Electromagnetic Induction

● The phenomenon in which electric current is generated by varying magnetic

fields is appropriately called electromagnetic induction.
● Electromagnetic induction is very cost-effective.
● Wireless charging phenomenon is possible due to electromagnetic induction.
● Electromagnetic Induction name suggests it is related with
electricity,magnetism and induction.
● Induction means to induce something or to generate something.
● Therefore electromagnetic induction means induction of electric current due to
magnetic field.
● We will see how the experiments performed by Faraday and Henry led to the
development of modern day generators and transformers.
● We will also study that the magnetic field is capable of producing current in
the conductor.

Magnetic Flux

● Magnetic flux is defined as the product of the average magnetic field times the
perpendicular area it penetrates.
● In case of magnetic flux orientation of the area vector is considered.
● Area vector is considered as the amount of lines crossing an area also varies
with the orientation of the area.
● It is a scalar quantity.
● Magnetic flux is denoted by ΦB or Φ.
● I Unit- Weber (Wb).
○ Where 1Wb= 1Tesla x 1m2 (S.I. unit of B = Tesla and Area=m2)
● G.S unit-Maxwell (Mx).Relationship between Weber and Maxwell
is;1Wb=108Mx
● Mathematically:
○ ΦB = A
■ B=magnetic field vector, A= area vector
■ Area vector =In case of magnetic flux the amount of lines
crossing an area varies with the orientation of the area.
○ ΦB = BA cos θ
■ Where θ=angle between magnetic field and area vector.
● Direction of area vector is determined by the normal to the area vector.

Case 1: When the angle between the area vector and the magnetic field (θ)= 900.

● Therefore, ΦB = 0 as cos900 =0.

 Case 2: When the angle between the area vector and the magnetic field (θ)= 00.

● Therefore,ΦB = BA as cos 0=1.

Faraday’s Experiment 1

● One of the scientists Faraday performed series of experiments and based on the
results he gave law on induction.
● He introduced the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
● Induction means to induce or to generate something.
● Electromagnetic Induction means production of electric current due to magnetic
field.
● Magnetic field is capable of producing current in a conductor.

Michael Faraday
 ● Faraday took a coil and attached a galvanometer to it.
● As there is no battery attached therefore there is no source of current.
● He brought the magnet near the coil.
● When the magnet is moved towards the coil galvanometer showed deflection.
● Galvanometer even showed the deflection in the opposite direction when the
magnet is taken away from the coil.
● When magnet was not moved there was no deflection in the galvanometer.
● This show current is related to magnet.
● Faster the magnet is moved the more is the deflection in the galvanometer.This
showed more and more current flows if the magnet is moved very fast.
● Same effect was observed if the coil is moved and the magnet was not moved.

Observation:-

● Relative motion between magnet and coil induced electric current in the coil.
Faraday’s Experiment 2

● Faraday took a coil but instead of taking magnet he took another coil which was
connected to the battery.
● When the coil attached with battery was brought nearanothercoil,the galvanometer
showed the deflection.
● The same phenomenon repeated even when there was no magnet.
● This shows current flowing in one coil was able to induce current in another coil.

Observation:-

● Relative motion between coils induces the electric current.

Faraday’s Experiment 3

● In this experiment he wanted to prove whether the relative motion between the 2
coils is essential for the induction of current.
● In this case he took a coil, one more coil attached with a battery.
● When the circuit was open there was no current flowing through the coil.
 ● But as soon as the circuit was switched on there was deflection in the
galvanometer.
● When the circuit was on continuously for longer period of time there was no
current.
● When the circuit is switched off there was a deflection in the galvanometer in the
opposite direction.
● And if the circuit is switched off for long time there was no deflection in the
galvanometer.
● He observed that the galvanometer showed momentarily deflection only when the
system was undergoing a change.

Observation:-

● Relative motion is not an absolute requirement for inducing current.

● There was induced current only when there is change in the system.
● Based on these 3 experiments Faraday gave 3 laws of Induction.

Faraday’s laws of Induction

First law: -

● According to the first law an emf is induced in the circuit whenever the amount of
magnetic flux linked with a circuit changes.
 ● Current was induced because of magnetic flux, as there is some current in the
circuit therefore there will be some emf flowing in the circuit.
● Whenever the amount of magnetic flux linked with the circuit changes only at that
time emf is induced.
● The induced emf will be there till there is change in the flux.
● When the magnet was moved then only there was change in the flux.
● As the magnet is moving the number of magnetic lines crossing the area is also
changing.
● There is a change in the flux therefore there is induced emf.
● If the magnet is not moving, there will be no change in the amount of magnetic flux
so there is no induced current.

Second law: -

● According to the second law the magnitude of the induced emf in a circuit is equal
to the time rate of change of magnetic flux through the circuit.
● Emf which is induced will depend upon rate at which the magnetic flux is
changing.
● Mathematically:-
 ○ Let Φ1 = flux at initial time t=0.
○ Φ2 = flux after time t.
○ Rate of change of flux=(Φ2 – Φ1)/t =dΦ/dt
● According to Faraday’s law:-
○ Induced emf e ∝ (dΦ/dt)
○ Experimentally the constant of proportionality was found to be 1 in all
cases.
● Therefore e=(dΦ/dt)
○ Consider a coil which has N number of turns;Therefore
○ e = N(dΦ/dt)

Problem:- A circular coil of radius 10 cm, 500 turns and resistance 2 Ω is placedwith its
plane perpendicular to the horizontal component of the earth’smagnetic field. It is rotated
about its vertical diameter through 180°in 0.25 s. Estimate the magnitudes of the emf and
current induced inthe coil. Horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic field at theplace
is 3.0 × 10–5 T.

Answer:-

Initial flux through the coil,

ΦB (initial) = BA cos θ

= 3.0 × 10–5 × (π ×10–2) × cos 0º

= 3π × 10–7 Wb

Final flux after the rotation,

ΦB (final) = 3.0 × 10–5 × (π ×10–2) × cos 180°

= –3π × 10–7 Wb

Therefore, estimated value of the induced emf is,

ε = N (ΔΦ/Δt)

= 500 × (6π × 10–7)/0.25

= 3.8 × 10–3 V

I = ε/R = 1.9 × 10–3 A

Note that the magnitudes of ε and I are the estimated values. Theirinstantaneous values
are different and depend upon the speed ofrotation at the particular instant.
Problem:- A small piece of metal wire is dragged across the gap between the pole pieces
of a magnet in 0.5s.The magnetic flux between the pole pieces is known to be 8x10-4
Wb. Estimate the emf induced in the wire?

Answer:-

dΦ = 8x10-4 Wb

dt =0.5s

e= - (dΦ/dt) =- (8x10-4) / (0.5)

=-1.6x10-3V

Lenz’s law

● According to Lenz’s law:-The polarity of the induced emf is such that it tends to
produce induced current in such a direction that it opposes the change in
magnetic flux that produced it.
● The (-) ive sign in given equatione= (-) (dΦ/dt)tells about the direction.
● According to Faraday’s law whenever there is change in the magnetic flux, emf is
induced, as aresult there will be induced current.
● According to Lenz’s law the direction of the induced current will be such that it
opposes the change in the magnetic flux.

For example:-

● Consider a circuit where the magnetic flux is increasing, as a result flux will
change and which induces the emf in the circuit, and as a result current will be
induced in the circuit.
● The direction of the induced current will be such that it will oppose the cause
which induced it.
● The induced current will be in such a direction that it decreases the magnetic flux.
● Note: - The induced current will try to oppose the change which is producing it.

For example:-

● Consider a setup which has a coil, a magnet and a galvanometer.

● If the north pole of the magnet is brought near the coil, there will be a deflection in
the galvanometer because of induced current.
● The direction of the induced current will be such that it opposes the motion of the
magnet towards coil.
● Induced current will move the magnet away from the coil.
● As the north polarity of the magnet is brought near the coil as a result the induced
current will be in such a direction that the face of the coil will have north polarity.
 ● The current will flow in the anti-clockwise direction.
● If the South Pole of the magnet was nearer to the coil then the current will flow in
clockwise direction.

Lenz’s law: supports Conservation of energy

● Lenz’s law obeys conservation of energy.

● Magnet is moving as a result current is getting induced and when the magnet is
not moving there is no induced current in the coil.
● There is a mechanical energy involved with the movement of the as magnet as a
result mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy which is produced by
the induced current.
● Magnetic energy used in moving magnet is getting transformed into electrical
energy which is produced by the induced current.
● This shows that Lenz’s law supports conservation of energy where one form of
energy is getting transformed into another form.
● Work done in moving the magnet is dissipated by Joule heating produced by the
induced current.
Direction of Induced current: Lenz law

Induced current opposes CHANGE in flux.

Example1: -

● Consider a region where magnetic field is acting in downward direction.

● Let magnetic field be 20T and it gets converted to 10T in the downward direction.
● As the magnetic field is changing therefore there is change in the flux which is
equal to the decrease in the flux.
● As there is change in the flux there will be induced current.
● Flux of the induced current will try to oppose the decrease in the flux.
● Therefore the direction of induced flux will also be in the downward direction.
● Applying Fleming’s Right hand Thumb rule the direction of current will be given in
the clockwise direction.

Example2:-
 ● Consider a magnetic field of 20T in the upward direction.If the magnetic flux is
reduced to 10T in the downward direction.
● Both magnitude and the direction are changing.
● As flux is changing therefore there will be induced current.
● The direction of the induced flux will be in the opposite direction. i.e. upward
direction.
● The induced flux will oppose the change which is the downward direction.
● The direction of the current will be in the anticlockwise direction.

Example3:-

● Consider a region having downward magnetic field and there is a rectangular loop
which is entering the region of magnetic field.
● As a result flux increases, the induced flux will oppose the increase in the flux.i.e.
it will decrease the flux.
● Therefore induced flux will be in the upward direction.
● As a result the induced current will be in the anti-clockwise direction.
Example4:-

● Consider a region having magnetic field in the downward direction and a

rectangular loop which is coming out of the magnetic field with some velocity v.
● As it is coming out therefore flux is decreasing, current will be induced because of
change in flux.
● Induced flux will try to oppose the change i.e. it will try to increase the flux.
● Induced flux is in the downward direction as a result the direction of current will be
clock wise.

Problem:- Use Lenz’s law to determine the direction of induced current in thesituations
described by Fig.:
(a) A wire of irregular shape turning into a circular shape;

(b) A circular loop being deformed into a narrow straight wire.

Answer:- According to Lenz’s law, the direction of the induced Emf is such that it tends to
produce a current that opposes the change in the magnetic flux that produced it.

(a) When the shape of the wire changes, the flux piercing through the unit surface area
increases. As a result, the induced current produces an opposing flux. Hence, the
induced current flows along adcb.

(b) When the shape of a circular loop is deformed into a narrow straight wire, the flux
piercing the surface decreases. Hence, the induced current flows along

e= (4x3.14x50x0.1x10)/ (2x3.14x0.2)

e = 5x10-5V a’d’c’b’.

Direction of Induced current: Fleming’s right hand rule

According to Fleming’s right hand rule if we stretch 3 fingers of our right hand, then the :-

● Thumb will point to the motion of the conductor.

● First Finger points towards the magnetic field.
● Middle finger points to direction of the induced current.

Methods of producing Induced Emf in a circuit:Varying Magnetic Field (B)

 ● Consider a coil, a magnet and a galvanometer.
● As the magnet is brought near the coil,the magnetic field associated with the coil
changes.
● Mathematically,
○ Φ = BAcosθ if we change the strength of the magnetic field(B), the value of
flux will change as a result emf is induced.

When the magnet is brought near the coil, magnetic field changes

When the magnet passes through the coil the is a deflection in the galvanometer

Methods of producing Induced Emf in a circuit: Varying Area(A)in a moving loop

If the area within the magnetic field changes, then emf will be induced.

● The rectangular loop enters the magnetic field and goes out of the field.
 ● Initially there is no magnetic field from where the loop is starting, the moment the
loop enters the magnetic field it experiences the change in the magnetic field at
the boundary.
● When the loop was inside the magnetic field there was no change in the magnetic
flux.
● But when the loop leaves the region of magnetic field there was decrease in the
magnetic flux.
● Because when it leaves the magnetic field area keeps on decreasing.
● As area decreases therefore flux also decreases.
● At both the boundaries there is change in the area,as a result there is change in
the flux.

Therefore there will be induced current at the boundary.

Mathematically:-

● The emf which is induced is known as Motional emf because this emf is induced
due to the motion of the conductors.
● Consider a conductor is moving out of the magnetic field with some velocity ‘v’.
● The part which is inside the field =’X’ and length of the conductor=’length’
● In time Δt, loop covers small distance Δx.
● Decrease in the area =-(length Δx),
● Where (-) ive sign shows decrease in area.
● Decrease in flux = dΦ =B.ΔA =-BlengthΔx where ΔA=change in area
● Therefore from Faraday’s Lenz’s law, Induced emf e= -(dΦ/dt)
● =d/dt(BlengthΔx)
● => Blength (Δx/Δt)
● Therefore Motional Emfe= Blengthv
● where (velocity) v= Δx/Δt
● Induced current =I=(e/R) =(Blengthv/R)
 ● where R=resistance of the loop
● Motional Emf comes into play when the area of the loop within the magnetic field
changes.

Brakes of the fast moving trains

Methods of producing Induced Emf in a circuit: Varying Area (A) in a moving rod

● Consider a rod which is moving inside the magnetic field.

● When the loop enters the magnetic field; due to the magnetic fieldthe charges
inside the rod experiences the magnetic force.
● Because of this magnetic force the (+) ive and (-) ive charges separate out from
each other, i.e. all the (+)ive charges get accumulated at one end and (-)ive
charges on the other end.
● Electrostatic potential is developed on the rod due to the accumulation of charges
on both the ends of the rod when it enters the magnetic field.
● Because of electrostatic potential an emf is induced.
● This emf which was induced on the rod cannot be used for any practical purposes.
● As it is an open circuit therefore induced emf on the rod cannot be used.
● This induced emf is known as Motional Emf as it is generated because of motion
of the rod inside the magnetic field.
● Expression for motional emfe= Blengthv
● Example: Flight.
○ At the tips of both the wings of the aeroplane emf is induced.
○ As it is not a closed loop so this emf cannot be used.
 Problem:- An aircraft with a wingspan of 40m flies with a speed of 1080km/hr in the
eastward direction at a constant altitude in the northern hemisphere, where the vertical
component of earth’s magnetic field is 1.75x10-5T.Find the Emf that develops between
the tips of the wings?

Answer:-

V=1080km/hr= ((1080x1000)/60) = 300m/s

B=1.75x10-5T

e=Blv=1.75x10-5 x40 x300 e=0.21V.

Methods of producing Induced Emf in a circuit: Varying Area (A) in a closed loop(with
movable piston)

● Consider a closed loop such that one arm of the loop acts as a movable piston.
● The loop is present inside a magnetic field.
● The movement of piston will cause a change in area of the loop.
● As there is change in area as aresult there is change in flux because of which
there is induced emf.
Problem:- A wheel with 10 metallic spokes each 0.5 m long is rotated with aspeed of 120
rev/min in a plane normal to the horizontal componentof earth’s magnetic field HE at a
place. If HE = 0.4 G at the place, whatis the induced Emf between the axle and the rim of
the wheel? Note that 1 G = 10–4 T.

Answer:-

Induced emf = (1/2) ω B R2

= (1/2) × 4π × 0.4 × 10–4 × (0.5)2

= 6.28 × 10–5 V

The number of spokes is immaterial because the emf across thespokes is in parallel.

Problem:-
A square loop of side 12 cm with its sides parallel to X and Y axes ismoved with a
velocity of 8 cm s–1 in the positive x-direction in anenvironment containing a magnetic
field in the positive z-direction.The field is neither uniform in space nor constant in time. It
has a

gradient of 10 –3 T cm–1along the negative x-direction (that is it increasesby 10 – 3 T cm–1

as one moves in the negative x-direction), and it isdecreasing in time at the rate of

10 –3Ts–1. Determine the direction andmagnitude of the induced current in the loop if its
resistance is 4.50 mΩ.

Answer:-

Side of the square loop, s = 12 cm = 0.12 m

Area of the square loop, A = 0.12 × 0.12 = 0.0144 m2

Velocity of the loop, v = 8 cm/s = 0.08 m/s

Gradient of the magnetic field along negative x-direction,

(dB/dx) =10-3Tcm-1 =10-1Tm-1

And, rate of decrease of the magnetic field,

(dB/dx) =10-3Ts-1

Resistance of the loop, R=4.5 mΩ=4.5x10-3Ω

Rate of change of the magnetic flux due to the motion of the loop in a non-uniform
magnetic field is given as:

(dΦ/dt) =A x (dB/dt) xv

=144x 10-4xm2x10-1x0.08

=11.52x10-5Tm2s-1

Rate of change of the flux due to explicit time variation in field B is given as:

(dΦ/dt) =A x (dB/dt)

=144x10-5Tm2s-1

Since the rate of change of the flux is the induced Emf, the total induced Emf in the loop
can be calculated as:

e=144x10-5+11.52x10-5
=12.96 x 10-5V

∴Induced current, i= (e/R) s

s= (12.96x10-5)/ (1.5x10-3)

i=2.88x10-2A

Hence, the direction of the induced current is such that there is an increase in the flux
through the loop along positive z-direction.

Methods of producing Induced Emf in a circuit: Varying angle between magnetic field and
area vector (θ)

By changing the orientation of coil and magnetic field i.e. θ emf can be induced in the
circuit.

Consider Φ = BA cosθ if θ is changed then the value of Φ will also change.

For Example:-

● Electric generator-In case of electric generator there are rectangular coils and they
are placed between the poles of the electromagnet.
● When it is rotated then the orientation of the area vector of the coil and magnetic
field is changing.
● As θ is changing from 0 to 900,900 to 1800, 1800 to 2700 and 2700 to 3600.
● As a result there is change in flux and as a result emf is induced in the generator
which in turn induces current in the generator.
Problem:- A 1.0m long metallic rod is rotated with an angular frequency of 400rads-1
about an axis normal to the rod passing through its one end. The other end of the rod is
contact with a metallic circular ring. A constant and uniform magnetic field of 0.5T parallel
to the axis exists everywhere. Calculate the emf developed between the centre and the
ring?

Answer:-

Length of the rod, l = 1 m

Angular frequency, ω = 400 rad/s

Magnetic field strength, B = 0.5 T

One end of the rod has zero linear velocity, while the other end has a linear velocity of l(i).

Average linear velocity of the rod, v=(l (i) +0)/2 = (l (i)/2)

Emf developed between the centre and the ring,

e=Blv =Bl (l (i)/2) = (Bl2(i)/2)

=(0.5x(1)2x400)/2

=100V.

Hence, the emf developed between the centre and the ring is 100 V.

Problem:- A rectangular wire loop of sides 8 cm and 2 cm with a small cut ismoving out
of a region of uniform magnetic field of magnitude 0.3 Tdirected normal to the loop. What
is the emf developed across thecut if the velocity of the loop is 1 cm s–1 in a direction
normal to the longer side, (b) shorter side of the loop? For how long does the induced
voltage last in each case?

Answer:-

Length of the rectangular wire, l = 8 cm = 0.08 m

Width of the rectangular wire, b = 2 cm = 0.02 m

Hence, area of the rectangular loop,A = lb

= 0.08 × 0.02

= 16 × 10 – 4

Magnetic field strength, B = 0.3 T

Velocity of the loop, v = 1 cm/s = 0.01 m/s

(a) Emf developed in the loop is given as:e = Blv

= 0.3x0.08x0.01 =2.4 x10-4V

Time taken to travel along the width = (Distance travelled)/ (velocity)

= (b/v) = (0.02/0.01) =2s

Hence, the induced voltage is 2.4 x10-4V which lasts for 2 s.

(b) Emf developed, e = Bbv

= 0.3x0.02x0.01=0.6x10-4V

Time taken to travel along the length, t=(Distance travelled)/(velocity)

=(1/v) =(0.08)/(0.01) =8s.

Hence, the induced voltage is 0.6 x10-4 V which lasts for 8 s.

Problem:- Suppose the loop in above problemis stationary but the currentfeeding the
electromagnet that produces the magnetic field isgradually reduced so that the field
decreases from its initial valueof 0.3 T at the rate of 0.02 Ts–1. If the cut is joined and the
loophas a resistance of 1.6 Ω, how much power is dissipated by theloop as heat? What
is the source of this power?

Answer:-

Initial B = 0.3 T

(dB /dt) = 0.02Ts-1

ε =-(d Φ/dt) =-A (dB /dt)

Area, A = 8x10-2x2x10-2 =16x10-4m2

ε =16x10-4x0.02= 32x10-6V

i = (ε/R) = (32x10-6/1.6) =2x10-5 A

Power (ε i) = 6.4x10-10W

Source of this power is source that produces the changing magnetic field.

Eddy currents

● Eddy currents are induced currents in the body of conductor when subjected to
changing magnetic flux.
● They are also known as Foucault current after the name of the scientist Foucault.
● They are known as eddy currents as they are in the pattern of eddiesin the water.
● Consider an electromagnet when attached to battery because of the current
magnetic field will be produced which will induce current in the metallic plate.
● The current will be in the form of eddies.
● The metallic plate will be slightly drifted in the air because of eddy currents.
 ● Mathematically :-
○ i=(induced emf)/(Resistance of the conductor)
○ =(e/R)
○ e= -(dΦ/dt)
○ Therefore i=-(dΦ/dt)/R
● The magnitude and direction will be same as the induced current in the case of
electromagnet induction.

Ripples in water

Examples of Eddy currents

● Metal plate: In absence of magnetic field: No damping

○ Consider a metal plate which is suspended freely with the help of thread.
○ As there is no magnetic field the plate will keep on oscillating without
damping.
● Metal plate: In presence of magnetic field: Damping exists
○ If the magnetic field is present it oscillates but it stops after some time
because of damping.
○ As the plate keep on entering the magnetic plate and coming out of it.
 ○ When it enters the region of magnetic field there is increase in area. As a
result flux changes.
○ As flux changes there is induced current.The direction of the induced
current will be opposite to itsmean position.
○ When the induced current leaves the magnetic field, again current will be
induced but in the opposite direction.
○ This effect of induced currents together gives the effect of eddy currents.
○ Because of induced current the motion is dampedas they are opposing the
motion of the plate.
● Metal plate with slots: In presence of magnetic field: Damping reduced
○ When the plate oscillates the damping is reduced as there is lesser area.
○ The eddy currents are less as a result damping is reduced.
○ Eddy currents willoppose the motion of the plate and as they are reduced
so there the damping is reduced.
● Conclusion:-
● Eddy currents always have the tendency to oppose the relative motion.
● They are same eddies in the water because as the movement continues and
currents also keep changing their direction depending on the change in flux.
● Therefore they look like eddies in the water.
● Eddy currents also cause damping as they oppose motion.

Eddy currents are generated in the copper plate,while enteringand leaving the region
ofmagnetic field.
Cutting slots in the copper plate reducesthe effect of eddy currents.

Eddy currents:Disadvantages

Dissipate electrical energy in the form of heat.

Overheating of metallic cores of transformers, electric motors and other such devices.

1. In order to avoid the overheating of the core,metallic sheets are taken in the form
of very thin sheets.These sheets are electrically insulated.
2. The cores are insulated with some insulating material as a result heat won’t get
transferred to surroundings.
3. These cores are known as laminated cores.
4. By using these cores eddy currents are reduced as a result heat dissipation is
reduced.

Eddy currents : Applications

Electromagnetic brakes –To control the speed of fast moving electric trains.

In case of fast moving trains,on the tracks, magnets are placed so that currents are
induced on the wheels of the train.
Electromagnetic brakes do not need any maintenance. It is very economical alternative
to friction brakes.

● Consider a very big magnet is placed near the track on which train will go.
● Outer rim of the wheel is coated with copper.
● When the wheel comes near the magnetic field it will experience the magnetic
field produced by the magnet.
● This will result in change in flux and induced current will be produced.
● The direction will be given by Lenz’s law.The induced field will give rise to
repulsiveinduced field at the boundary.As a result the train slows down a little.
● When the train moves to other end of the magnet it will experience an attractive
force because of induced current in the opposite direction.
● Train gradually slows down and finally comes to rest.
● The kinetic energy lost by the train = the heat gained by the copper.
● It obeys the law of conservation of energy.

Electromagnetic damping:- Electromagnetic damping in galvanometers helps to reduce

oscillations around equilibrium positions.

1. Galvanometers are the instruments which help in measuring currents.

2. When the current passes through the galvanometer there is a needle(needle is
like a small metal plate) which oscillate after some time it comes to rest.
3. Because of electromagnetic dampingneedle comes to rest quickly.As a result
magnitude of current can be detected.
4. It is same as metal plate entering the magnetic field there is a current induced
similarly when leaving the magnetic field there is a current induced.
5. The current entering and leaving are in opposite directions.
6. These eddy currents oppose the relative motion as a result electromagnetic
damping occurs.
Induction

Induction is defined as current production in the coil due to the change in magnetic flux in
itself or another coil.

Types of Induction:-

1. Self-induction-
● There will be change in the magnetic flux in the coil itself because of which a
current will be induced in itself.
● It is denoted by L.

2. Mutual induction-
● There are 2 coils,if there is change in the magnetic flux in one coil then the
magnetic field is induced in the second coil.
● It is denoted by M.
Inductance:-

● Inductance is a quantity which measures the induction.

● It is also called as Coefficient of induction.
● Coefficient of inductionis about the ratio of current induced with respect to
magnetic flux.
● Flux through the coil Φ∝ I (current)
● If there are N turns in the coil,
● Total Flux is known as flux linkage NΦ∝ I=> NΦ =constant I
● This constant of proportionality is known as Inductance.
● It is a scalar quantity.
● I. unit is Henry(H).
● It depends on
○ Geometry of the coil.
○ Nature of the material on which it is wound.

Self-Inductance

● There is one coil in which there is change in the flux in that coil and because of
that flux change.
● Current is induced in the same coil.
● Current tries to oppose the change in the flux.
● Consider a closed circuit,as a result the current will flow through the coil,therefore
flux increases as a result current is induced in the coil.
● This induced current will oppose the growth of current.
● Suppose there is N number of turns in the coil.Therefore flux linkage of the coil N
Φ∝ I.
● N Φ =LI where L=constant of proportionality and is known as self-inductance.
 ● Therefore Self-inductance will describe about the ratio of magnetic flux to the
current it induces.
● Induced Emf e=-(d Φ/dt) By faraday’s Lenz’s law
● Therefore e=-d/dt [LI]
● e= -L dI/dt Where I=current flows through the coil.
● This Emf will oppose the change in I.

Self-inductance of a long solenoid

● Long solenoid is the one whose length(length) is very large as compared to

radius(r) of the solenoid.(l>>r)
● Using B=μ0nI
● =(μ0NI)/length where N= total number of turns, n= number of turns per unit length.
● Case 1:- core of the solenoid has air.
○ Flux=NBA
● =NA((μ0NI)/length).
● =>Φ =(μ0N2IA)/length (equation(1))
● Also total flux=LI (equation(2))
● From (1) and (2)
● => LI =(μ0N2IA)/length
● =>L = (μ0N2A)/length
● Case 2:- core of the solenoid is made of material which has permeability μr.
○ L=(μr N2A)/length
○ =>L= (μ0 μr N2 A)/length
Problem:- A long solenoid with 15 turns per cm has a small loop of area 2.0 placed inside
the solenoid normal to its axis. If the current carried by the solenoid changes steadily
from 2.0 A to 4.0A in 0.1 s, what is the induced emf in the loop while the current is
changing?

Answer: - Number of turns on the solenoid = 15 turns/cm = 1500 turns/m

Number of turns per unit length, n = 1500 turns

The solenoid has a small loop of area, A =2.0 cm2= 2 × 10-4m2

Current carried by the solenoid changes from 2 A to 4 A.

Therefore change in current in the solenoid, di = 4 – 2 = 2 A

Change in time, dt = 0.1 s

Induced emf in the solenoid is given by Faraday’s law as:

e= (dΦ/dt) … (i)

Where, Φ= Induced flux through the small loop

= BA … (ii) Where B = Magnetic field

= (μ0ni) … (iii)

μ0 = Permeability of free space

=4nx10-7H/m

Hence, equation (i) reduces to:

e= (d/dt) (di/dt)

=Aμ0n x (di/dt)

=2x10-4x4x3.14x10-7x 1500 x (2/0.1)

=7.54 x 10-6V

Hence, the induced voltage in the loop is 7.54x10-6V

Back Emf

● Self-induced Emf is also known as back Emf.

● Back Emf tries to oppose change in the current.It tries to bring back the current.
● This implies the current needs to do work against back Emf.
● The work done by the current is stored as magnetic potential energy.
 ○ In a coil there is increase in the current as a result there is change in the
magnetic flux because of that there is induced Emf.
○ This induced Emftry to oppose the change in the current.
○ The current will do some work to oppose the back Emf.
○ This work done is stored as magnetic potential energy.
● Mathematically:-
○ Work done = Potential Energy

● Note: - Self-inductance acts like inertia.

Problem:- An air-cored solenoid with length 30 cm, area of cross-section 25 cm2 and
number of turns 500, carries a current of 2.5 A. The current is suddenly switched off in a
brief time of 10–3 s. How much is the average back emf induced across the ends of the
open switch in the circuit? Ignore the variation in magnetic field near the ends of the
solenoid.

Answer:- Length of the solenoid, l = 30 cm = 0.3 m

Area of cross-section, A = 25cm2 =25x10-4m2

Number of turns on the solenoid, N = 500

Current in the solenoid, I = 2.5 A

Current flows for time, t = 10-3 s

Average back emf, e= (dΦ/dt) … (i)

Where,dΦ = Change in flux

= NAB … (2)
Where,

B = Magnetic field strength

= μ0 (NI/length)

Where,

μ0= Permeability of free space =4nx10s-7xTmA-1

Using equations (2) and (3) in equation (1), we get

e= (μ0N2IA)/ (t length)

= (4x3.14x10-7x (500)2x2.5x25x10-4)/ (3.0x10-3)

=6.5V

Hence, the average back emf induced in the solenoid is 6.5 V.

Mutual Inductance

In mutual inductance there are 2 coils, current is passed in one coil, as current increases
there is change in the flux, and as aresult current is induced in the second coil.

Consider coil 1 connected to battery and coil 2 is connected to the galvanometer.

● When the key is pressed attached to the coil 1 the current starts flowing, when the
current starts increasing flux linked also starts increasing.
● Because of the increase in the flux linked with the coil1, the flux of coil 2 also
increases.
● There is change in the flux of the coil 2 as a result emf is induced in the coil 2.
● Because of the induced emf induced current will be there in coil2.
● This induced current opposes the increase of the current in coil 1.

Mathematically:-

● Φ(2)∝ I(1)
● =>Φ(2) = MI(1)where M = constant of proportionality known as Mutual Inductance.
● Induced emf in coil 2 e=-(dΦ(2)/dt)
● =>e =-d/dt(MI (1)) where I current flowing in coil (1).
● Therefore e =-d/dt (M I (1))
● M (mutual inductance) depends on:-
1. Geometry of both coils.
2. Distance between coils.
3. Orientation of coils.
Mutual Inductance between long co-axial solenoids

● Co-axial solenoids means the centres of both the solenoids are same.
● Radius of the smaller solenoid (1) =r1. Number of turns in smaller solenoid= N1.
● Radius of the bigger solenoid (2) = r2.Number of turns in bigger solenoid= N2.

Case 1:-

● Current flowing in the bigger solenoid = I2, as a result magnetic flux Φ1 will be
induced in smaller solenoid.
● Therefore N1Φ1∝I2
● =>N1Φ1 =M12I2 equation(1)
○ where M12 = mutual inductance of 1 w.r.t 2
● Magnetic field due to I2 in (bigger solenoid 2) B =μ0n2I2
● => B =(μ0n2I2)/length
● Total Flux N1Φ1 =N1 BA1
● => =(N1A1μ0N2I2)/length equation(2)
● From equation(1) and (2)
● M12I2 = (N1A1μ0N2I2)/length
● =>M12 = (μ0N1 N2A)/ length equation(a)

Case 2:-

● Current I1 flowing through solenoid (1) this will result in flux solenoid (2)
● Total flux N2Φ2 = M21I1 equation(3)
● Also total flux N2Φ2 = N2 B1 A1
○ where B =magnetic field due to smaller solenoid;
○ B1 =μ0n1I1;
 ○ =(μ0N1I1)/length
● =>N2Φ2 = N2((μ0N1I1)/length)A1 equation(4)
● Comparing (3) and (4)
● M21I1 = N2((μ0N1I1)/length)A1
● M21 = (μ0N2 N1A1)/ length equation(b)
● Comparing (a) and (b)
● ThereforeM12 = M21

Problem:- A solenoid of length 50cm with 20 turns per cm and area of cross-section
40cm2 completely surrounds another co-axial solenoid of the same length, area of cross
section 25cm2 with 25 turns per cm. Calculate the mutual inductance of the system?

Answer:- Let the outer solenoid be 1 and inner solenoid be 2.

Length l1 =50cm=50x10-2m

n1 =2000 turns /m

A1 = 40 x10-4 m2

Length l2=50x10-2m

n2 =2500 turns/m

A2=25x10-4 m2

M12=M21

M12= (μ0N1N2A2)/length =μ0n1n2A2length

=4x3.14x10-7x2000x2500x50x10-2x25x10-4

=7.85x10-3 H

Problem:- (a) A toroidal solenoid with an air core has an average radius of 15cm, area of
cross-section 2cm2 and 1200 turns. Obtain the self-inductance of the toroid. Ignore field
variations across the cross-section of toroid.
(b) A second coil of 300 turns is wound closely on the toroid above. If the current in the
primary coil is increased from 0 to 2A in 0.05s.Obtain the induced emf in the second coil.

Answer:- (a) Radius r1=15x10-2m

Area A1=2x10-4m2

N1=1200

B=μ0nI= (μ0N1I)/ (2πr1)

Total flux: -N1xBxA1=N1x(μ0xN1I/2πr1) x A1

Also Total flux =LI

LI =μ0xA1x N12I/ (2πr1)

= (4πx10-7x (1200)2x 2x10-4)/ (2πx15x10-2)

=2.304x10-4 H

The self-inductance of the toroid is 2.304x10-4 H.

(b) A1=2x10-4m2

r1=15x10-2m

N1=1200

N2 =300

(dI1/ dt) = (If –Ii)/dt = (2-0)/ (0.05) =40A/s

Total flux in 2:- Φ2 =N2xB1xA1

=N2(μ0n1I1)/A1 equation (1)

Also,Φ2 =MI1 equation (2)

=> M=N2xμ0xn1xA1

e2 =M (dI1/dt) =μ0N2n1A1x40

=4πx10-7x 300x (N1/2πr1) x2x10-4x40

=0.023V

The emf induced in the second coil is 0.023V.

Self and Mutual Inductance

● Consider a coil (1) which is connected to a battery and there is a key.

● There is another coil (2) which is connected to galvanometer.
● When the key is closed, the current flows through coil (1) there is a change in the
flux of coil (1) because of which self-induced emf will be produced.
● Because of current flow in coil(1) there will be change in the magnetic flux of
coil(2) because of which induced emf will be produced in coil(2).
● As a result mutual induction takes place in coil(2).
● This shows both self-inductance and mutual inductance takes place
simultaneously.
● Therefore flux linked to coil 1:-N1Φ1 =L1I1 +M12I2
● Induced emf in coil (1) e= -L1(dI1/dt) - M12(dI2/dt)
○ Where(-)ive sign shows it opposes the growth of current.

Problem:- Two coils have mutual inductance of 1.5 H. If the current in the primary circuit
is raised to 5A in 1 millisecond after closing the circuit, what is the emf induced in the
secondary?

Answer:-

M=1.5 H

Ii=0 A, If=5A, dt =1ms =10-3sec

e2 =-M (dIi/dt)

=1.5 x ((If-Ii)/dt)
=1.5 x ((5-0)/10-3)

=7.5x103V.

Problem:- Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r1 and the other of large
radius r2, such that r1<< r2, are placed co-axially with centres coinciding. Obtain the
mutual inductance of the

arrangement.

Answer:-

Let a current I2 flow through the outer circular coil. The field at the centre of the coil is

B2 = μ0I2 / 2r2. Since the other co-axially placed coil has a very small radius, B2 may be
considered constant over its cross-sectional area. Hence,

Φ1 = πr12 B2

=I2 (μ0 π r12)/ (2r2)

= M12I2

Thus, M12 = (μ0 π r12)/ (2r2)

Using equation M12=M21= (μ0 π r12)/ (2r2)

Note that we calculated M12 from an approximate value of Φ1, assuming the magnetic
field B2 to be uniform over the area π r12. However, we can accept this value because r1
<< r2.

AC Generator

● An electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical

energy.
● The generation of alternating currents (ac) is based on the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction.
● Whenever the magnetic flux changes an emf will be induced in the coil.
● AC generator is a device that converts mechanical energy into electrical
energy(alternating currents).
● AC generator is an example of inducing an emf or current in a loop by varying the
magnetic field and area vector.

Principle:-

● Current is induced in a loop through a change in its orientation or a change in its

effective area.
● Induced emf is produced either by changing θ or by changing the area vector.
 ● Direction of current is given by Fleming’s right hand rule.
● Direction of the current in the circuit changes by the up and down movement of
the loops.

Construction:-

● It consists of 2 poles(north and south) of a magnet in order to have uniform

magnetic field.
● There is a coil of rectangular shape also known as armature.
● The armature is connected to 2 slip rings.
● Slip rings helps in electrical contact with the brushes.It does not change current
direction.
● The slip rings provide a continuous connectionwith the wire around the armature.
● These slip rings are attached to carbon brushes.
● The rectangular coil is capable of rotating about an axis which is perpendicular to
the magnetic field.
● The axis of rotation is known as axle.

Working:-

● At initial time t=0;θ =0 where θ = angle between magnetic field (B) and area
vector.
● Magnetic flux Φ =BA as cos 0 =1.
● When the coil rotates with the angular velocity ω;
● After time t, θ = ωt;
● Φ(t) =BA cosθ = BA cosωt (because θ is changing as a result magnetic flux is also
changing)
● Therefore change in flux occurs; By Faraday’s Law there will be induced emf.
● Induced emf e=- N (dΦ/dt); where N = number of turns.
● = –Nd(BA cosωt)/dt
● e=NBAωsinωt
● As sinωt is a periodic function,therefore it varies from -1 to +1.
● Minimum value of e= - NBAω and maximum value of e=+ NBAω.
● Therefore e =e0sinωt where e0=NBAω
● Therefore Induced current will change periodically.
● As the current is changing periodically that is why it is called as alternating current.
● Rod is getting rotated by some external means; therefore rotation of rod is
mechanical energy.
● This mechanical energy is getting converted toinduce emf because of which
induced current is produced.
● Therefore because of mechanical energy alternating current is generated.As a
result electrical energy is generated.
Types of Generator:-

1. Hydro-electric generators:Power of flowing water is used to rotate the rectangular

coil.
2. Thermal generators: - When thermal power is used to rotate the rectangular coil.
3. Power generators