SMA 2102: CALCULUS II

⃝Francis
c O. Ochieng
[email protected]

Department of Pure and Applied Mathematics

Jomo Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology

Course Description
• Parametric and implicit differentiation involving higher order derivatives. Applications to
equations of tangent line and normal line.

• Curve sketching and asymptotes.

• Hyperbolic functions: their definitions, their differentiation and integration.

• Techniques of integration: powers of trigonometric functions, standard substitutions including

trigonometric and hyperbolic functions, integration by parts, integration via partial fractions,
integration via t-substitution.

• Solutions of first order ordinary differential equations by separation of variables method.

• Applications of integration to: kinematics including simple harmonic motion, economics, arc
length, plane and surface area, and volume in Cartesian coordinates.

• Numerical integration: mid-ordinate rule, trapezoidal rule and Simpson’s rule.

• Complex numbers: Argand diagrams, arithmetic operators and geometric representation. De

Moivre’s theorem and application to trigonometric identities, roots of complex numbers.

References
[1] Calculus: Early Transcendentals (8th Edition) by James Stewart

[2] Calculus with Analytic Geometry by Roland E. Larson, Robert P. Hostetler and Bruce H. Edwards;
5th edition

[3] Calculus and Analytical Geometry (9th edition) by George B. Thomas and Ross L. Finney

[4] Advanced Engineering Mathematics (10th ed.) by Erwin Kreyszig

[5] Calculus by Larson Hostellem

Lecture 1

1 Parametric and Implicit Differentiation

1.1 Parametric differentiation
Consider the curve defined by the functions

x = x(t), y = y(t) (1)

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1.1 Parametric differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

If the functions in equation (1) have the same domain, then the set of points (x, y) for t in this domain
dy
is called the parametric representation of the curve given by equation (1). The first derivative, (or
′
dx
y ) is given by
dy dy/dt
=.
dx dx/dt

dy d2 y
Since is found in terms of the parameter t and (or y ′′ ) requires differentiation with respect to
dx dx2
x, we use the chain rule of differentiation. Thus,
( )
d dy
( ) ( )
d2 y d dy d dy dt dt dx
2
= = × =
dx dx dx dt dx dx dx/dt
d3 y
Similarly, (or y ′′′ ) is given by
dx3
( )
d d2 y
( ) ( )
d3 y d d2 y d d2 y dt dt dx2
3
= = × = ,
dx dx dx2 dt dx2 dx dx/dt
etc.

Example(s):
dy d2 y d3 y
1. If x = t3 + 1, y = t2 − t + 4, find , and in terms of t.
dx dx2 dx3

Solution
dx dy
= 3t2 , = 2t − 1. Therefore, chain rule yields
dt dt
dy dy/dt 2t − 1
= =
dx dx/dt 3t2
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d2 y d dy dt d 2t − 1 1 3t2 (2) − (2t − 1)(6t) 1 2(1 − t)
= · = · = · =
dx2 dt dx dx dt 3t 2 2
(3t ) 9t 4 2
(3t ) 9t5
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
d3 y d d2 y dt d 2 − 2t 1 9t5 (−2) − (2 − 2t)(45t4 ) 1
= · = · = ·
dx3 dt dx2 dx dt 9t5 3t2 81t10 3t2
8t − 10
=
27t8

dy d2 y
2. The parametric equations of a curve are x = et , y = sin t. Find and as functions of t.
dx dx2
d2 y dy
Hence, show that x2 +x + y = 0.
dx2 dx

Solution
dx dy
= et , = cos t. Therefore, chain rule yields
dt dt
dy dy/dt cos t
= = t = e−t cos t
dx dx/dt e
( )
d2 y d dy dx d ( −t ) −e−t sin t − e−t cos t
= ÷ = e cos t ÷ et = = e−2t (− sin t − cos t)
dx2 dt dx dt dt et
Now,
d2 y dy [ ] [ ]
−2t −t
x2 + x + y = e 2t
e (− sin t − cos t) + et
e cos t + sin t = − sin t − cos t + cos t + sin t
dx2 dx
= 0

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1.1 Parametric differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

dy d2 y d3 y
3. Given the curve x = sin 2θ, y = cos 2θ. Find , and as functions of θ.
dx dx2 dx3

Solution
dx dy
= 2 cos 2θ, = −2 sin 2θ. Therefore, chain rule yields
dθ dθ
dy dy/dθ −2 sin 2θ
= = = − tan 2θ
dx dx/dθ 2 cos 2θ
( ) ( ) ( )
d2 y d dy d dθ 1
= = (− tan 2θ) · = −2 sec 2
2θ · = − sec3 2θ
dx2 dx dx dθ dx 2 cos 2θ
( )
d3 y d d2 y d ( ) dθ ( ) ( 1
)
= = − sec3
2θ · = −6 sec 3
2θ tan 2θ · = −3 sec4 2θ tan 2θ
dx3 dx dx2 dθ dx 2 cos 2θ
√ dy t
4. If x = A(t + sin−1 t), y = A(1 − 1 − t2 ) for some constant A, show that = √ .
dx 1 + 1 − t2
d2 y 1
Hence, find the value of at t = √ .
dx2 2

Solution
Recall that if p = sin−1 t, then sin p = t. Differentiating with respect to t on both sides yields
dp dp 1 1 1
cos p =1 ⇒ = =√ =√ .
dt dt cos p 1 − sin p
2 1 − t2
Now,
( ) ( √ )
dx 1 1 + 1 − t2
= A 1+ √ =A √
dt 1 − t2 1 − t2
( )
dy 1 At
= A 0 − (1 − t2 )−1/2 (−2t) = √
dt 2 1 − t2
√
dy dy/dt At 1 − t2 t
∴ = =√ · ( √ ) = √
dx dx/dt 1−t A 1+ 1−t
2 2 1 + 1 − t2

Then,
( ) ( ) ( )
d2 y d dy d t d t dt
= = √ = √
dx2 dx dx dx 1 + 1 − t 2 dt 1 + 1 − t dx
2
√ t √
(1 + 1 − t2 )(1) − (1 − t2 )−1/2 (−2t) 1 − t2
= √2 · ( √ )
(1 + 1 − t2 )2 A 1 + 1 − t2
[ ]
√ √ t2
1 − t2 (1 + 1 − t2 ) + √ √
1 − t2 1 − t2 + 1 − t2 + t2 1
= √ = √ = √
A(1 + 1 − t2 )3 A(1 + 1 − t2 )3 A(1 + 1 − t2 )2
1
Therefore, at t = √ , we have
2
d2 y 1 1 1
= ( √ )2 = ( √ )2 = ( √ )2
dx2 t= √1
2 A 1+ 1 − ( √12 )2 1 1
A 1+ 1− A 1+
2 2
(√ )2
1 1 2 2 2−1
= ( )2 = (√ )2 = (√ )2 = (√ )2 (√ )2
1 2+1 2−1
A 1+ √ A √
A 2+1 A 2+1
2 2
(√ )2
2 2−1 2 √
= = (3 − 2 2)
A(2 − 1)2 A

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1.1 Parametric differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

d2 y π
5. If x = A[cos t + ln(tan(t/2))] and y = A sin t for some constant A, find 2
at t = .
dx 4

Solution
[ ] [ ]
dx 1 1 cos(t/2)
= A − sin t + · sec2 (t/2) · = A − sin t +
dt tan(t/2) 2 2 sin(t/2) cos2 (t/2)
[ ] [ ]
1 1 − sin2 t A cos2 t
= A − sin t + =A =
sin t sin t sin t
dy
= A cos t
dt
dy dy/dt a cos t sin t
∴ = = 2 = A cos t · = tan t
dx dx/dt A cos t A cos2 t
sin t
Then,
( )
d2 y d dy d d dt
= =
(tan t) = (tan t)
dx2 dx dx dx dt dx
sin t 1 sin t sin t
= sec2 t · 2
= 2
· 2
=
A cos t cos t A cos t A cos4 t
π
Therefore, at t = , we have
4
√ √ √ √
d2 y sin(π/4) 1/ 2 1/ 2 4 4 2 2 2
= = √ = = √ = =
dx2 t= π4 A cos4 (π/4) A(1/ 2)4 A/4 A 2 2A A

dy
6. If x = tan−1 ( 1−t
2t
2 ) and y = sin
−1 ( 2t ), show that
1+t2
= 1.
dx

Solution
2t
Given, x = tan−1 ( 1−t
2t
2 ). Taking tangent on both sides yields tan x = . Differentiating
1 − t2
dx (1 − t2 )(2) − (2t)(−2t) dx
with respect to t on both sides yields sec2 x = . Making the subject
dt (1 − t )
2 2 dt
yields

dx 1 (1 − t2 )(2) − (2t)(−2t) 1 2 − 2t2 + 4t2 1 2 − 2t2 + 4t2

= · = · = ·
dt sec2 x (1 − t2 )2 1 + tan2 x (1 − t2 )2 4t2 (1 − t2 )2
1+
(1 − t2 )2
(1 − t2 )2 2(1 + t2 ) 2(1 + t2 ) 2(1 + t2 )
= · = =
(1 − t2 )2 + 4t2 (1 − t2 )2 (1 − t2 )2 + 4t2 (1 + t2 )2
2
=
1 + t2
2t
Given y = sin−1 ( 1+t
2t
2 ). Taking sine on both sides yields sin y = . Differentiating with
1 + t2
dy (1 + t2 )(2) − (2t)(2t) dy
respect to t on both sides yields cos y = 2 2
. Making the subject yields
dt (1 + t ) dt

dy 1 (1 + t2 )(2) − (2t)(2t) 1 2 + 2t2 − 4t2 1 2 + 2t2 − 4t2

= · =√ · = √ ·
dt cos y 2
(1 + t )2
1 − sin2 y 2
(1 + t )2
4t2 (1 + t2 )2
1−
(1 + t2 )2
(1 + t2 ) 2(1 − t2 ) 2(1 − t2 )
= √ · √ =
(1 + t2 )2 − 4t2 (1 + t2 ) (1 − t2 )2 (1 + t2 )(1 − t2 )
2
=
1 + t2

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1.1 Parametric differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Therefore, chain rule yields

dy dy/dt 2/(1 + t2 )
= = = 1.
dx dx/dt 2/(1 + t2 )
(√ )
1 + x2 − 1
7. Differentiate tan−1 with respect to tan−1 x.
x

Solution (√ )
1 + x2 − 1 du
Let u = tan−1 and v = tan−1 x. We need to find . Now,
x dv
(√ ) √
−1 1 + x2 − 1 1 + x2 − 1
Given u = tan ⇒ tan u = . Differentiating with respect to
x x
x on both sides yields
( )
x √
x √ − ( 1 + x2 − 1)(1)
du 1 + x2
sec2 u = .
dx x2
du
Making the subject yields
dx
( )
x √ x2 √
x √ − ( 1 + x2 − 1)(1) √ − ( 1 + x2 − 1)
du 1 1 + x2 1 2
= 2
· 2
= 2 · 1+x
dx sec u x 1 + tan u x2
x 2 √
√ − ( 1 + x2 − 1) √
1 1 + x 2 x2 1 + x2 − 1
= √ · = √ · √
( 1 + x2 − 1)2 x2 x2 + ( 1 + x2 − 1)2 x2 1 + x2
1+ 2
√x √
1 + x2 − 1 1 + x2 − 1
= √ √ = √ √
[x2 + ( 1 + x2 − 1)2 ] 1 + x2 [2 + 2x2 − 2 1 + x2 )] 1 + x2
√ √
1 + x2 − 1 1 + x2 − 1
= √ = √
2[(1 + x2 ) 1 + x2 − (1 + x2 )] 2(1 + x2 )( 1 + x2 − 1)
1
=
2(1 + x2 )
Also, given v = tan−1 x ⇒ tan v = x. Differentiating with respect to x on both sides yields
dv dv
sec2 v = 1. Making the subject yields
dx dx
dv 1 1 1
= 2
= 2 =
dx sec v 1 + tan v 1 + x2
Therefore, chain rule yields
1
du du/dx 2(1 + x2 ) 1 (1 + x2 ) 1
= = = · =
dv dv/dx 1 2(1 + x2 ) 1 2
2
(1 + x )

Exercise:
1 1
1. Given that x = sec θ+tan θ and y = cosec θ+cot θ, show that x+
= 2 sec θ and y+ = 2cosec θ.
( x ) y
dx dy dy 1 + y2
Find and in terms of θ, and hence show that =− .
dθ dθ dx 1 + x2
1+t 1 + 2t dy
2. If x = and y = , find the value of at t = 0.
1 − 2t 1−t dx
d2 y
3. If x = t − sin t and y = 1 − sin t, find .
dx2

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1.2 Implicit Differentiation ⃝Francis
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Lecture 2

1.2 Implicit Differentiation

An equation f (x, y) = c, on certain restricted ranges of the variables x and y, is said to be defined
implicitly for some constant c. For instance, the equation xy + x − 2y = 1 is implicit since y is not
dy
the subject. To find (or y ′ ), follow these steps:
dx
i) Differentiate x normally

ii) Apply direct chain rule in differentiating y

dy
iii) Collect like terms and make the subject
dx

Example(s):

1. Find y ′ given that xy + x − 2y = 1.

Solution
Differentiating the given equation with respect to x, we get
y+1
xy ′ + y + 1 − 2y ′ = 0 ⇒ y′ =
2−x
√
2. Find y ′ when x = 5 given that 4x2 + 9y 2 = 36.

Solution
Differentiating the given equation with respect to x, we get
−8x −4x
8x + 18yy ′ = 0 ⇒ y′ = = .
18y 9y
√ √ 16
When x = 5 we have 4( 5)2 + 9y 2 − 36 = 0 ⇒ 20 + 9y 2 − 36 = 0 ⇒ y2 = .
9
4
Therefore, y = ± .
3
√ √
√ ′ −4 5 − 5
 At the point ( 5, 4/3), y = = .
9(4/3) 3
√ √
√ ′ −4 5 5
 At the point ( 5, −4/3), y = = .
9(−4/3) 3

Exercise:
y 2 − 2xy − 2x
1. Find y ′ given x2 y − xy 2 + x2 + y 2 = 0. [ans: y ′ = ]
x2 − 2xy + 2y

1.2.1 Higher order derivatives of implicit functions

Higher order derivatives of implicit functions may be obtained in either of the two ways.

 Method I: differentiate implicitly the derivatives of one lower order and replace y ′ by the
relation previously found.

 Method II: differentiate implicitly both sides of the given equation as many times as is necessary
to produce the required derivative and eliminate all derivatives of lower order. This procedure
is recommended only when a derivative of higher order at a given point is required.

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1.2 Implicit Differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Example(s):
1. Find y ′ and y ′′ given that x2 − xy + y 2 = 3.

Solution
Differentiating the given equation with respect to x, we get
2x − y
2x − xy ′ − y + 2yy ′ = 0 ⇒ y′ =
x − 2y
Differentiating further with respect to x yields
( )
′′ d 2x − y (x − 2y)(2 − y ′ ) − (2x − y)(1 − 2y ′ )
y = =
dx x − 2y (x − 2y)2
[ ]
2x − y
3x − 3y
2x − xy ′ − 4y + 2yy ′ − 2x + 4xy ′ + y − 2yy ′ 3xy ′ − 3y x − 2y
= = =
(x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2 (x − 2y)2
3x [2x − y] − 3y[x − 2y] 6x2 − 3xy − 3xy + 6y 2 6x2 − 6xy + 6y 2
= = =
(x − 2y)3 (x − 2y)3 (x − 2y)3
6(x2 − xy + y 2 ) 6(3) 18
= = =
(x − 2y) 3 (x − 2y) 3 (x − 2y)3
18
∴ y ′′ =
(x − 2y)3

2. Find the value of y ′′ at the point (-1,1) on the curve x2 y + 3y − 4 = 0.

Solution
Differentiating the given equation with respect to x, we get
1
2xy + x2 y ′ + 3y ′ = 0. Putting x = −1, y = 1 yields y ′ =
2
Differentiating further with respect to x yields

2xy ′ + 2y + x2 y ′′ + 2xy ′ + 3y ′′ = 0 ⇒ 4xy ′ + 2y + x2 y ′′ + 3y ′′ = 0

1
Putting x = −1, y = 1 and y ′ = yields y ′′ = 0.
2
3. Find y ′ and y ′′ at x = 1 given x3 y + xy 3 = 2. [ans: y ′ = −1, y ′′ = 0]

Solution
Putting x = 1 in the given equation we get

y + y3 = 2 ⇒ y3 + y − 2 = 0 ⇒ (y − 1)(y 2 + y + 2) = 0 ⇒ y=1

So, we need to solve for y ′ and y ′′ at the point (1, 1). Differentiating the given equation with
respect to x, we get

x3 y ′ + 3x2 y + y 3 + 3xy 2 y ′ = 0. Putting x = 1, y = 1 yields y ′ = −1

Differentiating further with respect to x yields

x3 y ′′ + 3x2 y ′ + 3x2 y ′ + 6xy + 3y 2 y ′ + 3xy 2 y ′′ + 3y 2 y ′ + 6xy(y ′ )2 = 0

Putting x = 1, y = 1 and y ′ = −1 yields y ′′ = 0.

Exercise:

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1.3 Applications of differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1. Find y ′ and y ′′ given

(a) x + xy + y = 2.
(b) x3 − 3xy + y 3 = 1
(c) 2e−x + ey = 3ex−y
(d) x2/3 + y 2/3 = 5
(e) xy 2 + x2 y = 2
√
(f) xy = x − 2y
x2 − 9
(g) y 2 =
x2 + 9
(h) x + 2xy + 3y 2 = 1
2

2. Find y ′ , y ′′ and y ′′′ at

(a) the point (2,1) on x2 − y 2 − x = 1.

(b) the point (1,1) on x3 + 3x2 y − 6xy 2 + 2y 3 = 0.

1.3 Applications of differentiation

1.3.1 Equations of tangent and normal lines
Let P (x1 , y1 ) be a point on the curve y = f (x), as shown below. The equation of a tangent line to
the curve at point P is given by
y − y1
=m ⇒ y = m(x − x1 ) + y1 ,
x − x1
dy
where m = is the gradient of the tangent line.
dx (x1 ,y1 )

A normal line to the curve y = f (x) is a line

through P which is perpendicular to the tangent
line at point P. If the gradient of the tangent line
at P is m, then the gradient of a normal to a curve
1
at P is − since the product of their gradients
m
is −1. Thus, the equation of the normal line at P
is given by
1
y=− (x − x1 ) + y1
m

Example(s):

1. Find the equation of the tangent line and normal line to the curve y 2 = 4x at point (4,4).

Solution
Given the curve y 2 = 4x. Clearly, the point (4,4) lies on the curve. Differentiating the given
dy 4 2
curve with respect to x yields 2ydy = 4dx ⇒ = = . The gradient of the tangent
dx 2y y
dy 2 1
line to the curve at point (4, 4) is given by m = = = . Hence, the equation of the
dx (4,4) 4 2
tangent line at point (4, 4) is
1 1
y = (x − 4) + 4 ⇒ y = x+2
2 2

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1.3 Applications of differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

1
The gradient of the normal line to the curve at point (4, 4) is given by − = −2. Hence, the
m
equation of the normal line at point (4, 4) is

y = −2(x − 4) + 4 ⇒ y = −2x + 12

2. Find the equation of the normal line to the curve xy = 4 at x = 3.

Solution
4
Substituting x = 3 into the given curve xy = 4 yields y = . Thus, the point of contact is (3,4/3).
3
dy y
Differentiating the given curve with respect to x yields xdy + ydx = 0 ⇒ = − . The
dx x
dy 4/3 4
gradient of the tangent line to the curve at point (3, 4/3) is given by m = =− =− .
dx (4,4) 3 9
9
The gradient of the normal line at point (3, 4/3) is . Hence, the equation of the normal line at
4
point (3, 4/3) is
9 4
y = (x − 3) + ⇒ 12y − 27x + 65 = 0
4 3

Exercise:
x2 y 2
1. Find the equation of the tangent line to the ellipse + 2 = 1 at the point (x1 , y1 ).
a2 b

Solution
x2 y2 2xdx 2ydy dy b2 x
Given 2 + 2 = 1. Differentiating yields + 2 =0 ⇒ = − 2 . The gradient
a b a2 b dx a y
dy b2 x1
of the tangent line to the curve at point (x1 , y1 ) is given by m = = − 2 . Hence, the
dx (x1 ,y1 ) a y1
equation of the tangent line at point (x1 , y1 ) is

b2 x1
y=− (x−x1 )+y1 ⇒ a2 y1 (y −y1 )+b2 x1 (x−x1 ) = 0 ⇒ a2 yy1 +b2 xx1 = b2 x21 +a2 y12
a 2 y1

Dividing through by a2 b2 yields

xx1 yy1 x21 y12

+ = + 2 =1
a2 b2 a2 b
xx1 yy1
Therefore, + 2 = 1.
a2 b
2. Find the equation of the tangent line and the normal line at a point for which t = 2, given that
3t t2
the parametric equations of a curve are x = ,y = [ans: tangent: y = 83 x − 4, normal:
1+t 1+t
y = − 83 x + 25
12 ]

1.3.2 The intersection of two curves

The angle between two curves is the angle between the tangents to the two curves at the point of
intersection. Let C1 and C2 be two plane curves intersecting each other at P and let P T1 and P T2 be
tangents to C1 and C2 respectively at point P.

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1.3 Applications of differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Angle T1 P T2 is the angle of intersection of

the curves C1 and C2 . Suppose P T1 and
P T2 intersect the x-axis (OX) at L1 and L2
respectively. If angle T1 L1 X = ψ1 and angle
T2 L2 X = ψ2 . Then, θ = ψ2 − ψ1 . Now, the slope
of the tangent to C1 at P is m1 = tan ψ1 and the
slope of the tangent to C2 at P is m2 = tan ψ2 .
Thus,

( )
tan ψ2 − tan ψ1 m2 − m1 m2 − m1
tan θ = tan(ψ2 − ψ1 ) = = ⇒ θ = tan−1 .
1 + tan ψ1 tan ψ2 1 + m1 m2 1 + m1 m2
π
If θ = ± , then C1 and C2 intersect orthogonally. Thus C1 and C2 are orthogonal if m1 m2 .= −1 .
2
Example(s):
1. Find the angle of intersection of the following curves.
(a) x2 + y 2 = 8 and x2 = 2y at (2,2).

Solution
dy x
From x2 + y 2 = 8. Differentiating yields 2xdx + 2ydy = 0 ⇒ = − . So,
dx y
dy 2
m1 = = − = −1
dx (2,2) 2
dy
From x2 = 2y. Differentiating yields 2xdx = 2dy ⇒ = x. So,
dx
dy
m2 = =2
dx (2,2)

Hence, if θ is the angle of intersection of the two curves then

m2 − m1 2+1
tan θ = = = −3 ⇒ θ = tan−1 (−3) = 108.4o
1 + m1 m2 1 + (−1)(2)

(b) y 2 = 4ax and x2 = 4by at a point different from the origin (0,0), where a ̸= b.

Solution
At the point of intersection, the two curves are equal. Solving the two curves simultaneously:
y2 y4
from y 2 = 4ax we have x = . Substituting into x2 = 4by yields = 4by ⇒
( 4a ) ( 16a2
)
y4 y3 y3
− 4by = 0 ⇒ y − 4b = 0. Hence, y = 0 or − 4b = 0 ⇒ y =
16a2 16a2 16a2
4a2/3 b1/3 . When y = 0, x = 0 and when y (= 4a2/3 b1/3 , x = 4a1/3 2/3
) b . So, the points of
1/3 2/3
intersection of the two curves are (0, 0) and 4a b , 4a b 2/3 1/3 . But (0,0) is unwanted.
( )
Therefore, the curves intersect at P 4a1/3 b2/3 , 4a2/3 b1/3 .
dy 2a
From y 2 = 4ax. Differentiating yields 2ydy = 4adx ⇒ = . So,
dx y
dy 2a a1/3
m1 = = =
dx P 4a2/3 b1/3 2b1/3
dy x
From x2 = 4by. Differentiating yields 2xdx = 4bdy ⇒ = . So,
dx 2b
dy 4a1/3 b2/3 2a1/3
m2 = = = 1/3
dx P 2b b

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1.3 Applications of differentiation ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Hence, if θ is the angle of intersection of the two curves then

2a1/3 a1/3 [ ] ( [ ])
m2 − m1 1/3
− 1/3 3 a1/3 b1/3 3 a1/3 b1/3
b 2b −1
tan θ = = = ⇒ θ = tan
1 + m1 m2 a1/3 2a1/3 2 a2/3 + b2/3 2 a2/3 + b2/3
1 + 1/3 · 1/3
2b b

x2 y 2 x2 y 2
2. Show that the curves + = 1 and + = 1 will intersect orthogonally if a2 −b2 = a21 −b21 .
a2 b2 a21 b21

Solution
At the point of intersection, the two curves are equal. Solving the two curves simultaneously:
x2 y 2
from 2 + 2 = 1 we have
a b
( ) √
y2 y2
2
x =a 2
1− 2 ⇒ x=a 1− .
b b2
( ) ( )
x2 y 2 a2 y2 y2 1 a2 a2
Substituting in 2 + 2 = 1 yields 2 1− 2 + 2 =1 ⇒ − y2 = 1 − ⇒
a1 b1 a1 b b1 b21 a21 b2 a21
a 2 − a2 a2 b2 b2
y 2 = 1 2 · 2 21 1 2 2 . Hence,
a1 a1 b − a b 1
√
( )
b2 b21 a21 − a2 bb1 a21 − a2
y2 = ⇒ y=√
a21 b2 − a2 b21 a21 b2 − a2 b21

Back substitution yields

√ √ √ √
( )
y2 b2 a2 − a2 a2
a21 b2 −  b 
2 − a2 b2 + a22
 b1 aa1 b2 − b21
x = a 1 − 2 = a 1 − 12 2 1 2 2 = a 1 1 1
= √
b a1 b − a b 1 a21 b2 − a2 b21 a21 b2 − a2 b21

Therefore, the two curves intersect at point P (x, y) where

√ √
aa1 b2 − b21 bb1 a21 − a2
x= √ and y = √
a21 b2 − a2 b21 a21 b2 − a2 b21

x2 y 2 2xdx 2ydy dy −b2 x

From 2
+ 2 = 1. Differentiating yields + 2 =0 ⇒ = 2 . So,
a b a2 b dx a y
√ √
dy −aa1 b2 b2 − b21 −a1 b b2 − b21
m1 = = √ = √
dx P a2 bb1 a21 − a2 ab1 a21 − a2

x2 y 2 2xdx 2ydy dy −b2 x

From 2 + 2 = 1. Differentiating yields + 2 =0 ⇒ = 21 . So,
a1 b1 a21 b1 dx a1 y
√ √
dy −aa1 b21 b2 − b21 −ab1 b2 − b21
m2 = = √ = √
dx P a21 b1 b a21 − a2 a1 b a21 − a2

Hence, the two curves will intersect orthogonally if m1 m2 = −1.

√ √
−a1 b b2 − b21 −ab1 b2 − b21 b2 − b21
⇒ √ · √ = −1 ⇒ = −1 ⇒ a2 − b2 = a21 − b21
ab1 a21 − a2 a1 b a21 − a2 a21 − a2

11
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 3

2 Curve Sketching
To sketch the graph of a function y = f (x), follow these steps.

i) Identify the turning points and classify the points as maximum, minimum or points of inflection
by either the sign test (or first derivative test) or by the second derivative test.

ii) Identify the x and y-intercepts.

iii) Find the asymptotes: vertical, horizontal, or slant asymptotes.

iv) Mark the above points on an unscaled Cartesian plane, along with the asymptotes, and use
free-hand to join the points.

2.1 Intercepts
i) To determine the x-intercept, put y = 0 in the given equation and solve for x.

ii) To determine the y-intercept, put x = 0 in the given equation and solve for y.

2.2 Turning points

At every turning point, the slope is zero, i.e., y ′ (x) = 0. Let (a, y(a)) be the turning/critical point of
the function y = f (x). To classify the critical point, we compute the second derivative, y ′′ (x), and use
the second derivative test:

i) If y ′′ (a) > 0, then point (a, y(a)) is a minimum point (concave up).

ii) If y ′′ (a) < 0, then (a, y(a)) is a maximum point (concave down).

iii) If y ′′ (a) = 0, then (a, y(a)) is a point of inflection.

2.3 Asymptotes
An asymptote to a curve is a straight line to which the curve approaches as the distance x from the
origin increases. It can also be thought of as a tangent to the curve at infinity, i.e., the curve touches
the asymptote at two coincident points at infinity. The asymptotes to be determined are: vertical
asymptotes, horizontal asymptotes, and slant (or oblique) asymptotes.

 Vertical asymptotes: the line x = a is a vertical asymptote of the graph of the function
y = f (x) if either

lim f (x) = +∞ (or −∞) or lim f (x) = +∞ (or −∞)

x→a− x→a+

p(x)
→ Note: for rational functions such as f (x) = , the verical assymptotes are given by the
q(x)
values of x for which q(x) = 0 (i.e., the denominator is zero). For example, given the rational
x2
function f (x) = , the vertical asymptotes are the values of x for which 4 − x2 = 0, i.e.,
4 − x2
x = 2 and x = −2.

→ Alternatively: to find vertical asymptotes of the function y = f (x), follow these steps.

i) If f (x) is a rational function, cross multiply the given function through by the denominator
to get rid of the fractions.
ii) Equate to zero the coefficient of the highest power of y and solve for x.

12
2.3 Asymptotes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

 Horizontal asymptotes: the line y = b is a horizontal asymptote of the graph of the function
y = f (x) if
. =b
lim f (x)
x→∞

x2
For example, given f (x) = , then the horizontal asymptote is given by
4 − x2
( )
x2
y = lim = −1,
x→∞ 4 − x2

i.e., the line y = −1.

→ Alternatively: to find horizontal asymptotes of the function y = f (x), follow these steps.

i) If f (x) is a rational function, cross multiply the given function through by the denominator
to get rid of the fractions.
ii) Equate to zero the coefficient of the highest power of x and solve for y.
p(x)
 Slant (or oblique) asymptotes: if the function f (x) = can be rewritten to take the
q(x)
form f (x) = (mx.+ c) + g(x) via long division in case the degree of x in p(x) is greater than
that in q(x), then the part that represents the straight line equation (y = mx + c) is called the
x2 + x − 1
slant asymptote of the graph of the function y = f (x). For example, given f (x) = .
x−1
By long division, we have

x+2
)
x−1 +x−1
x2
− x2 + x
2x − 1
− 2x + 2
1

1
Therefore, the given function can be written as f (x) = (x + 2) + . Hence, the line
x−1
y = x + 2 is a slant asymptote for the graph of y = f (x).

→ Alternatively: to find slant asymptotes of the function y = f (x), follow these steps.

i) If f (x) is a rational function, cross multiply the given function through by the denominator
to get rid of the fractions.
ii) Substitute y = mx + c into the given function and simplify by grouping the like terms
together.
iii) Equate to zero the coefficients of the two highest powers of x and solve the resulting
equations simultaneously to determine the values of m and c.

→ Note:

i) The graph of y = f (x) will not intersect any of the above asymptotes since the asymptotes are
the break points for the function y = f (x).

ii) The asymptotes are not part of the graph of the function y = f (x) but they are tools necessary
for sketching the graph.

Example(s):

13
2.3 Asymptotes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

x2
1. Sketch the graph of the function y = .
4 − x2

Solution

i) Turning Points:
x2
At a critical point, y ′ (x) = 0. Now, given y = . Differentiating with respect to x, we
4 − x2
2x(4 − x2 ) − x2 (−2x) 8x
get y ′ (x) = = . Therefore, the critical points are given by
(4 − x )
2 2 (4 − x2 )2
8x
=0 ⇒ 8x = 0 ⇒ x=0
(4 − x2 )2

When x = 0, we have y = 0. Hence, the critical/turning point is (0,0). To classify the

critical point, we first compute y ′′ and test as follows.

8(4 − x2 )2 + 32x(4 − x2 )
y ′′ (x) =
(4 − x2 )4

8(4 − 02 )2 + 32(0)(4 − x2 )
Now, y ′′ (0) = = 0.5 > 0 ⇒ (0,0) is a minimum point
(4 − 02 )4
(concave up).

ii) Intercepts:
x2
(a) x-intercepts: put y = 0 ⇒ 0 = ⇒ x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 0.So, x-
4 − x2
intercept is the point (0,0).
02
(b) y-intercepts: put x = 0 ⇒ y= = 0. So, y-intercept is the point (0,0).
4 − 02

x2
iii) Asymptotes: given f (x) = .
4 − x2
(a) vertical asymptotes: equate to zero the denominator, i.e., 4 − x2 = 0 ⇒ x = 2
and x = −2.
x2
(b) horizontal asymptotes: y = lim f (x) = lim = −1. Therefore, y = −1 is
x→∞ x→∞ 4 − x2
the horizontal asymptote.
(c) slant asymptote: No slant asymptote since the degree of the polynomial in the
numerator and denominator are the same.
iv) Sketch:

14
2.3 Asymptotes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

x2 + 1
2. Sketch the graph of the function y = .
x

Solution

i) Turning Points:
x2 + 1
At a critical point, y ′ (x) = 0. Now, given y = . Differentiating with respect to x, we
x
x2 − 1
get y ′ (x) = . Therefore, the critical points are given by
x2
x2 − 1
=0 ⇒ x2 − 1 = 0 ⇒ x2 = 1 ⇒ x = ±1
x2
When x = −1, y = −2, and when x = 1, y = 2. Hence, the critical/turning points are:
(−1, −2) and (1, 2). To classify the critical points, we first compute y ′′ (x) and test as
follows.
2
y ′′ (x) = 3
x
2
Now, y ′′ (−1) = = −2 < 0 ⇒ (-1,-2) is a maximum point (concave down), and
(−1)3
2
y ′′ (1) = = 2 > 0 ⇒ (1,2) is a minimum point (concave up).
(1)3

ii) Intercepts:
x2 + 1
(a) x-intercepts: put y = 0 ⇒ 0= ⇒ x2 + 1 = 0. No real roots. So, no
x
x-intercept.
02 + 1
(b) y-intercepts: put x = 0 ⇒ y= = ∞ (undefined). So, no y-intercept.
0

x2 + 1
iii) Asymptotes: given f (x) = .
x
(a) vertical asymptotes: equate to zero the denominator, i.e., x = 0 is a vertical
asymptote.
x2 + 1
(b) horizontal asymptotes: y = lim f (x) = lim = ∞. Therefore, no horizontal
x→∞ x→∞ x
asymptote.
1
(c) slant asymptote: By long division, the given function can be written as f (x) = x+ .
x
Therefore, the line y = x is a slant asymptote.
iv) Sketch:

15
2.3 Asymptotes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3. Sketch the graph of x2 y − 5y − x3 = 0.

Solution

i) Turning Points:
x3
At a critical point, y ′ (x) = 0. Now, given x2 y − 5y − x3 = 0 ⇒ .
y =
x2 − 5
(x2 − 5)(3x2 ) − x3 (2x) x4 − 15x2
Differentiating with respect to x we get y ′ (x) = = .
(x2 − 5)2 (x2 − 5)2
Therefore, the critical points are given by

x4 − 15x2 √
=0 ⇒ x4 −15x2 = 0 ⇒ x2 (x2 −15) = 0 ⇒ x = 0, x = ± 15 = ±3.9
(x2 − 5)2
When x = 0, y = 0, when x = −3.9, y = −5.8, and when x = 3.9, y = 5.8. Hence, the
critical/turning points are: (0, 0), (−3.9, −5.8) and (3.9, 5.8). To classify the critical points,
we first compute y ′′ (x) and test as follows.

(x2 − 5)2 (4x3 − 30x) − (x4 − 15x2 )(2)(x2 − 5)(2x)

y ′′ (x) =
(x2 − 5)4
√ √
Now, y ′′ (0) = 0 ⇒ (0,0) is an inflection point,√ y ′′ (− 15)
√ = 0.3 15 > 0 ⇒ (-3.9,-
5.8) is a minimum point (concave up), and y ′′ ( 15) = −0.3 15 < 0 ⇒ (-3.9,-5.8) is a
maximum point (concave down).

ii) Intercepts:
x3
(a) x-intercepts: put y = 0 ⇒ 0= ⇒ x = 0. Point is (0,0).
x2 − 5
03
(b) y-intercepts: put x = 0 ⇒ y= 2 ⇒ y = 0. Point is (0,0).
0 −5

x3 x3
iii) Asymptotes: Making y the subject, we get y = . Therefore, f (x) = .
x2 − 5 x2 − 5
(a) vertical
√ asymptotes: equate to zero the denominator, i.e., x2 − 5 = 0 ⇒ x =
± 5 = ±2.2. Thus, x = −2.2 and x = 2.2 are the vertical asymptotes.
x3
(b) horizontal asymptotes: y = lim f (x) = lim 2 = ∞. Therefore, no horizontal
x→∞ x→∞ x − 5
asymptote.
(c) slant asymptote: By long division, the given function can be written as f (x) =
5x
x+ 2 . Therefore, the line y = x is a slant asymptote.
x −5
iv) Sketch:

16
2.3 Asymptotes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

x4
4. Sketch the graph of y 2 = .
x2 − 4

Solution

i) Turning Points:
x4
At a critical point, y ′ = 0. Now, given y 2 = ⇒ y 2 (x2 − 4) − x4 . Differentiating
x2 − 4
4x3 − 2xy 2
with respect to x we get 2yy ′ (x2 − 4) + 2xy 2 − 4x3 = 0 ⇒ y′ = . Therefore,
2y(x2 − 4)
the critical points are given by
( )
4x3 − 2xy 2 x4 √
=0 ⇒ 4x − 2x
3
=0 ⇒ x = 0, x = ± 8 = ±2.81
2y(x2 − 4) x2 − 4

When x = 0, y = 0, when x = −2.81, y = ±4, and when x = 2.81, y = ±4. Hence,

the critical/turning points are: (0, 0), (−2.81, −4), (−2.81, 4), (2.81, −4) and (2.81, 4). To
classify the critical points, we first compute y ′′ (x) and test as follows.

2(y ′ )2 (x2 − 4) + 2yy ′′ (x2 − 4) + 8xyy ′ + 2y 2 − 12x2 = 0

12x2 − 2y 2 − 8xyy ′ − 2(y ′ )2 (x2 − 4)

y ′′ =
2y(x2 − 4)
Now, y ′′ is not defined at point (0,0), hence (0,0) is not a turning point. Clearly, the points
(-2.81,-4) and (2.81,-4) are the maximum points (concave down) while the points (-2.81,4)
and (2.81,4) are the minimum points (concave up).

ii) Intercepts:
(a) x-intercepts: put y = 0 ⇒ 0 − x4 = 0 ⇒ x = 0. Point is (0,0).
(b) y-intercepts: put x = 0 ⇒ y 2 (−4) = 0 ⇒ y = 0. Point is (0,0).

x2 x2
iii) Asymptotes: Making y the subject, we get y = √ . Therefore, f (x) = √ .
x2 − 4 x2 − 4
√
(a) vertical asymptotes: equate to zero the denominator, i.e., x2 − 4 = 0. Solving
yields x = ±2. Thus, the lines x = −2 and x = 2 are the vertical asymptotes.
x2
(b) horizontal asymptotes: y = lim f (x) = lim √ = ∞. Therefore, no
x→∞ x→∞ x2 − 4
horizontal asymptote.
(c) slant asymptote: The given function can be written as y 2 (x2 − 4) − x4 = 0.
Substituting y = mx + c and simplifying yields

(m2 − 1)x4 + 2mcx3 + (c2 − 4m2 )x2 − 8mcx − 4c2 = 0

Equating to zero the coefficients of x4 and x3 yields m2 − 1 = 0 and 2mc = 0. Solving

yields m = ±1 and c = 0. Therefore, the lines y = −x and y = x are the slant
asymptotes.
iv) Sketch:

17
2.3 Asymptotes ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Exercise:

2x2
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = 2 , stating the x− and y-intercepts, horizontal and vertical
x −1
asymptotes.
x2 − 16
(b) Sketch the graph of y = 2 , stating the x− and y-intercepts, horizontal and vertical
x −9
asymptotes.

2. Discuss and sketch the graph of the following functions

1 x
(a) y = + .
x 4
12
(b) y = + 3x + 1.
x
(x + 2)(x − 3)
(c) y = .
x+1
4
(d) y = x3 − 2x2 .
3
5
(e) x2 (x2 + 2) = y 3 (x + 5). [hint: asymptotes are x = −5, y = x − ]
3
x3 3x
(f) y = − x2 + + 1.
6 2

18
 ⃝Francis
c Oketch

Lecture 4

3 Hyperbolic Functions
For any real number x, the hyperbolic functions of x are defined as
ex − e−x ex + e−x sinh x ex − e−x
sinh x = , cosh x = , tanh x = = x
2 2 cosh x e + e−x
1 2 1 2 1 ex + e−x
cosechx = = x , sechx = = , cothx = =
sinh x e − e−x cosh x ex + e−x tanh x ex − e−x

3.1 Hyperbolic identities

Definition 3.1 (Osborne’s rule). The usual trigonometric identities will hold for hyperbolic functions
so long as you change the sign whenever there is a product of sines.
For instance,
. 2x = 1 .
 From cos2 x + sin2 x = 1, we have cosh2 x − sinh

. 2 x + sinh2 x .
 From cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x, we have cosh 2x = cosh

 From 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x, we have 1 − tanh2 x. = sech2 x .

 From 1 + cot2 x = cosec2 x, we have 1 − coth2 x = −cosech2 x ⇒ coth2 x − 1 .= cosech2 x .

Example(s):
1. Prove that cosh2 x − sinh2 x = 1.

Solution
( )2 ( )2
ex + e−x ex − e−x
cosh x − sinh x =
2 2
−
2 2
(
1 2x ) 1 ( 2x )
= e + 2 + e−2x − e − 2 + e−2x
4 4
1
= (4) = 1
4

3.2 Derivatives of hyperbolic functions

d d d
(sinh x) = cosh x, (cosh x) = sinh x, (tanh x) = sech2 x,
dx dx dx
d d d
(cosechx) = −cosechxcothx, (sechx) = −sechx tanh x, (cothx) = −cosech2 x,
dx dx dx

Example(s):
d
1. Show that (sinh x) = cosh x.
dx

Solution
( )
d d ex − e−x 1( x )
(sinh x) = = e + e−x = cosh x
dx dx 2 2

dy
2. Find given the following functions.
dx

19
3.2 Derivatives of hyperbolic functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(a) y = sinh 3x.

Solution
du dy
Let u = 3x so that y = sinh u. Therefore, = 3 and = cosh u. By back substitution,
dx du
dy
we have = cosh(3x). Thus, the chain rule of differentiation yields
du
dy dy du
= = 3 cosh 3x
dx du dx

(b) y = cosh(x/2).

Solution
dy d 1
= sinh(x/2) · (x/2) = sinh(x/2)
dx dx 2
(c) y = tanh(1 + x2 ).

Solution
dy d
= sech2 (1 + x2 ) · (1 + x2 ) = 2xsech2 (1 + x2 )
dx dx
(d) y = coth(1/x).

Solution
dy d 1
= −cosech2 (1/x) · (1/x) = 2 cosech2 (1/x)
dx dx x
(e) y = xsech(x2 ).

Solution
dy d d
= x [sech(x2 )] + sech(x2 ) [x]
dx dx dx
d
= x[−sech(x2 ) tanh(x2 ) · (x2 )] + sech(x2 )
dx
= −2x2 sechx2 tanh x2 + sechx2

(f) y = cosech2 (x2 + 1).

Solution
dy d
= 2cosech(x2 + 1) · [cosech(x2 + 1)]
dx dx
d 2
= 2cosech(x2 + 1)[−cosech(x2 + 1) coth(x2 + 1)] · (x + 1)
dx
= −4xcosech2 (x2 + 1) coth(x2 + 1)

3. Find y ′ given the following functions.

1 1
(a) y = sinh 2x − x.
4 2
Solution
1 d 1 d
y′ = (sinh 2x) − (x)
4 dx 2 dx
1 1 1 1 1 1[ ]
= (2 cosh 2x) − = cosh 2x − = [cosh 2x − 1] = 2 sinh2 x
4 2 2 2 2 2
2
= sinh x

20
3.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(b) Find y ′ given y = ln(tanh 2x).

Solution
d 1 d 1 d 2sech2 2x
y′ = [ln(tanh 2x)] = · (tanh 2x) = sech2 2x · (2x) =
dx tanh 2x dx tanh 2x dx tanh 2x
2/ cosh2 2x 2 4 4
= = = = = 4cosech4x
sinh 2x/ cosh 2x sinh 2x cosh 2x 2 sinh 2x cosh 2x sinh 4x

3.3 Inverse hyperbolic functions

[ ]
√ ] [
√ 1 + x 2 1+
sinh−1 x = ln x + 1 + x2 for all x, cosech−1 x = ln for x ̸= 0
x
[ ]
[ √ ]
√ 1 + 1 − x2
−1 −1
cosh x = ln x + x − 1 for x ≥ 1,
2 2
sech x = ln for 0 < x2 ≤ 1
x
[ ] [ ]
−1 1 1+x −1 1 x+1
tanh x = ln for x < 1, coth x = ln for x > 1
2 1−x 2 x−1

Example(s):

1. Derive the following:

[ √ ]
(a) sinh−1 x = ln x + 1 + x2 for all x.

Solution
ey − e−y
Let y = sinh−1 x ⇒ sinh y = x ⇒ = x ⇒ ey − e−y − 2x = 0.
2
Multiplying by ey yields

ey+y − ey−y − 2xey = 0 ⇒ e2y − e0 − 2xey = 0 ⇒ e2y − 2xey − 1 = 0

This is a quadratic equation in ey . Solving for ey yields

√ √
2x ± 4x2 + 4 2x ± 2 x2 + 1 √
y
e = = = x ± x2 + 1
[ 2 √ ] 2 [ √ ]
⇒ ln[e ] = ln x + x + 1
y 2 ⇒ y = ln x + x2 + 1
[ √ ]
−1 1+ 1 − x2
(b) sech x = ln for 0 < x ≤ 1.
x
Solution
2
Let y = sech−1 x ⇒ sechy = x ⇒ = x ⇒ xey + xe−y − 2 = 0.
ey + e−y
Multiplying by ey yields

xe2y + xe0 − 2ey = 0 ⇒ xe2y − 2ey + x = 0

This is a quadratic equation in ey . Solving for ey yields

√ √ √
y 2 ± 4 − 4x2 2 ± 2 1 − x2 1 ± 1 − x2
e = = =
[ 2x √ ] 2x [ √x ]
1+ 1−x 2 1 + 1 − x2
⇒ ln[e ] = ln
y
⇒ y = ln
x x

21
3.4 Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

3.4 Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions

d 1 d 1 d 1
(sinh−1 x) = √ , (cosh−1 x) = √ , (tanh−1 x) =
dx 1+x 2 dx x −1
2 dx 1 − x2
d −1 d −1 d −1
(cosech−1 x) = √ , (sech−1 x) = √ , (coth−1 x) = √
dx x 1+x 2 dx x 1−x 2 dx x x2 − 1

Example(s):
d 1
1. Show that [sinh−1 x] = √ .
dx 1 + x2

Proof. Let y = sinh−1 x ⇒ sinh y = x. Differentiating implicitly with respect to x yields

dy dy 1 1 1
cosh y =1 ⇒ = =√ =√
dx dx cosh y 1 + sinh2 y 1 + x2

dy
2. Find given that:
dx

(a) y = tanh−1 x.

Solution
y = tanh−1 x ⇒ tanh y = x. Differentiating implicitly yields
dy 1 1 1 dy 1
sech2 ydy = dx ⇒ = = = . ∴ =
dx sech2 y 1 − tanh2 y 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2

(b) y = cosh−1 (ex ).

Solution
y = cosh−1 (ex ) ⇒ cosh y = ex . Differentiating implicitly yields

dy ex ex ex
sinh ydy = ex dx ⇒ = =√ =√
dx sinh y cosh2 y − 1 e2x − 1

(c) y = 2 tanh−1 [tan(x/2)].

Solution
y = 2 tanh−1 [tan(x/2)] ⇒ tanh(y/2) = tan(x/2). Differentiating implicitly with
respect to x yields
1 dy 1
sech2 (y/2) = sec2 (x/2)
2 dx 2
dy
Making the subject yields
dx
dy sec2 (x/2) sec2 (x/2) sec2 (x/2)
= = =
dx sech2 (y/2) 1 − tanh2 (y/2) 1 − tan2 (x/2)
sec2 (x/2) cos2 (x/2) 1
= · =
1 − tan (x/2) cos (x/2)
2 2 cos (x/2) − sin2 (x/2)
2

1
= = sec x
cos x

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3.4 Derivatives of inverse hyperbolic functions ⃝Francis
c Oketch

(d) y = coth−1 (1/x).

Solution
1
y = coth−1 (1/x) ⇒ cothy = . Differentiating implicitly yields
x
1 dy 1 1 1 1
−cosech2 ydy = − dx ⇒ = 2 = [ ] = [ ] =
x2 dx 2
x cosech y x2 coth2 y − 1 1 1 − x2
x2 2 − 1
x

(e) y = sech−1 (cos x).

Solution
y = sech−1 [cos x] ⇒ sechy = cos x. Differentiating implicitly with respect to x yields

dy
−sechy tanh y = − sin x
dx
dy
Making the subject yields
dx
dy sin x sin x sin x
= = = √
dx sechy tanh y cos x tanh y cos x 1 − sech2 y
sin x sin x 1
= √ = = = sec x
cos x 1 − cos2 x cos x sin x cos x

Exercise:
dy
1. Find given that:
dx
(a) y = sech−1 (tan x). [5 Marks]
dy 12
(b) y = tanh−1 (3x/4). [ans: = ]
dx 16 − 9x2
√ dy 1
(c) y = sinh−1 ( x2 − 1). [ans: =√ ]
dx x −1
2

dy
2. Show that if y = sinh−1 (sin x), then = 1.
dx

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