process was repeated four (4) times; the lower layer of xylene was collected and
The solvent mixture (100cm) was added and shaken several times to obtain a clear
Temperature
high precision. This was done by inserting the probe into the sample of water in a
PH
The PH was determined with colour matched system. This was done by dipping a
CHAPTER FOUR
At Four Stations
Elements
Lead (Pb)
Nickel (Ni)
22.850 23.177
From the above result Iron and Zinc is recorded the higher level of sediment. Due
to municipal wastes and discharge of domestic wastes into the drainage from
industrial affluent this is above the tolerable limit WHO, 2004. Manganese and
Copper are moderately low but slightly above the tolerable limit while lead,
Lead (Pb)
Nickel (Ni)
Zinc is recorded the highest metal that is highly contaminated in the water sample
from industries. Copper and Nickel are moderately low while lead and Cobalt are
extremely low.
30
main Drainage
31
Metals
18
16
14
12
10 Metals
0
Pb Co Ni Cu Mn Zn Fe
Fig. 4.3 Mean concentration of heavy metals in water from Uyo main
Drainage system
Series 1
25
20
15
Series 1
10
0
Pb Co Ni Cu Mn Zn Fe
Fig. 4.3.1 Graph of Heavy Metals content in Water of Uyo main Drainage
32
main Drainage
33
Series 1
30
25
20
Series 1
15
10
0
Pb Co Ni Cu Mn Zn Fe
Fig. 4.5 Mean concentration of heavy metals in sediments from Uyo main
Drainage
Metals
30
25
20
Metals
15
10
0
Pb Co Ni Cu Mn Zn Fe
Fig. 4.5.1 Graph of Heavy Metals content in Sediments of Uyo main Drainage
34
CHAPTER FIVE
5.1 Discussion
This study shed light on some of the environmental factors that might have
and total hydrocarbon content in our drainage system which flows all the way into
rivers. The concentration and the distribution of heavy metals and THC has
become a matter of great concern over the last few decades and a lot of studies
have been published on the heavy metals and THC at all levels of aquatic
ecosystem. Many authors associated the heavy pollution in water with industrial
organisms, deposited in the sediments or remain for some period in the water
itself.
from four (4) stations of Uyo main drainage were determined the highest
concentrations for all studied heavy metals were recorded in station two (2) and
four (4) when compared with station one and three (3). The differences in heavy
mixture of industrial, municipal and agricultural waste into the drainage (gutter),
this agrees with Ademoroti (1993) on water contaminants, he reported that the
contaminated sediment.
The results obtained shows that there are extremely low levels of heavy
general expectation since sediments are sinks for pollutants. The general
Generally, the fluxes of heavy metals in sediments rather than water should reflect
the extent to which fluvial and coastal areas have been impacted by
The data of heavy metals in water and sediment in the present work, revealed that
there is a highly significant difference between the four stations, the in increased
38
factors such as industrial effluents, agricultural waste and municipal. Water levels
on the four stations showed higher concentrations of lead (0.31,0.04 ppm), cobalt
(0.03, 0,03 ppm), nickel (0.43, 0.09 ppm), copper (2.00, 0.16 ppm), Manganese
(1.42, 0.11 ppm), Zinc (15.27, 0.16 ppm) and iron (2.69, 0.37 ppm). Meanwhile,
sediment of the four stations showed higher concentrations of lead (1.87, 0.06
ppm), cobalt (0.83, 0.07 ppm), nickel (0.69, 0.05 ppm), copper (0.66, 0.09 ppm),
Manganese (2.97, 0.09 ppm), zinc (22.80, 0.35 ppm) and iron (24.11, 0.18 ppm).
The highest accumulated metals were Mn, Fe and Zn in both water and sediment.
Pb and Cu, exhibited moderate concentrations. Co and Ni metals were below the
of heavy metals in water and sediment (Table 4.2) may be due to the constant
between sediments and water caused by waves of tidal action bioturbation and
other factors prevalent in the marine environment could prevent normal settlement
and significant correlation of metals between the two (water and sediment).
However, the concentrations of metals are generally higher in sediments them due
to overall settlement of the suspended particulate (Ekpo and ibok, 1998). The
high desorption due to change in salinity of the water (Forstner and Mullen 1985,
Clark et al 1997).
39
from industrial effluent. This is similar to the work done by Ntekim et al (1993)
sequence of level of the heavy metals in sediment from the drainage was
Ni<Co<Cu<Pb<Mn<Zn<Fe.
From bar chart of the mean concentration of water, it is observed that Zinc (Zn) is
extremely high, then Iron (Fe) compared to Ni, Mn and Pb which has moderate
is much higher in sediment than in water. Metals like Co, Ni and Cu have the
high in both water and sediment, Manganese is moderately high while Pb, Co, Ni
and Cu has the lowest concentration as shown in table 4.1 and table 4.2.
The dynamics, variability and availability of heavy metals also depend on the
water were as follows: Zn was highest (15.27 ±0.16 ppm), followed by Fe (2.69
±0.37 ppm), Cu (2.00 ±0.16 ppm), Mn (1.42 ±0.11 ppm), Ni (0.43 ± 0.09 ppm),
Pb (0.31 ± 0.04) and Co (0.03 ± 0.03 ppm). Station 2 and 4 were the most
40
contaminated zones. These were stations of the study area which receive direct
follows: Fe (24.11 ± 0.18 ppm), Zn (22.80 ± 0.35 ppm), Mn (2.97 ± 0.09 ppm),
Pb (1.87 ± 0.06 ppm), Co (0.83 ± 0.07 ppm, Ni (0.69 ± 0.05 ppm) and Cu (0.66±
0.09ppm).
be harmful to organisms (including plants and animals). In some cases, the high
level off metal concentrations in another place can be readily available resulting in
considerable accumulation.
The concentration in water range from 101.825 mg/1 to 33.27 mg/1 while
High concentration of THC (above the 10 mg/kg limit recommended for surface
sediment by DPR (1991) and above the tolerable WHO limit of 0,01 mg/1 in
water were obtained. THC concentration was higher in sediments than in water.
The result also showed a decreased in THC level with depth of sediment, but there
extracted from sediments at depths greater than 7.5 cm contain relatively little or
41
hydrocarbons. This observation is valid with the result obtained in this study with
(WHO, 1984, DPR, 1991). High concentration in aquatic environment (water and
which reduces their economic value and also it’s impair respiration of aquatic
organisms.
5.2 Conclusion
Heavy metals and THC concentration in water and sediments has indeed become
a subject that many environmental scientists still try to solve and possibly reduce
their concentration in the aquatic ecosystem. From the observations made in this
study, there is high concentration of both heavy metals and THC in sediment than
The present study monitored heavy metals and THC levels and their
main Drainage. It was observed that the high level of heavy metals and THC in
water and sediment is due to agricultural waste that are been thrown into the
gutter, municipal wastes thrown into the gutter, industrial waste from the
industrialized areas of the city, and also discharge of untreated domestic wastes
into the drainage. High accumulation of these metals and THC level may flow
into the river and cause serious damage to the aquatic organisms and to human.
5.3 Recommendations
Heavy metals and THC high concentration and distribution in water and
damage of the river, sea and probably the ocean which habitats the aquatic
in the capital.
2. The discharge of untreated domestic and municipal effluents into the rivers
the environment.
5. by the government.
44
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51
APPENDIX 1
Who recommendations for drinking water quality (extract) 1984 (chemical and
sensory parameter).
APPENDIX 2
Minimum requirements for flowing water system in the EEC (on so called water
Oxygen (mg/I) 4 4
pH 6-9 6-9
inhibition 7 10
(mg/I)
COD (mg/I) 20 30
Iron (mg/I) 2 3
APPENDIX 3
background level)
Iron 46,700
Manganese 850
Strontium 300
Zinc 95
Chromium 90
Nickel 68
Lithium 66
Copper 45
Lead 20
Cobalt 19
Mercury 0.4
Cadmium 0.3
APPENDIX 4
Formula for deriving the mean and standard deviation for both water and
Mean X=
∑X
n
Standard Deviation, SD ∑ √¿ ¿ ¿ ¿