TCC 243/05

Data Communication
and Networking

Unit 1
Introduction
to Data
Communication
and Networking
Contents
Course overview 1

Unit overview 4

Unit objectives 5

1.1 Overview, protocols and standards 6

Objectives 6

Introduction 6

Overview of data communication 7

Overview of computer networks 15

Protocols and standards 22

Suggested answers to activities 30

1.2 Network models: OSI and TCP layer 36

Objectives 36

Introduction 36

OSI model 36

TCP/IP model 52

TCP/IP protocols 54

Suggested answers to activities 60

1.3 Data, signals and transmission media 65

Objectives 65

Introduction 65

Data and signals 66

Signal encoding techniques 75

 Transmission media 82

Suggested answers to activities 96

Summary of Unit 1 99

Suggested answers to self-tests 100

References 107

Glossary 108
 Course Overview
You must have witnessed the use of computer networks in many forms,
from browsers in your handphone to cafes with Wi-Fi or public wireless
Internet access, from home networks with high speed wireless or wired
broadband access to offices with a networked PC on every desk. You
can say that computer networks have become ubiquitous, allowing you to
send email to your friends, browse the web to find information, or make
online purchases over the Internet. By now, you will feel that computer
network is present everywhere.

The first unit introduces the basic concepts used in data communication
and networking. The first section focuses on the protocols and standards
which play an important role. Protocols are rules governing communication
between devices or applications. A standard is an agreed-upon way of
doing something or measuring something. The second section covers the
network models. Open system interconnection (OSI) of ISO (International
Standards Organisation) and TCP/IP are standard models which are
very useful in describing the operations required while communicating
from one computer at one end with other computers at the other end.
The different types of transmission media which are used in computer
networks are discussed in the last section.

The second unit provides the best introduction on data transmission. The
first section explains the data transmission in digital form. The second
section explains the data transmission in analog form. The third section
covers the synchronous and multiplexing that are used to integrate
multiple analog or digital signals into a signal transmitted over a shared
medium. The fourth section includes error detection which means
the detection of errors caused by noise or other impairments during
transmission, and error correction which means detection of errors and
reconstruction of the original data. The fifth section explores the framing,
flow and error control.

1 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

The first and second sections of the third unit describe the wired
and wireless LAN respectively. Computer networks may be classified
according to a wide variety of characteristics. When a computer network
is confined to a small area, it is called Local Area Network (LAN). It can
use cables or wireless medium to connect the computers. WiFi is a
popular wireless technology used in home or small networks. The last
section explains the connecting LANs.

In the fourth unit, the first section describes the TCP/IP functionality
and a number of Internet-based applications such as HTTP, FTP, DNS
and SMTP. The second section explores the physical architecture with
services such as Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and Digital
Subscriber Line (DSL). The third section on Internet protocol describes
basic functions of IP such as encapsulation, fragmentation, connection
control, etc., and IP addressing. The last section covers the transport
protocol that includes connection-oriented mechanism of the transport
protocol, header of TCP and user datagram protocol.

The fifth unit elaborates network management and security. The first
section provides the basic information about network management
and why network management is required in a company. The second
section explains the two types of network management protocols
which are Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) and Common
Management Information Protocol (CMIP). The third section describes
the basic network management functions such as traffic routing,
authorisation, configuration, fault management and security and
accounting management. The last section covers network security.

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe various data communication media, computer

network models and types of transmission media used in
computer networks.

2. Explain the concepts of LAN and WAN and create logical

designs of both.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 2

 3. Differentiate and discuss the types of Internet architecture
components and standards.

4. Define network management and apply techniques to solve

computer network management problems.

5. Outline and demonstrate the application of network and

computer security for proper message exchange protection.

3 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Unit Overview
A computer network refers to interconnection of computers and
peripherals to enable resource sharing among computers. Connection
among these computers can be done with or without cables. The network
is very important for any organisation with many workstations dispersed
physically within and outside the building. It connects computers to
printers, hardware devices, servers, mainframes, etc. Such connections
in turn allow the organisation to enjoy benefits from networking such as:

1. Resource sharing such as printers, storage devices, PCs, files,

etc., to optimise cost spending.

2. Information delivery from one location to another location

without the need to go through long distance travel.

3. Tightened security for confidential data information with the

aid of technology and network management software.

This unit introduces the basic terms and terminologies in data

communication and networking. It provides the necessary fundamental
concepts and grounds prior to the detailed discussions in this course
material. This unit covers the basic building blocks of computer network
such as overview, protocols, standards network models, data, signals
and transmission media.

First of all, you will explore trends and technology that influence the
development of data communication and computer networking. It
illustrates data communication models and its relationships to the
world of data communication. Once you have understood the basic
concepts, you will be able to identify the types of networks that are most
commonly implemented in organisations. It also explores the standards

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 4

 and protocols that are essential building blocks of data communication
and computer networks. The introduction of the protocols also leads to
the discovery of the OSI model and its application areas.

The subsequent section of this unit covers the OSI model and TCP/
IP model and its protocols. In the last section, the data, signals and
transmission media describe the most important and basic components
in data communication. This section introduces types of signals in data
communication and computer networks. The methods used for signal
encoding are discussed as well. The transmission media is also another
building block of data communication and it is discussed in detail.

Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

1. Describe the concepts and technical aspects of data

communication and networking, protocol and standards.

2. Elaborate the functions OSI model and TCP model.

3. Explain different types of signals in data communication

and their encoding methods and transmission media in
computer networks.

5 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

1.1 Overview, Protocols and
Standards
Objectives

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Describe concepts and technical aspects of data

communication.

2. Describe concepts and technical aspects of computer

networks.

3. Define standards and protocols in data communication

and networking.

Introduction
Data communication and networking have become part of our daily lives.
For example, emailing to friends, chatting online with friends across
countries and surfing the Internet for information are our daily activities.
In the last few years, the computing and communication areas have
merged. The mobile phone which was used to send and receive calls
is now capable of word processing, advanced calculations, listening
to music, storing photographs or even movies. More and more people
have started using mobile phones which have processing capabilities.
This section introduces the basic terms used in data communication
and computer networks. You will be exposed to trends that influence the
development of data communications and the basic data communication
model. Transmission media used in data communication such as types

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 6

 of cables and the signals carried by them will also be discussed. You
will discover the types of networks such as LAN, WAN and the Internet.
Finally, this section introduces you to standards and protocols in data
communication. You will also be able to perform self-assessment on the
sections through a series of activities and self-tests at the end of the
section. Have fun in your studies!

Overview of data communication

Today’s data communication and networking have evolved well and
it enables many of us to perform previously impossible tasks such as
video-conferencing and talking through phones. In this section, we shall
examine the trends that influence the development of networking, the
development of high-speed LANs and some aspects of corporate wide
area networking.

Data communication trends

Data communication in the 20th century has been dominated by some

trends such as:

1. Traffic — communication traffic has increased in terms of

local or long distance, voice or data that leads to automation
and efficiency of processes.

2. New services — new hardware and technology were developed

to cater for high volumes of traffic in data communication. This
has resulted in cost reduction in hardware and technology.

3. Technology advancement — technology has become cheap

and powerful nowadays with the demand for high speed
communication and multimedia applications. It also enables
video-conferencing, net meeting and voice over IP.

7 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

These trends continuously affect the development and architecture of
data communication and computer networking. The impact of these
trends actually improves the purpose of data communication which
brings many benefits to the society.

Considering the advancement of technology, there are three (3)

major factors that are apparently affecting the development of data
communication and networking as described in detail below.

Reduced cost: The rapid advances in computer technology have brought

about more powerful and cheaper processors. Together with advances
in software applications, more users can afford more sophisticated
applications. Communication costs have gone down with the use of fibre-
optic cables, communications satellites and relay stations. All these are
contributory factors for the adoption of high speed information delivery
in the present day networked environment.

Improved quality: Technology used for telephony has improved with

advanced switches leading to improvements in quality of service (QoS)
in terms of delay and availability. This is indicated by the support of VoIP
(Voice over Internet Protocol) services enabling more companies to be
available 24-hours through their Internet presence. Clients or customers
are also confident of transactions over the Internet now as they are
assured of better security and customised transaction protocols such
as PayPal and similar payment secured modes. Many companies have
now started to manage their business over the networked environment.

Mobility: Businessmen, executives, sales personnel and managers no

longer sit in the office and deal with business contacts. They travel
frequently and require access to information and data at any time and
anywhere. The development of mobile technology has made accessing of
information possible via Personal Data Assistant (PDA), mobile phones,
pocket PCs and laptops.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 8

 Development of LANs

The usage of personal computers (PCs), minicomputers and workstations

began in early 1980s. When these devices are interconnected, it forms
a Local Area Network (LAN). LAN allows file transfer, and sending and
receiving emails and calendars. There are two (2) factors that altered the
role of PCs and LAN.

1. The increase of speed and computing power that is able to

support sophisticated applications such as multimedia, voice
and video. Furthermore, more graphic-based interfaces are
also found in recent operating systems.

2. Organisations which implemented Management Information

System (MIS) have realised and appreciated the contribution
of LAN as an essential platform. This also resulted in
organisations focusing on network computing.

The above mentioned that two (2) factors have altered the development
of LAN. Hence, the development of LANs comes just in time to
accommodate the increased needs of the organisation.

Corporate wide area networking

In the early 1990s, the majority of organisations emphasised on a

centralised data processing model. In those times, regional offices
were fully equipped with mainframes or midrange computers with
sufficient power and capacity to handle back-end processes such as
finance, accounting and some personnel programs. Smaller branches
were equipped with terminals that link to regional offices depending on
their locations.

9 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Changes to the above model began to take place in the mid-1990s with
the growth of telecommunication facilities. Client-server computing
concept had been implemented whereby organisations began to move
their regional offices’ processing load to branches. These branches are
equipped with more powerful PCs and servers to handle processing
locally instead of relying on centralised processing. Such changes have
also provided local users with more processing power and speed which
enabled them to exploit graphic applications, multimedia, and other
data-intensive applications.

With all of the changes mentioned above, it is expected that more and
more data travel across geographically-distant areas. A network which
is spread over a large area is called wide area network (WAN). With the
high demand and high volume of traffic that flows over WANs, higher
speed WANs are required to cater for the demands of corporate business.

Activity 1.1

1. Explain three (3) trends that constantly impact the development

of data communications.

2. Identify the three (3) major factors affecting development of data

communication and networking.

Communication model

Data communication is a process of sending a signal from one end point to

another end point. Signal is the representation of data in electromagnetic
format. Data communication involves source, transmitter, transmission
system, receiver and destination. The exchange of information between
the source and destination also relies on publicly available networks

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 10

 such as public telephone network. Figure 1.1 shows a diagrammatic
view of data communication, elements of data communication and the
necessary equipment such as PCs, modems and transmission channel.

Source: This is the initiation point of communication and it can be a

workstation or a personal computer.

Transmitter: The transmitter performs the necessary encoding to data

generated by the source. For example, a modem modulates digital data
into analog signals before they are delivered to the transmission system.

Transmission system: This is a transmission line used to carry data from

the sender to receiver or vice versa. Copper cables, fibre-optic cable
and wireless medium are examples of transmission system.

Receiver: The receiver performs the necessary encoding to data sent by

the transmission system. For example, a modem demodulates analog
signals into digital data before they are delivered to the destination.

Destination: The data sent by the source is received here. The destination
could be a workstation or a personal computer.

Source Destination
Transmitter Receiver

Transmission system

Figure 1.1 Basic communication model

11 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Activity 1.2

1. List the essential elements that form the basic model of data
communications.

2. Explain the roles of each element listed in question 1.

Data communications

As discussed earlier, data communication is the process of sending a

signal from one end point to another end point. One of the elements in
data communication is the transmission system. Transmission system
contains a transmission line used to carry data from source to destination.
Transmission line could be in physical form such as cables and non-
physical forms such as vacuum or air. The physical form of transmission
medium is also known as guided media and it has transmission boundary.
Twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables and fibre-optic cables are some of
the examples of guided media. Such media are used for short distance
within a building. Different cables have different data transfer capabilities
and security features. Twisted-pair cables are low in cost, while coaxial
and fibre-optic cables are high in speed and tight in security, but slightly
more expensive than twisted-pair cables. The non-physical form of
transmission is also known as unguided media and it has no transmission
boundary. Unguided media such as radio wave, microwave and infrared
are used for geographically nearby or distant areas. You must have used
the remote control of your TV. These remote controls use infrared waves
which is an example of unguided media. More details on transmission
media will be discussed in section 1.3 of this unit.

When the data generated by the computer is required to be sent to a

distant place, it is converted into a form which is suitable for transmission.
Data generated by computers are in digital form which is discrete and
precise, known as digital data. The digital data is then converted or

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 12

 modulated into analog form known as analog signal. Analog signal is in
a continuous waveform and is non-discrete. The analog signal is carried
by a public telephone network cable. The modulation process (conversion
of digital data into analog signal) is performed by communication devices
known as modem. At the destination, another modem will perform the
demodulation process which converts analog signal back to digital data.
Modulation means modification of one or more characteristics of a carrier
wave by an information-bearing signal. Demodulation means separating
the carrier signal from the information-bearing signal. Figure 1.2 shows
the logical representation of the modulation and demodulation processes.

Modem Modem

Digital Analog Analog Digital

data signal signal data

Figure 1.2 Communication signals — digital and analog

Signals travelling through cables are in electromagnetic format. Various

types of signal encoding techniques are used to encode digital data into
electromagnetic form. The choice of signal encoding method has direct
impact on the performance and reliability of network. Besides that, the
interface between a device and the transmission medium must be agreed
upon. Hence, this enables successful transmission of information due
to the cooperation of the various components involved. More details on
signal encoding techniques will be discussed in section 1.3 of this unit.

13 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Information transmission

For transmission medium, be it in physical or non-physical form, its

transmission efficiency and speed are important factors that could
affect the process of data communication. For data communication
and networking, there are two (2) most influential transmission medium
namely fibre-optic cables (OFC) and wireless transmission. The OFC
transmission medium have features such as high speed, tight security
and they overcome distance barrier. These media are now driving the
evolution of data communication.

Fibre-optic cable is one of the considerably efficient and high speed

transmission medium that is used by most of the organisations. It
generally has the following strengths:

1. Capacity: Its ever-increasing capacity has caused organisations

to enjoy high speed transmission at much lower costs.

2. Cost effective: Its channel capacity is high but price has

dropped tremendously.

3. Security: Fibre-optic cables are very difficult to tap. So data

cannot be easily eavesdropped by hackers.

The second medium that affects the development of data communication

is wireless. The evolution of wireless transmission leads to universal
personal telecommunication and universal access to communications.
Wireless transmission has several strengths identified below.

1. Identification: It provides the users the ability to conveniently

identify themselves over a large area, for example, Global
Positioning System (GPS). GPS is a navigation and positioning
tool using wireless transmission to identify some target
locations for its users.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 14

 2. Mobility: It enables users to have access to data and information
any time and anywhere by using their mobile devices such as
mobile phones, PDAs, laptops, etc.

Activity 1.3

1. Identify two (2) categories of transmission media.

2. Give an example of each category of transmission medium

identified in question 1.

3. Describe two (2) types of signals that occur in data

communication.

4. Explain reasons why signal encoding is important in data

communication.

5. Describe two (2) advantages of fibre-optic cables and wireless

transmission.

Overview of computer networks

Networks generally refer to connections among PCs and printers. Human
beings have networks too. We are connected to our friends, colleagues
and family. Hence, we can exchange and share information among each
other. Computer network is a system consisting of connected computers
to share data, hardware, and software. In this section, categories of
networks such as PAN, LAN, MAN, WAN and the Internet are covered.

15 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Categories of networks

There are four (4) categories of networks known as personal area network
(PAN), local area network (LAN), metropolitan area network (MAN)
and wide area network (WAN). LAN, MAN and WAN can make use of
wireless communication and these are known as wireless LAN, MAN
and WAN respectively. At present, PAN refers exclusively to wireless
communications.

PAN — It is a small network of devices close to a person spread over in

a few metres. This network is used for communication among devices
including computers, mobile phones and personal digital assistants. In
terms of distance, PAN is usually considered to have a range in tens of
feet, with some references citing 10 metres as the typical range for their
specific PAN hardware. This network generally uses wireless technologies
like Bluetooth. Figure 1.3 (a) shows an example of a PAN.

Figure 1.3 (a) Personal Area Network

LAN — It is confined to a small geographical area. The computers in

the LAN are connected within a single building or a cluster of buildings.
There are different methods of connecting computers in a LAN. Different
implementations require different devices to connect the computers. In
more than 95% of the installations, unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable,
connectors and a centralised device called hub or switch are used.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 16

 Key elements of a LAN are:

1. Topology — Topology is the way in which end points, or stations

attached to the network are interconnected. The common
topologies for LANs are bus, tree, ring and star.

2. Transmission medium — Transmission medium is a type of

carrier such as cable or wireless. It is also an important element
of LANs because it directly impacts the performance of a LAN.

3. Access protocol — Medium access control is the access of

transmission medium by using different techniques to maximise
the efficiency and speed of data exchange in LANs.

Figure 1.3 (b) shows an example of a LAN. The workstations one (1) to
four (4) are located within the same building but they could be at different
floors. These workstations are accessing files from the server and they
are connected via UTP cables and a switch. You will get more information
on LAN in Unit 2.

Workstation 1

Workstation 2
7x 8x 9x 10x 11x 12x 7x 8x 9x 10x 11x 12x

C
E thernet

7 8 9 101112

A 12 34 56 1x 2x 3x 4x 5x 6x 1x 2x 3x 4x 5x 6x
A B

Switch
Workstation 3
Server

Workstation 4

Figure 1.3 (b) Local Area Network

17 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

MAN — It is a type of high speed network that covers areas between
five (5) and fifty (50) kilometres as suggested by the word metropolitan
itself. It may cover a group of buildings or an area of the size of a city.
A MAN could be owned by an organisation which is used to connect all
the LANs that belong to the organisation. Such connection is used for
information and resource sharing in the organisation. A MAN could also
be owned by a company that provides network connection services to
users, for example, Internet Service Provider (ISP). ISP is a company that
provides its customers with Internet access for a fee that is to be paid
monthly. Figure 1.3 (c) shows a diagram of a MAN connection.

Public city network

Figure 1.3 (c) Metropolitan Area Network

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 18

 WAN — It covers a large geographical area as compared to LAN and
MAN. A WAN consists of a number of switching nodes where data are
forwarded from a switching node to another switching node until they
reach their destination. A node is a device that has an address for data
communication in a network. Generally, WANs are implemented using
one of the two switching techniques known as:

1. Circuit switching — In this method, a dedicated path is

allocated to two nodes for transmission. The path is released
once transmission is completed. Example of such switched
network is the telephone network.

2. Packet switching — In this method, no dedicated path is

reserved for the transmission, instead, data are broken down
into smaller chunks known as packets. These packets are
being routed to destinations through different paths. Each node
will store and forward the packets to its destination. An example
of such network is the WOU network connecting computers
in different cities.

Figure 1.3 (d) shows a diagrammatic representation of WAN. Router one

(1) to four (4) are used to connect geographically different places such as
Kuala Lumpur (KL), Penang (PG), Johor (JH) and Kuantan (KN), with their
own LANs. Router is a device used to forward messages from one point
to another point. The diagram shows how these areas are connected
for data exchange. More details on WAN, circuit switching and packet
switching are available in Unit 3.

19 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Server Workstation
Workstation
KL

JH
Router 3 Router 1

Workstation Server

Workstation
Workstation WAN
Workstation PG KN Workstation

Router 4 Router 2
Server
Switch
Switch

Workstation Workstation
Workstation Server

Figure 1.3 (d) Wide Area Network

In Malaysia, we have Telekom Malaysia (TM) providing broadband through

Streamyx. Very recently, Celcom and Digi have also started providing
broadband access through mobile phones. Subsequently there will be
more wireless long-distance ISP using newer technologies like WiMAX.

The Internet

The Internet evolved from the ARPANET, which was developed in 1969 by
the Advanced Research Project Agency (ARPA) of the U.S. Department
of Defense. Many hosts which comprise PCs, workstations, servers and
mainframes are connected together to form the Internet. These hosts
that use the Internet are connected to a network such as LAN. These
networks in turns are connected by routers. Each router is attached to
two (2) or more networks. When a host sends data to other hosts through
the Internet, it generates a series of packets. Packets are data unit for
transmission. Each packet includes the destination’s address. These
packets travel through a series of routers and networks from source to
destination. Figure 1.3 (e) shows the important elements of the Internet
such as hosts, networks and routers.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 20

 Stand-alone
mainframe
Router

LAN
WAN

Router
Router
Ethernet
switch LAN
WAN
Ethernet
Router switch

Figure 1.3 (e) The Internet

Activity 1.4

1. List the performance factors that affect the quality of a

network.

2. Briefly describe the terms LAN, WAN, MAN and Internet.

3. Identify and explain the key elements of LANs.

4. WANs are implemented using one of two switching techniques.

Briefly describe the types of switching techniques.

5. Explain the term “hosts” and give an example of “hosts.”

21 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Protocols and standards
Generally, protocols mean standard rules and regulations applicable to
specific processes. The protocol defines a standard set of rules agreed
upon by sender and receiver. These processes exist in all forms of our
daily lives. For example, in Figure 1.4 (a), the process of a conversation
between Alice and Bob using English language is shown. In this case,
English language is the protocol between the two (2) parties for exchange
of information. It has standards and rules such as the grammar, syntax,
vocabulary, tenses, etc. Hence, the ability to communicate using English
language facilitates the communication between Alice and Bob. Similarly,
in the digital world, communication between the sender and receiver
involves protocols as shown in Figure 1.4 (b).

Alice Bob

TCP
conn
Hello ectio
n req
uest
eply
t ion r
Hello c o nnec
TCP
http:
Wha //ww GET
t tim w.go
e are o gle.c
you om
free?

<file>
8.00

Time Time Time

Figure 1.4 (a) Human protocol Figure 1.4 (b) Network protocol

There are three (3) key features of protocols. These are syntax, semantics
and timing. Syntax is the format of the data blocks being transmitted.
Semantics is the control information for coordination and error handling.
Timing includes speed matching and sequencing.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 22

 There are a number of standards which are being followed in data
communication and networking. These standards are developed in a
unique environment that builds consensus in an open process based
on inputs from all interested parties. IEEE (Institution of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers), ISO (International Standards Organisation), IETF
(Internet Engineering Task Force), ITU (International Telecommunication
Union) are a few standard-making bodies. The benefits of having
standards are many. It includes market growth for new and emerging
technologies, reduced development time and cost, increased product
quality and safety, and protection against obsolescence. The 802 series of
standards are very famous and are used widely in the area of networking.

Activity 1.5

1. Define the term “protocol” in data communication.

2. Name and describe the key features of “protocol”.

Summary

In this section, you learnt about the basic terms and concepts
related to networking. You must have observed the recent
trend that more and more people are now using information
and communication technologies. This trend is affecting the
development of data communications and computer networks.
The basic model for data communication is important. You
also learnt the components involved in data communications
such as the transmission medium, source, transmitter, receiver

23 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

and destination. The different types of networks such as PAN,
LAN, MAN, WAN and the Internet are not restricted to research
laboratories but are common in our daily lives. It also covers the
protocols and standards in data communication.

Self-test 1.1

1. _________________ is one of the factors that impact the

development of data communication and networking recently,
for example, the transmission of data exists for local and
long distance such as states in Malaysia and across countries
from Malaysia to Singapore, US, UK, etc.

A. Development of new services

B. Traffic growth
C. Advances in technology
D. Data communications

2. Ali composed an email and sent to his friend named Marnisha.

Ali is the _________________ in a communication model.

A. source
B. destination
C. transmission system
D. transmitter

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 24

 3. Communication medium is used to transmit data from one end
to another end, and there are two (2) categories of
communication medium known as _________________ and
_________________.

A. twisted pair and coaxial

B. terrestrial and satellite microwave
C. low cost and high cost
D. physical and wireless

4. Ali is having an online chat with Bob. Messages typed by

Ali is being transmitted to the modem and sent to Bob. What
kind of signal travels from Ali’s PC to the modem?

A. Digital signal
B. Analog signal
C. Analog and digital signals
D. All of the above

5. The connection of networking devices, servers, printers

and workstations within a single building is known as
_________________.

A. WAN
B. the Internet
C. LAN
D. transmission medium

25 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

6. The connection of communication devices, servers, printers
and workstations across different states in Malaysia is known
as _________________.

A. WAN
B. the Internet
C. LAN
D. transmission medium

7. _________________ is the way in which end points, or stations

attached to a network are interconnected, for example, in
a LAN.

A. Connection
B. Transmission
C. Topology
D. Network

8. Ali and Bob communicate through online chat in Malaysia and

US respectively. Messages sent by Ali are divided into
smaller chunks that are sent through different routes to
Bob. What kind of switching technique is used to transmit
Ali’s messages to Bob?

A. Circuit switching
B. Path switching
C. Network switching
D. Packet switching

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 26

 9. Which of the following is an example of “circuit switching”
network?

A. Terminal-to-computer
B. Telephone conversation
C. Computer-to-terminal
D. Paging

10. The Advanced Research Project Agency of the U.S.

Department of Defense developed the _________________
in 1969.

A. Intranet
B. LAN
C. Internet
D. WAN

11. Multiple computers and multiple users may interact on a

task, for example, a multiplayer network game. This is known
as _________________ in a distributed process environment.

A. security
B. distributed database
C. redundancy
D. collaborative processing

27 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

12. Which of the following is NOT the performance factor that
affects the quality of a network?

A. Frequency of failure
B. Number of users
C. Transmission medium
D. Hardware

13. Which of the following does NOT contribute to the network

criteria?

A. Performance
B. Security
C. Installation
D. Reliability

14. Frequency of failure and network recovery time after a

network failure are measures of the _________________ of
the network.

A. performance
B. reliability
C. security
D. feasibility

15. Viruses are a network _________________ issue.

A. security
B. performance
C. reliability
D. feasibility

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 28

 16. Give five (5) instances of how networks are a part of your life
today.

17. Give your own example of how the number of users can affect
the performance of a network.

18. Give your own example of how the type of transmission

medium can affect the performance of a network.

19. Give your own example of how hardware can affect the
performance of a network.

20. Give your own example of how software can affect the
performance of a network.

21. Identify appropriate application areas of networking for each

of the following cases (a) to (e).

a. Alice is the marketing manager of ABC Company and

she is constantly required to meet clients and present
the most updated product information to them.

b. Bob transfers his rental to his landlord at the end of each

month.

c. Ali, Bob and Jane are not able to meet due to time and
distance problems. Hence, they decided to use their
mobile phones to conduct a meeting to discuss their
holiday plans.

29 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 d. Bob is looking through some websites to locate the most
expensive piece of antique sold in 1980 in the U.S.

e. Peter is an electrical engineer that makes use of CAD

to design the blueprint of a new circuit board for high
speed PCs.

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback

Activity 1.1

1. Traffic, new services and technology advancement.

a. Traffic: Data traffic increased in terms of local or long

distance communications, and voice and video that
would influence the development of data communication.

b. New services: Hardware and technology were developed

to cater for large traffic and reduce communication
costs.

c. Technology advancement: It has made high speed data

communication such as video-conferencing, multimedia
application and voice data transmission to become fast
and low cost.

2. Reduced cost, improved quality and mobility.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 30

 Activity 1.2

1. Source: Transmitter, transmission system, receiver and

destination.

2. Source: This is the initiation point of communication and

it can be in the form of human beings or some devices such
as workstation or personal computer.

Transmitter: The transmitter performs the necessary encoding

to data generated by the source. For example, a modem
that modulates digital data into analog form before they are
delivered to the transmission system.

Transmission system: This is the device used to carry data

from the sender to receiver or vice versa. The medium
could be some communication channels such as cables or
satellites.

Receiver: The receiver performs necessary encoding to data

sent by the transmission system. For example, a modem
demodulates analog signals into digital data before they are
delivered to the destination.

Destination: This is the receiving of the data that are being

transmitted from the sender. The receiver could be human
beings or networking devices such as a workstation.

31 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Activity 1.3

1. Physical and wireless.

2. Physical medium is twisted-pair cable, or coaxial or fibre-optic

cables.

Wireless medium is radio wave or microwave.

3. Digital signal, it is in discrete and precise form, generated by

computers.

Analog signal, it is in continuous wave form usually carried

by public telephone networks.

4. Choice of encoding method directly affects the performance

and reliability of network.

It enables successful transmission of information due to

the cooperation of various components involved in data
communication.

5. Fibre-optic cables:

Capacity: Its ever-increasing capacity had caused

organisations to be able to enjoy high speed transmission
at much lower costs.

Cost effective: Its channel capacity is high and cost effective.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 32

 Security: Fibre-optic cables are very difficult to tap and
information are not easily eavesdropped by hackers.

Wireless transmission:

Identification: It provides users the ability to conveniently

identify themselves in a large area, for example, globally.

Mobility: It enables users to have access to data and

information at any time and anywhere by using their mobile
devices such as mobile phones, PDAs, laptops, etc.

Activity 1.4

1. Number of users, transmission medium, hardware and

software.

2. LAN: Has a smaller scope of data communication coverage

such as devices connected within a single building or a cluster
of buildings.

WAN: It covers large geographical areas that usually require

crossing of public right-of-ways and rely on circuits provided
by a common carrier.

MAN: It is a type of high speed network designed for sharing

of information and resources, and is owned by companies
that provide network services for a fee.

33 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Internet: Many hosts which comprise PCs, workstations,
servers and mainframes are connected together to form the
Internet. These hosts that use the Internet are connected to
a network such as LAN.

3. Topology: It is the way which end points or stations are

attached to the network.

Transmission medium: Types of medium to be used in LAN,

whether physical or wireless or a combination of both.

Medium access control: The method for LAN devices to gain

access to medium such as cables.

4. Circuit switching: Where dedicated paths are allocated for

the sender and receiver for data transmission. The
communication paths are dropped once transmission is
completed.

Packet switching: No dedicated path is reserved for

transmission, but data are divided into packets and are routed
to its destination.

5. Hosts are communication devices used in a connected

network that forms the Internet, for example, PCs,
workstations, servers or mainframes.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 34

 Activity 1.5

1. Protocol means a standard set of rules and regulation in data

exchange between the source and destination.

2. Syntax: The format of the data blocks being transmitted.

Semantics: It is the control information for coordination and

error handling.

Timing: It includes speed matching and sequencing.

35 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

1.2 Network Models: OSI and
TCP Layer
Objectives

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Explain the functionalities of the OSI seven (7) layers.

2. Describe the TCP/IP model.

3. Discuss the TCP/IP protocol architecture.

Introduction
Layered architecture is the basic building block of standards adopted
in data communications; hence, this section explains and illustrates the
layered approach of data communications. The most important part of
this section is the details of the seven (7) layers of OSI with their functions.
The TCP/IP protocol architecture and its applications are also described
in detail.

OSI model
The layered architecture organises and divides functions of a network
into seven (7) layers as shown in Figure 1.5 (a). The figure shows how a
message is passed through those layers from one end to the other end.
Message from the device A is being transferred to device B starting from

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 36

 the highest layer, known as application layer, going down through other
lower layers and arrive at device B. At the device B, message travels
from the lowest layer, known as physical layer to the higher layers. In
order to help you remember the seven (7) layers’ names easily, we use
the following mnemonic:

Prakash (Physical layer or layer 1)

Did (Data link layer or layer 2)
Not (Network layer or layer 3)
Tour (Transport layer or layer 4)
Selangor & (Session layer or layer 5)
Penang (Presentation layer or layer 6)
Area (Application layer or layer 7)

Device A Device B

Intermediate node

Link Link

7 Application Application 7
6 Presentation Presentation 6
5 Session Session 5
4 Transport Transport 4
3 Network Network Network 3
2 Data link Data link Data link Data link 2
1 Physical Physical Physical Physical 1

Physical communication Physical communication

Figure 1.5 (a) OSI layers

37 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Peer-to-peer processes

With reference to Figure 1.5 (b), device A’s layer 7 (application layer) calls
upon the services provided by layer 6 (presentation layer), and layer 6
calls upon services provided by layer 5 (session layer). Hence, you can
say that in the layered approach, the lower layer provides services to
higher layers and the higher layer is using services provided by the lower
layers. Layer n on device A communicates with layer n on device B and
such communication is governed by an agreed-upon series of rules
and conventions called protocols. The processes on each machine that
communicates at a given layer are called peer-to-peer processes.

Each layer on device A adds its own information to the message it receives
from the layer just above it and passes the whole package (message +
own information) to the layer just below it. The information that is added in
the form of headers and trailers is the control data added to the beginning
or end. Headers are added to the message at layers 6, 5, 4, 3 and 2. A
trailer is added at layer 2. The entire package is transported from device
A to device B at layer 1. Layer 1 converts the package into a series of bit
streams and transmits through the communication medium. At the other
end of device B, when the package is received, it is unwrapped layer by
layer, with each process receiving and removing the data meant for that
particular layer. For example, layer 2 removes the data meant for layer 2
only and passes the remaining package to layer 3. Layer 3 removes the
data meant for it and passes the message to layer 4 and so forth.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 38

 L7 Data 7 7 L7 Data
6 6
L7 Data H6 L7 Data H6

L6 Data H5 5 5 L6 Data H5

L5 Data H4 4 4 L5 Data H4

L4 Data H3 3 3 L4 Data H3

T2 L3 Data H2 2 2 T2 L3 Data H2
1 1 01010101 010101010000010000
01010101 010101010000010000

Transmission medium

Figure 1.5 (b) An exchange using the OSI model

Activity 1.6

1. How are OSI and ISO related to each other?

2. List the layers of the OSI model.

3. What is peer-to-peer process?

4. How is information passed from one OSI layer to the next?

39 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 5. What is the difference between network layer delivery and
transport layer delivery?

6. The _______________ model shows how the network functions

of a computer ought to be organised.

7. The _______________ is the layer closest to the transmission

medium.

8. The ________________ end-to-end delivery of the entire

message is the responsibility of the layer.

Functions of the layers

In this section, you will learn about the functions of each layer in the OSI
model in detail. To facilitate your understanding and optimise the learning
process, each layer’s explanation is accompanied with appropriate
diagrams and examples. Have fun reading the following seven (7) parts
of this section starting from the lowest layer to the highest layer.

Physical layer

The physical layer deals with requirements of transferring bit streams

over a transmission medium. It handles the mechanical and electrical
specifications of the interface and transmission medium. It also defines
the standard procedures of how physical devices and interfaces have to
perform for transmission to occur. For example, Figure 1.6 (a) shows the
position of the physical layer with respect to the transmission medium
and the data link layer.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 40

 From data link layer To data link layer
L2 data L2 data

Physical Physical
10101000000010 10101000000010
layer layer

Transmission medium

Figure 1.6 (a) Physical layer

The functionality of the physical layer includes the following:

1. Physical characteristics of interfaces and media: It defines the

characteristics of the interface between devices and
transmission medium. It also defines the types of transmission
medium in data communication and networking such as
guided media like fibre-optic cables, coaxial cables or twisted-
pair cables. There are also unguided media such as terrestrial
microwave transmission.

2. Representation of bits: Since the physical layer deals with a

series of bit streams such as binary bits of 0s and 1s, hence,
the bit encoding scheme is also being defined at this layer. It
generally defines procedures on how bits are being encoded
in signals.

3. Data rate: Another responsibility of the physical layer is to set

the time the bit streams last during the transmission and
also the data transfer rate which defines how many bits can
be transmitted at one time.

41 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 4. Synchronisation of bits: It also ensures that the sender and
receiver must be ready to send and receive data at the
appropriate time. The timing synchronisation ensures that the
transmission of bit streams between the sender and receiver
is effective and efficient.

5. Line configuration: As mentioned earlier, the physical layer

defines how transmission mediums are connected. In a line-
to-line configuration, dedicated cables are used to connect
each communication end. This kind of line configuration is
generally high in costs due to the massive usage of cables.
Another kind of line configuration is known as multipoint
configuration where a single link is shared among many devices
to reduce the cable cost.

6. Physical topology: The physical topology defines how

communication devices are connected to each other to form
a network. It defines the type of cables to be used for each type
of connection, their maximum cable lengths and also the usage
of network devices to optimise the configurations. There are
four (4) types of network topologies. They are Mesh topology,
Star topology, Ring topology and Bus topology.

Data link layer

The data link layer works for the physical layer by transforming data sent
by the physical layer. It performs node-to-node delivery to ensure that
raw transmission is transformed into reliable data message by adding
trailers and headers. This data message at this layer is called frame. It
oversees the delivery of the frame between two (2) systems on the same
network (link). The error-free frame is then passed to the network layer.
The address of each node at this layer is called the physical address or
media access control (MAC) address. The format of the address varies
depending on the protocol used. We use a generic physical address to
explain the process involved. Figure 1.6 (b) shows an example of the data

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 42

 link layer at work. A node with physical address 28 sends a message to
a node with physical address 65. The frame contains physical source
and destination addresses respectively (28 and 65) in the header. The
trailer contains extra bits needed for error detection.

10 28 53 65 87

T2 Data 28 65

Trailer Source address Destination address

Figure 1.6 (b) Data link layer

The functionality of the data link layer includes the following.

1. Framing: The data link layer groups the stream of bits received
from the physical layer into manageable data units called
frames at the receiving end and does the vice versa at the
sending end.

2. Physical addressing: In considering the addressing function

of the data link layer, it adds headers that define the source
and destination addresses of the frame.

3. Flow control: The data link layer ensures that the communication
link’s traffic is properly controlled by imposing a flow control
mechanism to prevent overloading at the receiver side.

43 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 4. Error control: It adds reliability to the physical layer by adding
mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames
and also prevents duplication of frames. Trailers are added to
the end of the frame for error control handling.

5. Access control: When two (2) or more devices are connected

to the same link, data link layer protocols determine which
device has control over the link at any given time.

Network layer

The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery

of a packet, possibly across multiple networks. Figure 1.6 (c) shows an
example of how the network layer handles the transmission between
different networks. The combination of control and data units at this
layer is called packet. The address used by the node at this layer is
called network address. You must be familiar with IP address which is
the address used by the TCP/IP protocol at the network layer. This layer
provides mechanisms to route packets from one network to another.

Let’s say a node with network address A and physical address 10 wants
to send data to a node with network address P and physical address 95.
As you can see, these nodes are located in different networks. Therefore,
the packets would pass through the router (represented as R in the figure)
which is a device used to connect two different networks. A LAN can be
connected to WAN using routers. The packets with network address A
(using a generic format) and physical address 10 pass through the routers
and reach a node with network address P and physical address 95.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 44

 A E

10 87 Bus

F 20
T2 Data A P 10 20
R
99

WAN T2 Data A P 99 33

N
33
R
66 Z
T2 Data A P 66 95
P M

95 77 Bus

Figure 1.6 (c) Network layer

Transport layer

The transport layer is responsible for source-to-destination (end-to-end)

delivery of the entire message. There are three (3) steps involved in the
creation of the connection: Connection establishment, data transfer and
connection release. Figure 1.6 (d) shows an example of transmission
responsibilities handled by the transport layer. The address used at this
layer is called service point address. Device A’s upper layer sends packets
to the transport layer with its service-point addresses j and k (sender
and receiver respectively). Service-point address which is also known as
port address, is used by the transport layer to deliver the entire message
to the running program in a computer. The message is broken into two

45 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

(2) parts (packet-1 and packet-2) due to the data size which is too big
to be handled by the network layer. These packets retain their service-
point addresses (j and k) while network addresses named A and P are
added to the network layer. These packets may travel through different
paths and arrive at the destination either in or out of order. These packets
are delivered to the destination network layer, which is responsible
for removing the network layer headers. The two (2) packets are now
passed to the transport layer, where they are combined for delivery to the
upper layers.

A P

Transport Transport
Data j k Data j k
layer layer

Data-2 j k A P Network Network Data-1 j k A P

layer layer
Data-1 j k A P Data-2 j k A P

Data link Data link

T2 Data-2 j k A P H2 layer layer T2 Data-1 j k A P H2

T2 Data-1 j k A P H2 T2 Data-2 j k A P H2

Internet

Figure 1.6 (d) Transport layer

The functionality of the transport layer includes the following.

1. Service-point addressing: The transport layer includes service-

point address (also known as port address) to each packet it
receives. It gets the entire message to the correct destination

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 46

 in that computer. There might be more than one process
running within a computer itself. Hence, the service-point
address (port number) is required to identify each process.

2. Segmentation and reassembly: The transport layer divides

messages into smaller and transmittable units called packets.
Each packet is identified through a sequence number. The
sequence number is used by the transport layer at the other
end (destination) for reassembling of message.

3. Connection control: The transport layer operates in either

the connection-oriented or connectionless mode. A connection-
oriented transport layer establishes a connection path between
the sender and the receiver for data transmission. The
connection is released once transmission is completed. On the
other hand, the connectionless transport layer delivers each
packet of messages independently through different available
paths. These packets will be reassembled at the other end
(destination).

4. Flow control: The transport layer also handles flow control

from end-to-end between the sender and the receiver to ensure
no overloading of data from end-to-end.

5. Error control: End-to-end error control is handled by the

transport layer as well. The sending transport layer ensures that
the entire message arrives at the receiving transport t layer
without errors such as damage, loss or duplication.

Session layer

The session layer is the network dialogue controller. It establishes,

maintains, and synchronises the interaction between communicating
systems. Figure 1.6 (e) illustrates the relationship of the session layer to
the transport and presentation layers.

47 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 From presentation layer To presentation layer
L6 data L6 data

Session Session
H5
H5 H5
layer layer
syn syn syn syn syn syn

L5 data L5 data
To transport layer From transport layer

Figure 1.6 (e) Session layer

The functionality of the session layer includes the following:

1. Dialogue control: The session layer allows two (2) systems to

enter into a dialogue. It allows for communication between
two (2) processes to take place either in half-duplex or full-
duplex mode. In half-duplex mode, transmission is bidirectional
but only one end sends message at a time. In full-duplex mode,
transmission is bidirectional and either end can send message
simultaneously. For example, the dialogue between a terminal
connected to a mainframe can be half-duplex while a telephone
conversation can be full-duplex.

2. Synchronisation: It allows two (2) systems to add check points

into a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a
file of 2000 pages, a check point is inserted after every
100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and
acknowledged independently to avoid resending of the entire
file in case of failure.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 48

 Presentation layer

The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of

the information exchanged between two (2) systems. Figure 1.6 (f) shows
the relationship between the presentation layer and the application and
session layers.

From application layer To application layer

L7 data L7 data

Presentation Presentation
layer Encoded, encrypted and layer Encoded, encrypted and
compressed data H6 compressed data
H6

L6 data L6 data
To session layer From session layer

Figure 1.6 (f) Presentation layer

The functionality of the presentation layer includes the following:

1. Translation: The presentation layer is responsible for

interoperability between different encoding methods. The
presentation at the sender side changes information from its
sender-dependant format into a common format. The
presentation layer at the receiving end changes the common
format into its receiver-dependant format.

2. Encryption: The sender information is being converted (or

scrambled) into some meaningless format, which is known as
encryption. The objective is to protect confidential data and
prevent it from being tapped or eavesdropped by other people.

49 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 3. Compression: The presentation layer also combines and
compresses data that is to be transmitted into much smaller
chunks. This function is essential especially when the
transmission is dealing with large size data such as video,
audio or picture.

Application layer

The application layer provides user interfaces and support for services
such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management, and other types of distributed information services.
Figure 1.6 (g) shows the relationship of the application layer to the user
and the presentation layer. There are many services available such as
X.400 (a message-handling service), X.500 (a directory service) and file
transfer, access, and management (FTAM). The example shows a user
using X.400 to send an email message. There are no headers or trailers
added at this layer.

User User

Application Application
layer layer
x.500 FTAM x.400 x.500 FTAM x.400

L7 data L7 data

To presentation layer From presentation layer

Figure 1.6 (g) Application layer

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 50

 The functionality of the application layer includes the following.

1. Network virtual terminal: A network virtual terminal is a software

version of a physical terminal and allows a user to log on to
a remote host. To do so, the application creates the software
of a terminal at the remote host. The user’s computer talks
to the software terminal, which in turn, talks to the host, and
vice versa.

2. FTAM: This application allows a user to access files in a remote

computer, to retrieve files from a remote computer, and to
manage or control files in a remote computer.

3. Mail services: Provides basic emailing functions such as

forwarding and storage of emails.

4. Directory services: Provides distributed database sources and

access for global information about various objects and
services.

Web Reference

For further information on OSI model, please refer to the following

websites.

1. http://www.networkcableonline.com/osi.htm

2. http://www.webopedia.com/DidYouKnow/Computer_
Science/2006/understanding_layers.asp

51 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Activity 1.7

1. What are the concerns of the physical layer?

2. What are the responsibilities of the data link layer?

3. What are the responsibilities of the network layer?

4. What are the responsibilities of the transport layer?

5. What are the responsibilities of the session layer?

6. What are the responsibilities of the presentation layer?

7. Name some services provided by the application layer.

8. What is the difference between a service-point address, a

network address and a physical address?

9. The transport layer creates a connection between the

source and destination. What are the three (3) events involved
in a connection?

TCP/IP model
TCP/IP model is a set of rules that is used for data communication.
It is simply called IP model. It is also called Internet protocol model.
Nowadays this model dominates data communication and networking.
The TCP/IP protocol has five layers:

1. Physical Layer

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 52

 2. Data link layer

3. Network layer

4. Transport layer

5. Application layer

Function of layers

1. The physical layer — this is the lowest layer found in data

communication.

It defines standards in interfacing communication devices and

generally defines types of transmission medium for various types
of network connection configurations. Signal encoding standards
are also part of this layer.

2. The network access layer — this layer is concerned with exchange

of data by the access of a network. The network access layer
determines appropriate paths to deliver data via available channels.
The specific type of software which can be used on this layer
depends on the type of network like Ethernet, frame relay, and
others. This layer is also known as network interface layer.

3. The Internet layer — this is the layer that defines standards in data
exchange for devices connected to different types of network.
Internet Protocol (IP) is the standard protocol found in this layer
that defines the standard routing function across multiple networks.
This protocol is implemented not only in the end systems but also in
routers. A router is a communication device that connects one
network to another and performs routing of packets from one end
to the other end of the system.

53 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

4. Transport layer — this is the layer which ensures that the data
transmitted arrive at the destination in proper order and without
error. Basic functions of this layer are error detection, error correction
and retransmission of erroneous data. The Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) is the standard protocol found in this layer.

5. The application layer — this is the highest level of the layer

arrangement.

It contains the logic needed to support the various user applications.

Some examples of the application layer protocols are File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) and Telnet.

The coordination among these layers is such that the lower layer provides
services to the higher layer during data communication. Each layer adds
control information into data to be transmitted.

Activity 1.8

1. Name and briefly describe the five (5) conceptual layers of

TCP/IP.

TCP/IP protocols
The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) researched and
developed the first operational packet-switching network known as
ARPANET in 1969. The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/IP) was defined as the standard adopted in the Internet. It is also
known as TCP/IP protocol suite. The TCP/IP is a group of hierarchical

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 54

 protocols used in the Internet. This protocol suite consists of huge
collections of protocols that have been issued as Internet standards by
the Internet Architecture Board (IAB).

Generally, there are three (3) agents involved in communication, known

as application, computers and network. The application is used for
exchange of information between the sender and receiver. These
applications send data to multiple computers connected as a network.
Computers generate and forward data to the destination via network
links. The network determines the routes available for transmission of
data. With this concept of data communication in mind, the TCP/IP
protocol suite organises the communication task into five (5) relatively
independent layers.

The TCP/IP protocol suite contains two specialised protocols: TCP

(Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol). There are a few
protocols that have been standardised to operate on top of TCP. These
are file transfer protocol (FTP), simple mail transfer protocol (SMTP),
hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP) and Telnet. These protocols are also
known as application layer protocols.

FTP: It is a console-based protocol that allows users to download files

from remote server or host to other end systems. The FTP protocol also
facilitates uploading of files from end system to remote server or host.

SMTP: This is a protocol that defines standards in transmission of emails

from one mail server to other mail servers. It includes features such as
mailing list, return receipts, and forwarding. The SMTP module makes
use of local electronic mail packages to store the incoming message in
a user’s mailbox.

HTTP: This protocol is used to transfer or convey information on Internet

or intranet. It is used to publish and retrieve hypertext pages.

55 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Telnet: This is a protocol that provides the facilities for users to log on
to remote servers and as if the user is working in front of the server.
Once logged on, users can access applications and files residing in the
remote server.

Activity 1.9

1. What are the agents involved in data communication?

2. Name and describe three (3) application layer protocols.

Summary

This section mainly covers the protocols and standards in data

communication and the basic model used in data communication.
While having discussion about the OSI model, we have looked at all
the seven (7) important layers that form an architectural approach
to data communication. These seven (7) layers are known as
physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation and
application layers. The OSI model is a theoretical model which
explains the role of each layer. TCP/IP is a protocol suite and
practical implementation of the relevant concepts explained in OSI.
Therefore there is a difference of layers in TCP/IP from OSI. The
layers which were not considered necessary by the researchers
and industry have been removed in TCP/IP. The next section will
introduce you to the various types of transmission medium used
in data communication and networking.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 56

 Self-test 1.2

1. In the ____________ layer, the data unit is called a frame.

A. physical
B. data link
C. network
D. transport

2. Decryption and encryption of data are the responsibility of

the ____________ layer.

A. physical
B. data link
C. presentation
D. session

3. Dialogue control is a function of the ____________ layer.

A. transport
B. session
C. presentation
D. application

4. Mail services and directory services are available to network

users through the ____________ layer.

A. data link
B. session
C. transport
D. application

57 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

5. Node-to-node delivery of the data unit is the responsibility
of the ____________ layer.

A. physical
B. data link
C. transport
D. network

6. As the data packet moves from the lower to the upper layers,
headers are ____________.

A. added
B. removed
C. rearranged
D. modified

7. As the data packet moves from the upper to lower layers,

headers are ____________.

A. added
B. removed
C. rearranged
D. modified

8. The ____________ layer lies between the network layer and

the session layer.

A. physical
B. data link
C. transport
D. presentation

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 58

 9. Layer 2 lies between the physical layer and the ____________
layer.

A. network
B. data link
C. transport
D. presentation

10. When data are transmitted from device A to device B, the

header from A’s layer 5 of OSI is read by B’s ____________
layer.

A. physical
B. transport
C. session
D. presentation

11. Match the following to one of the relevant OSI layers.

a. Route determination.

b. Flow control.

c. Access to media.

d. Browsing the web.

e. Change of codes.

f. Reliable end-to-end data transmission.

g. Network selection.

59 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 h. Frames defined.

i. User services such as email and file transfer provided.

12. In the ____________ layer, translation from one character code

to another occurs.

13. The ___________ layer changes bits into electromagnetic

signals.

14. The ____________ layer can use the trailer of the frame for
error detection.

15. What is the main function of the transport layer?

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback

Activity 1.5

1. Protocol means a standard set of rules and regulation in data

exchange between the source and destination.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 60

 2. Syntax: The format of the data blocks being transmitted.

Semantics: It is the control information for coordination and

error handling.

Timing: It includes speed matching and sequencing.

Activity 1.6

1. OSI is a model to design network architecture, while ISO is

an organisation.

2. Physical, data link, network, transport, session, presentation

and application.

3. Peer-to-peer processes are processes on two or more

devices communicating at a given layer.

4. Each layer calls upon the services of the layer just below it
using interfaces between each pair of adjacent layers.

5. The transport layer is responsible for source-to-destination

delivery of the entire message, whereas the network layer
oversees delivery of individual packets of data irrespective
of their relationship to each other and to the entire message.

6. OSI

7. Physical

8. Transport

61 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Activity 1.7

1. The physical layer is responsible for transmitting a bit

stream over a physical medium. It is concerned with physical
characteristics of the media, representation of bits, type of
encoding, synchronisation of bits, transmission rate and
mode, and the way devices are connected with each other
and to the links.

2. The data link layer is responsible for framing data bits,

providing the physical addresses of the sender/receiver, data
rate control, detection and correction of damaged and lost
frames.

3. The network layer is concerned with the delivery of a packet

across multiple networks. Therefore, its responsibilities
include providing logical addressing and routing.

4. The transport layer oversees end-to-end delivery of the

entire message to the correct process on the receiving
node. It is responsible for dividing the message into
manageable segments, reassembling it at the destination
and flow and error control.

5. The session layer is responsible for dialogue control and

adding synchronisation points into a data stream.

6. The presentation layer is responsible for syntax and

semantics of the message, translation, encryption/decryption,
and compression/decompression.

7. The application layer services include network virtual terminal,

file transfer, remote access, shared database management,
and mail services.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 62

 8. The physical address is the local address of a node. It is used
by the data link layer to deliver data from one node to another
within the same network. The logical address defines the
sender and receiver at the network layer and is used to deliver
messages across multiple networks. The service-point
address identifies the application process on the station.

9. Connection establishment, data transfer, and connection

release.

Activity 1.8

The physical layer: This the lowest layer found in data

communication. It defines standards interfacing communication
devices and generally defines types of transmission medium
for various types of network connection configuration. Signal
encoding standards are also part of this layer as well.

The network access layer: This layer is concerned with access

to and routing data across a network for two (2) end systems
attached to the same network. The network layer determines the
appropriate paths to route and deliver data via available channels.
The routing of the data to the destination depends on the type of
network such as LANs or WANs.

The Internet layer: This is the layer that defines standards in data
exchange for devices connected to different types of network.
Internet Protocol (IP) is the standard protocol found in this layer
that defines the standard routing function across multiple networks.
This protocol is implemented not only in the end systems but also
in routers. A router is a communication device that connects one
network to another and performs routing of packets from one end
to the other end of the system.

63 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Host-to-host layer: This is the layer where it ensures data
transmitted arrive at the destination in proper order and without
error. Basic functions of this layer are error detection, error
correction and retransmission of erroneous data. The Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) is the standard protocol found in this layer.

The application layer: This is the highest level of the layer

arrangement. It contains the logic needed to support the various
user applications. Some examples of the application layer
protocols are File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) and Telnet.

Activity 1.9

1. Application, computers and network.

2. a. FTP: It is a console-based protocol that allows users to

download files from remote server or host to other end
systems. The FTP protocol also facilitates uploading of
files from end system to remote server or host.

b. SMTP: This is a protocol that defines standards in

transmitting of emails from one mail server to other
mail servers. It includes features such as mailing list,
return receipts, and forwarding. The SMTP module
makes use of a local electronic mail package to store
the incoming message into a user’s mailbox.

c. Telnet: This is a protocol that provides the facilities for users

to log on to remote servers and as if the user is working
in front of the server. Once logged on, users can access
applications and files residing in the remote server.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 64

 1.3 Data, Signals and
Transmission Media
Objectives

By the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish between signal and data.

2. Describe various digital signal encoding methods.

3. Discuss types of transmission media and its application

area.

Introduction
In the previous section, you have learnt about different types of networks
and the protocols used in these networks. This section introduces the
difference between data and signal. Data are raw facts that are to be
processed by computers. Data need to be converted into appropriate
form known as signal in order to send it from one computer to a far-off
computer. This section discusses the representation method for data and
its relationship with signals. You will also be exposed to how data and
signals are represented in analog and digital form. Analog representation
is in continuous wave form and digital representation is discrete and
precise. Additionally, transmission impairment such as electrical
interferences that affect the quality of the signal will also be discussed.
Last but not least, the signal encoding methods and transmission media
will be discussed in detail.

65 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Data and signals
Concepts and terminology:

The physical layer which is the lowest layer in the OSI model is the
underlying layer that is closest to the transmission. The physical layer
handles the signal and signal-related functions such as converting signals
to a much more suitable form for transmission. A medium that carries
transmission signals from one place to another works based on the type
of signal it receives. Transmissions occur in daily lives, for example,
when you are collecting statistics from another computer, sending videos
from a workstation, or causing a bell to ring in a distant control centre.
The data or information transmitted can be voice, image, numeric data,
character or code.

Generally, before data are transmitted, they need to be converted into

an appropriate format that can be carried by the transmission medium.
For example, you have your family photo taken and wish to send it to
your sister through the network. You will need to convert or transform
the photo into a form that can be transmitted through a transmission
medium. The transmission medium which we are referring to includes
cables such as twisted pair, fibre-optic or coaxial cables. Transmission
medium transfers information in streams of 1s and 0s.

The bit streams of 1s and 0s must be further converted into a form that
transmission media can accept. The process of converting data into
another suitable form in data communication and networking is known
as encoding. Transmission media works by conducting energy along a
physical path. So a data stream of 1s and 0s must be turned into energy
in the form of electromagnetic signals.

Transmission media used to deliver signals from one end to another end
could be in physical form known as guided media, or in wireless form
known as unguided media. For guided media, signals travel across some
kind of path and have predetermined directions for travel. Examples of
guided media are twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables and fibre-optic

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 66

 cables. As for unguided media, signals are spread out and travel in any
direction. Examples of unguided media are terrestrial microwave, satellite
microwave and broadcast radio.

In guided media, transmission path is direct (also known as direct link) if

signals are propagated directly between the transmitter and the receiver.
For example, the modem and PC have direct link between them. Point to
point transmission means a direct link is found between two (2) devices
sharing the medium. However, multipoint means more than two (2)
devices are sharing the medium.

There are three (3) types of transmission mode when signals travel from
one end to another. These modes are known as simplex, half-duplex
and duplex (also known as full-duplex). In simplex mode of transmission,
signals travel in one direction only, for example, paging services. A pager
can be used to receive information only and cannot be used to send
information. As for half-duplex transmission, signals travel bidirectionally
but only in one direction at a time. An example of half-duplex transmission
is walkie-talkie, where one end sends information and the other end
receives information and vice versa. The last mode is duplex or full duplex,
whereby signals travel bidirectionally at the same time. An example of
duplex transmission is telephone conversation where both sender and
receiver can send and receive information at the same time.

Activity 1.10

1. Describe the following terms from (a) to (e).

a. Guided media

b. Unguided media

c. Direct link

67 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 d. Point to point

e. Multipoint

2. Name and describe the types of transmission mode with your

own examples.

Signals

Data are raw facts which are understood by human beings. Data are
in various formats such as text message, voice message, video clip
and audio clip. These data are stored and manipulated by computers
in the format of a series of bit streams of 1s and 0s. The data are also
categorised as digital data that is in discrete format, or analog data
that is in continuous wave form. During transmission, the transmission
media works by conducting energy along a physical path. Hence, the
data stream of 0s and 1s must be turned into energy in the form of
electromagnetic format known as signals. There are two (2) types of
signals named digital signal and analog signal. The following sections
discuss digital and analog data, and the types of signals in detail.

Analog and digital data

Analog data are presented in some continuous values in some interval.

An example of analog data is human voice. Video is another example
of analog data.

Digital data are presented in discrete and precise format. An example

of digital data is text messages stored in the computer’s memory in the
form of 1s and 0s. The textual data are directly understood by human
beings but not by computers. Hence, the digital data can be captured
through a keyboard. The data can be sent from one place to another by
means of electromagnetic signals.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 68

 Analog and digital signals

An analog signal is a continuously varying electromagnetic wave. An

analog signal may be propagated over wired media such as twisted-
pair cable and coaxial cable. The propagation of the signal depends on
spectrum. Spectrum is a range of frequencies of a signal.

A digital signal is discrete and precise. It may be represented using 1s

and 0s. The transition of a digital signal from a value to another value
is instantaneous like a light being switched on and off. A digital signal
may be transmitted over a wired media, for example, a constant positive
voltage level may represent binary 0 and a constant negative voltage
may represent binary 1.

A diagrammatic way of representing signals is by plotting them on a pair

of perpendicular axis. The vertical axis represents the value or strengths of
a signal. The horizontal axis represents the passage of time. Figure 1.7 (a)
shows an analog signal and a digital signal. You may notice that the
curve shown in the analog signal is smooth and continuous. It gradually
changes over time, passing through infinite number of points. In contrast,
the vertical path of the digital signal shows a sudden change or jump of
flat high and flat low from one value to another value.

Value Value

Time Time

Analog signal Digital signal

Figure 1.7 (a) Analog signal and digital signal

69 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Signalling is the physical propagation of a signal along a suitable medium.
Generally, digital signalling is cheaper than analog signalling and it is
less susceptible to noise interference. An example of noise interference
in data communication can be a factory area that consumes high
voltage of power and generate high level of electromagnetic fields. One
disadvantage of digital signal is that its signal strength diminishes after
travelling a long distance. This is also known as attenuation.

As discussed in the above section, data can be in two (2) forms — digital
or analog, and signalling can also be either in digital or analog form.
There are four possible combinations of transferring analog or digital
data through analog or digital signalling. These are shown in Figure 1.7 (b)
and (c). Analog data that is captured by a telephone can be transmitted
directly to the destination without going through the encoding process.

Digital data can be converted to analog signal by using a modem. A

modem stands for modulator/demodulator. The modem converts binary
bits in 1s and 0s into an analog signal by encoding the digital data onto
a carrier frequency. The analog signal is then propagated though voice-
grade telephone lines. At the other end of the line, another modem
demodulates the signal to recover the original data. Figure 1.7 (b) shows
how the analog and digital data are represented by analog signals.

Analog data Analog signal

(voice sound waves)

Telephone

Digital data Analog signal

(binary bits 1s and 0s) Modem

Figure 1.7 (b) Analog signals

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 70

 Figure 1.7 (c) shows how both the digital and analog data are represented
using digital signals. Analog data is converted into digital signal by a
codec. A codec is also known as a coder/decoder, which takes analog
data and approximates it by a bit stream. At the other end, this bit
stream is used to reconstruct the analog data. In contrast, a digital data
is captured directly by a transceiver. A transceiver stands for transmitter/
receiver. It is used to receive and transmit digital data. A digital data that is
captured by the transceiver can be transmitted directly to the destination.

Analog data Codec Digital signal

Digital data Digital

Digital signal
transceiver

Figure 1.7 (c) Digital signal

Analog and digital transmission

As discussed in the above sections, both the analog and digital data
may be represented by analog or digital signals. Analog data such as
voice and digital data such as text messages can be transmitted via
analog signals. If the transmission distance between two (2) ends is large,
the analog signal may lose its strength. It is known as attenuation. To
overcome the attenuation problem, amplifiers could be used to strengthen
the signal. However, the adverse effect of using amplifiers is that the
noise component is also boosted. Noise is unwanted signals that are
mixed with the original signals. Details about noise are discussed in the
following section. Similarly, a digital signal also faces the same problem

71 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

as analog signal whereby it becomes weakened over the long distance
transmission. However, the digital signal can be regenerated by using a
repeater. A repeater works by recovering the patterns of 1s and 0s and
retransmits a new signal without noise. Hence, it also overcomes the
attenuation problem faced by analog signal.

As discussed above, analog data can be represented by a digital signal

after some necessary conversion. Hence, the problems of noise mentioned
earlier can be overcome. The recent trend for telecommunication
companies is to choose digital transmission over analog transmission
via digital signalling. The other reasons for choosing digital transmission
are the rapid development in digital technologies, easy and economical
facilities, and security and privacy of digital transmission.

Transmission impairments

During transmission, unwanted signals may be mixed or inserted into the

original signals, contaminating data that is to be transmitted. When the
destination receives signals that are lacking in integrity due to unwanted
additional signals, it is said that transmission impairment has occurred.
Transmission impairment reduces or compromises the quality of the
signal. There are three (3) types of transmission impairments which are
discussed below.

Attenuation: Attenuation means weakening of signals’ energy. When

a signal travels through the transmission medium, it loses some of its
energy to overcome the resistance of the medium. This is the reason why
a wire carrying electrical signals becomes warm after a while. Some of
the electrical energy is converted to heat to compensate for this loss.
Generally, amplifiers are used to strengthen the signal. Figure 1.7 (d)
shows attenuation and use of amplifier to strengthen the weak signal.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 72

 Original Attenuated Amplified

Point 1 Point 2 Amplifier Point 3

Figure 1.7 (d) Attenuation

Distortion: Distortion happens when a signal changes its form or shape.

Distortion occurs in a composite signal which is made of different
frequencies. Each signal has its own propagation speed through a
medium. The arrival of the signal at the destination may be delayed and
occur at different times. Figure 1.7 (e) shows how a composite signal is out
of phase when it arrives at the destination. Composite signal is a signal
composed of more than one (1) sine wave. Sine wave is an amplitude-
versus-time representation of the rotating vector.

Composite Components, Components, Composite

signal sent in phase out of phase signal
received

Figure 1.7 (e) Distortion

73 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Noise: There are several types of noise such as thermal noise, induced
noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise which may corrupt the signal. Thermal
noise is created by the random motion of electrons in a wire which creates
an extra signal not originally sent by the transmitter. Induced noise is
from sources such as motors and electronic appliances. These devices
act as the sending antenna and the transmission medium acts as the
receiving antenna. Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other. One
wire acts as the sending antenna and the other as the receiving antenna.
Impulse noise is a spike that comes from power lines, lightning, and
so on. Spike is a signal with high energy in a very short period of time.
Figure 1.7 (f) shows how noise component affects the outcome and
quality of the original signal.

Transmitted Noise Received

Transmission medium
Point 1 Point 2

Figure 1.7 (f) Noise

Activity 1.11

1. Describe the differences between data and information.

2. Provide two (2) examples of analog data and digital data.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 74

 3. Explain the differences between analog and digital signals.

4. Discuss types of transmission impairments.

Signal encoding techniques

As discussed in the previous section, data must be transformed into
signals so that it can be propagated through appropriate transmission
media. Transformation of data means converting data into signals. How
data are converted depends on the format used by the transmission
medium. If you want to send a letter by smoke signal, you need to know
which smoke patterns match which words in your message before
you actually build your fire. Words are data and puffs of smoke are a
representation of that data.

A simple signal by itself does not carry information any more than a
straight line. The signal must be manipulated so that it contains identifiable
changes that are recognisable to the sender and receiver as representing
the information intended. Data are stored in a computer in the form of
0s and 1s. To carry from one place to another, digital data are usually
converted to digital signals. This is known as digital-to-digital conversion
or encoding digital data into a digital signal as shown in Figure 1.8 (a).

Digital-to-
01110010 digital
encoding
Digital data Digital signal

Figure 1.8 (a) Digital-to-digital encoding

75 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Unipolar

Unipolar is the simplest and most primitive encoding method. Digital

encoding works by sending voltage pulses along a medium, usually a
wire or cable. In most types of encoding, one voltage level stands for
binary 0 and another level stands for binary 1. The polarity of a pulse
refers to whether it is positive or negative. Unipolar encoding is so named
because it uses only one polarity. It is said to be using only one level of
value. This polarity is assigned to one of the two binary states, usually
the 1. The other state, usually the 0, is represented by zero voltage.
Figure 1.8 (b) shows unipolar encoding. In this figure, the 1s are
encoded as positive values and the 0s are encoded as the zero value.
Unipolar is one of the economic encoding methods which is simple in
implementation. The major problem faced in unipolar encoding is the
D.C. (direct current) component. A direct current is a zero-frequency
signal with constant amplitude.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

Figure 1.8 (b) Unipolar encoding D.C. component

As mentioned above, D.C. (direct current) component is a zero-frequency

signal with constant amplitude. There are two (2) major problems in the
unipolar encoding system dealing with D.C. component. First, if a signal
is to pass through a system (such as a transformer) that does not allow
the passage of a D.C. component, the signal is distorted. There can
be output errors in such case. Second, the D.C. component is actually
extra energy residing on the line and it is useless. Figure 1.8 (c) shows

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 76

 two (2) encoding methods. The first has a D.C. component; the positive
voltages are not cancelled by the negative voltages. The second has
no D.C. component; the positive voltages are cancelled by the negative
voltages. The first does not pass through a transformer properly; the
second does.

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

Time

1. A signal with D.C. component

Amplitude

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

Time

2. A signal without D.C. component

Figure 1.8 (c) D.C. component

Polar

Polar encoding uses two (2) voltage levels, one positive and one negative.
By using two (2) levels in most polar encoding methods, the average
voltage level on the line is reduced and the D.C. component problem seen
in unipolar encoding is alleviated. Some of the popular polar encoding
methods are:

77 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Non-Return to Zero (NRZ), Return to Zero (RZ), Manchester, and
Differential Manchester as shown in Figure 1.8 (d).

Polar

NRZ RZ Biphase

• NRZ-L • Manchester
• NRZ-I • Differential
Manchester

Figure 1.8 (d) Types of polar encoding methods

Non-Return to Zero (NRZ)

In Non-Return to Zero, the level of signal is always either positive or

negative. There are two (2) types of NRZ transmission named NRZ-L
and NRZ-I. In NRZ-L, the level of the signal depends on the type of bit
it represents. A positive voltage means that the bit is a 0, and a negative
voltage means that the bit is a 1. As for NRZ-I, an inversion of the voltage
level represents a 1 bit. It is the transmission between a positive and a
negative voltage, not the voltages themselves that represent a 1 bit. A
0 bit is represented by no change. Figure 1.8 (e) shows the NRZ-L and
NRZ-I representation of the same series of bits. In the NRZ-L, positive
and negative voltages have specific meanings: Positive for 0 and negative
for 1. In the NRZ-I, the voltage levels are meaningless. The receiver
will look for changes from one level to another level as the basis for
recognition of 1s.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 78

 Amplitude

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

NRZ-L Time

NRZ-I

Time

Transition because next bit is 1

Figure 1.8 (e) NRZ-L and NRZ-I encoding

Return to Zero (RZ)

Return to Zero uses three (3) values: Positive, negative and zero. A 1 bit
is represented by positive-to-zero and a 0 bit by negative-to-zero. RZ
encoding can ensure synchronisation via a signal change for each bit.
The receiver can use these changes to build up, update, and synchronise
its clock. The main disadvantage of RZ is that it requires two (2) signal
changes to encode one bit and therefore occupies more bandwidth.
But, it is still much more effective as compared to NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
Figure 1.8 (f) shows the RZ encoding; there is transition in each bit which
is used for synchronisation purposes.

79 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Value

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Time

These transitions can be

used for synchronisation

Figure 1.8 (f) Return to Zero encoding

Biphase

Biphase is the best method to solve the synchronisation problem faced

by polar encoding methods described above. The signal changes at the
middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero, instead, it continues
to the opposite polarity. There are two (2) types of biphase encoding
known as Manchester and Differential Manchester as described below.

Manchester

Manchester encoding uses the inversion at the middle of each bit interval
for both synchronisation and bit representation. A negative-to-positive
transition represents binary 1 and a positive-to-negative transition
represents binary 0. By using a single transition for dual purposes,
Manchester encoding achieves the same level of synchronisation as RZ
with only two (2) levels of amplitude. Figure 1.8 (g) shows the Manchester
encoding for the same bit pattern as polar encoding methods described
in the earlier sections.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 80

 Differential Manchester

In Differential Manchester encoding, the inversion at the middle of the

interval is used for synchronisation, but the presence or absence of an
additional transition at the beginning of the interval is used to identify the
bit. A transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1. Such
encoding method requires two (2) signal changes to represent binary 0
but only one (1) to represent binary 1. Figure 1.8 (g) shows an example
of Differential Manchester encoding with the same bit pattern.

Value

0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0

Manchester Time

Differential
Time
Manchester

Zero is
Presence of transition at the
beginning of bit time means zero One is

Figure 1.8 (g) Manchester and Differential Manchester encoding

81 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Web Reference

You can refer to the following websites for more details on

encoding techniques.

1. http://www.rhyshaden.com/encoding.htm

2. http://www.learntcpip.com

Activity 1.12

1. What is the difference between encoding and modulation?

2. What is digital-to-digital encoding?

3. Describe the term D.C. component.

4. List the types of polar encoding methods.

5. Identify the types of biphase encoding methods.

Transmission media
As mentioned earlier, computers use signals to transmit data.
Signals are transmitted from one device to another in the form of
electromagnetic energy, which are propagated through transmission
media. Electromagnetic energy is a combination of electrical and
magnetic fields vibrating in relation to each other. Examples include
power, radio waves, infrared light, visible light, ultraviolet light and X,
gamma, and cosmic rays.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 82

 Transmission media can be divided into two (2) broad categories known
as guided media and unguided media. Guided media includes twisted-
pair cable, coaxial cable, and fibre-optic cable. Unguided media usually
makes use of atmosphere, space or water.

Guided transmission media

Guided media provides a conduit from one device to another. These

include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fibre-optic cable. A signal
travelling along any of these media is directed and contained by the
physical limits of the medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cables use copper
conductors that accept and transport signals in the form of electric
current. Optical fibre uses glass or plastic that accepts and transports
signals in the form of light. The following sections describe each of the
cable type in detail.

Twisted-pair cable

Twister-pair cable consists of two (2) copper conductors, each with its
own plastic insulation but twisted together. You must have seen this
type of cable in your fixed telephone connection in your home. One of
the wires is used to carry signal to the receiver and the other is used as
ground reference. By twisting the pair of wires, the crosstalk is decreased
between adjacent pairs of cables. The number of twists per unit length
in the twisted-pair cable determines the quality of the cable. More twists
mean better quality. Generally, there are two (2) types of twisted-pair
cables known as shielded twisted-pair and unshielded twisted-pair. The
following section describes each of them in detail.

83 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Unshielded and shielded twisted-pair cable

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cable is most commonly used in

communications. Shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable was originally
produced by IBM. STP has a metal foiled or braided-mesh covering
that encases each pair of insulated conductors. It is bulkier and more
expensive compared to UTP due to its insulation. However, the insulation
prevents noise from penetrating through the copper; therefore, reduces
crosstalk. STP is mainly used by IBM and UTP will be the centre of our
discussion in the subsequent sections. There are five (5) categories of
UTP cables that determine the quality as discussed in the following
section. Figure 1.9 (a) and Figure 1.9 (b) show samples of STP and UTP
respectively.

Figure 1.9 (a) STP cable

Figure 1.9 (b) UTP cable

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 84

 Categories of UTP

The Electronic Industries Association (EIA) has developed standards to

classify unshielded twisted-pair cables into seven (7) categories. The
categories of the cable are determined by the cable quality, with 1 as
the lowest and 7 as the highest. Each of the categories is suitable for
specific uses. Table 1.1 shows these categories and their bandwidth,
data rate, signals and uses. The categories are represented by Cat, so
category 3 will be represented as Cat 3. Out of the seven types of cables,
Cat 3 and Cat 5 are very popular. Nowadays people use Cat 6 cable for
Gigabit Ethernets.

Digital/
Category Bandwith Data rate Use
analog
Voice only —
1 Very low < 100 Kbps Analog
Telephone
Data —
2 < 2 MHz 2 Mbps Analog/digital
T-1 Lines / Localtalk
3 16 MHz 10 Mbps Digital LANs — Ethernet
LANs —
4 20 MHz 20 Mbps Digital
16 Mbps Token ring
LANs —
5 100 MHz 100 Mbps Digital
Fast Ethernet
LANs —
6 200 MHz 200 Mbps Digital
Gigabit Ethernet
7 600 MHz 600 Mbps Digital LANs
Table 1.1 Categories of UTP cables

The most common UTP connector is known as RJ45 (Registered Jack),

as shown in Figure 1.9 (c). Connector is a device found at both ends of
a cable. It is a plastic connector that looks like a large telephone-style
connector. RJ45 is a keyed connector, meaning the connector can be
inserted in only one way.

85 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Figure 1.9 (c) UTP connector

Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and

data channels. Twisted-pair cables are used by telephone companies
to connect subscribers from their house to the telephone office. It is the
most commonly used UTP. The digital subscriber lines (DSL) also use high
capability and high bandwidth UTP cables. DSL is a kind of high speed
data rate service provided by telephone companies to its subscribers.
LANs such as 10 BaseT and 100 BaseT also use UTP cables. Detailed
discussion on these LANs is found in Unit 2.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial cable (sometimes also known as coax) is different from twisted-

pair cable in terms of the structure and the number of wires (copper
conductor). It has a central core conductor of solid or standard wire
(copper conductor) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which in turn is
encased in an outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of
the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves as a shield against noise
and as the second conductor which completes the circuit. This outer
conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable
is protected by a plastic cover. Figure 1.9 (d) shows a sample diagram
for coaxial cable.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 86

 Insulator Outer Inner
conductor conductor

Figure 1.9 (d) Coaxial cable

Coaxial cables are categorised by their radio government (RG) ratings.

Each RG number represents a unique set of physical specifications.
These specifications include the wire gauge of the inner conductor, the
thickness and the type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield,
and the size and type of the outer casing. Table 1.2 shows categories of
coaxial cables and their uses.

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 Ω Cable TV
RG-58 50 Ω Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50 Ω Thick Ethernet
Table 1.2 Categories of coaxial cables

Connectors used for coaxial cables are known as Bayone-Neill-

Concelman (BNC) or BNC connectors. There are three (3) types of BNC
connectors: The BNC connector, the BNC T connector, and the BNC
terminator. The BNC connector is used to connect the end of the cable
to a device, such as a TV set. The BNC T connector is used in Ethernet
networks to branch out a cable for connection to a computer or other
devices. The BNC terminator is used at the end of the cable to prevent
the reflection of the signal.

87 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Coaxial cable was initially used in telephone analog networks where a
single network could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in
digital telephone networks where a single coaxial cable could carry digital
data of up to 600 Mbps. Recently, coaxial cables in telephone networks
have been replaced by fibre-optic cables. Cable TV also uses coaxial
cables and it is also used in traditional Ethernet LANs. Because of its high
bandwidth, and consequently high data rate, coaxial cable was chosen
for digital transmission in the early Ethernet LANs. 10 Base2 or Thin
Ethernet used RG-58 coaxial cable with BNC connectors to transmit data
at 10 Mbps with a range of 185 metres(m). 10 Base5 or Thick Ethernet
uses RG-11 (also known as thick coaxial cable) to transmit 10 Mbps
with a range of 500 m. Thick Ethernet had specialised connectors. This
implementation of Ethernet is not being practised anymore.

Fibre-optic cable

A fibre-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in

the form of light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving
through a single uniform substance. If a ray of light travelling through
one substance suddenly enters another, the ray changes direction.
Optical fibres use reflection to guide light though a channel. A glass or
plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
Figure 1.9 (e) shows an example of a fibre-optic cable. There are two
(2) types of propagation modes in fibre-optic cables: Multimode and
single-mode.

Cladding

Outside
Core jacket

Figure 1.9 (e) Fibre-optic cable

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 88

 Multimode

In multimode, multiple beams from a light source move through the core
in different directions. There are two (2) types of directions in multimode,
known as step-index and graded-index. The word index refers to the
index of refraction which is related to density. The step-index is the
density of the core which remains constant from the centre of the edges.
A beam of light moves through this constant density in a straight line until
it reaches the interface of the code and the cladding. At the interface,
there is an abrupt change to a lower density that alters the angle of the
beam’s motion. The term step-index refers to the suddenness of this
change. Figure 1.9 (f) shows the diagram for multimode step-index mode.

Single mode

Single mode uses step-index fibre and highly focused source of light
that limits beams to a small range of angles, all close to the horizontal.
It has smaller diameter than that of multimode fibre, with substantially
lower density. The decrease in density results in a critical angle that is
close enough to 90° to make propagation of beams almost horizontal.
Figure 1.9 (f) also shows the single mode fibre.

A second type of fibre-optic cable is known as multimode graded-index

fibre. This type can actually reduce the distortion of the signal through
the cable. A graded-index fibre is one with varying densities. Density is
highest at the centre of the core and decreases gradually to its lowest
at the edge. Figure 1.9 (f) shows the impact of this variable density on
the propagation of light beams.

89 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Source Destination
Multimode step-index fibre

Source Destination
Multimode graded-index fibre

Source Destination
Single-mode fibre

Figure 1.9 (f) Types of fibre-optic cable

Fibre-optic cables are defined by the ratio of the diameter of their

core to the diameter of their cladding, both expressed in micrometers.
Table 1.3 shows the types of fibre-optic cables.

Type Core Cladding Mode

125 Multimode,
50/125 50
graded-index
125 Multimode,
62.5/125 62.5
graded-index
125 Multimode,
100/125 100
graded-index
7/125 7 125 Single mode
Table 1.3 Fibre-optic cable types

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 90

 There are three (3) types of connectors found in fibre-optic cables. The
subscriber channel (SC) connector is used in cable TV and it uses a push/
pull locking system. The straight-tip (ST) connector is used for connecting
cables to networking devices. It uses a bayonet locking system and is
more reliable than SC. Mechanical transfer registered jack (MT-RJ) is a
new connector with the same size as RJ45.

Fibre-optic cable has a high data rate, is cost-effective and secure. It is

mainly used in backbone and supports up to 1600 Gbps in synchronous
optical network (SONET). SONET is a physical layer network technology
designed to carry large volumes of traffic over relatively long distances
on fibre-optic cabling. Some cable TV companies also use a combination
of optical fibre and coaxial cable. LANs such as 100Base-FX network
(Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also use fibre-optic cable.

Unguided transmission media

Wireless communication is possible through unguided media in which

there is no physical conductor to carry or transport signal from one
place to another place. Signals are usually broadcasted through air
and available to anyone who has receiving devices. Unguided signals
travel from the source to destination in several ways. There is ground
propagation, sky propagation and line-of-sight propagation as shown
in Figure 1.9 (g). In ground propagation, radio waves travel through the
lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the earth. In sky propagation,
higher-frequency radio waves radiate upwards into the ionosphere (the
layer of atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected
back to earth. In line-of-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals
are transmitted in straight lines directly from antenna to antenna. The
antennae must be directional, facing each other. There are three (3) types
of unguided media known as radio wave, microwave and infrared.

91 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Satellite

Earth Earth Earth

Ground Line-of-sight Sky

propagation propagation propagation

Figure 1.9 (g) Propagation methods

Radio waves

Electromagnetic waves in frequency range of 3 KHz (kilo hertz) to 1 GHz

(giga hertz) are called radio waves. Radio waves are omnidirectional,
meaning that when the antenna transmits radio waves, they are propagated
in all directions. This also implies that the sending and receiving antennae
do not have to be aligned. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna
are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals
using the same frequency.

The omnidirectional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for

multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers. AM and
FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging are
examples of multicasting.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 92

 Microwaves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz

are called microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional, meaning that
the sending and receiving antennae need to be aligned. Microwave
propagation requires line-of-sight coverage. Microwaves are very useful
when unicasting (one-to-one) communication is needed between the
sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellite
networks and wireless LANs. Satellite network is a combination of nodes
that provide communication from one point on the earth to another.

Infrared

Infrared signals with frequencies ranging from 300 GHz to 400 THz (Tera
Hertz), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared signals
have high frequencies and cannot penetrate walls. Infrared cannot be
used outside a building because the sun rays containing infrared waves
can interfere with the communication. Infrared is used for short distance
communications such as keyboard, mouse and remote control for
electrical appliances such as TV, radio, fans, etc.

Web Reference

For more information about transmission media, visit the following

websites.

1. http://www.techbooksforfree.com/intro_to_data_com/page
37. html

2. http://www.webopedia.com/TERM/m/media.html

93 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 Summary

This section covered the concepts and issues related to

transmission media. The basic building block in data transmission
is the data and the representation of the data. The data are
represented in two (2) forms known as analog and digital. Analog
data varies over a period of time and it is represented in continuous
waveform whilst digital data is discrete and precise. When data is
sent over a distance, it is converted into a signal form. The signals
can also be of two types, i.e., digital and analog. The quality of
analog and digital signals is affected by transmission impairment
such as noise, crosstalk and attenuation. The signal is encoded so
that it can be sent and received properly. There are several digital
signal encoding methods such as polar, bipolar and biphase. Each
encoding method has its strength and application areas. Lastly,
you learnt about different types of transmission media such as
guided and unguided transmission media. Guided transmission
media includes twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fibre-optic
cable. Unguided media makes use of radio wave, microwave
and infrared.

Self-test 1.3

1. What is the difference between digital data and analog data?

2. A signal that was received has only values of 1s and -1, 0

and 1. Is this an analog or digital signal?

3. Name the two (2) major categories of transmission media.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 94

 4. How do guided media differ from unguided media?

5. What are the three (3) major classes of guided media?

6. Discuss the modes for propagating light along optical

channels.

7. List the advantages of optical fibre over twisted-pair and

coaxial cables.

8. Encode the bit patterns 01001100011 using RZ-L, RZ-I, RZ,

Manchester and Differential Manchester.

9. Using the layer models in Figure 1.10 below, show the

ordering of pizza, indicating the interaction at each level.

Guest Pizza cook

Host Order clerk

Telephone Telephone
Telephone line

Figure 1.10 Architecture for pizza

95 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 10. Answer the following questions (a) and (b).

a. The French and Chinese prime ministers need to come

to an agreement by telephone, but neither speaks
the other’s language. Furthermore, neither has on hand
a translator that can translate to the language of
the other. However, both prime ministers have staff
who can translate English. Draw a diagram similar to
Figure 1.10 above to depict the situation, and describe
the interaction at each level.

b. Now suppose that the Chinese prime minister’s

translator can translate only into Japanese and the
French prime minister has a German translator available.
A translator between German and Japanese is available
in Germany. Draw a new diagram that reflects
this arrangement and describe the hypothetical phone
conversation.

Suggested answers to activities

Feedback

Activity 1.10

1. a. Guided media — a transmission media with a physical

boundary.

b. Unguided media — a transmission media with no

physical boundary.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 96

 c. Direct link — signals are propagated directly between
the transmitter and the receiver.

d. Point to point — means a direct link is found between

two (2) devices sharing the medium.

e. Multipoint — a single link is shared among many devices.

2. Simplex — signals travel only in one direction. Example is

radio broadcast.

Half-duplex — signals travel bidirectionally but only one

direction at a time. Example is online chat.

Duplex — signals travel bidirectionally but only one direction

at a time. Example is a two-lane bridge on a two-lane highway
traffic.

Activity 1.11

1. Data are raw facts that are to be processed by computers.

Data need to be converted into appropriate form known as
signal in order to send it from one computer to a far-off
computer.

Information can be in the form of data, voice, picture, etc.

To transmit information, a transformation into electromagnetic

signals is necessary.

97 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

2. Analog data: Singing a song, flow of time.

Digital data: Number of pages in a book, time measurement

with a digital watch.

3. Analog signals have an infinite range of values, while digital

signals have a limited number of values.

4. a. Attenuation: Attenuation means signals’ energy is

weakened.

b. Distortion: Distortion means signal changes its form or

shape.

c. Noise: There are several types of noise such as thermal

noise, induced noise, crosstalk, and impulse noise which
may corrupt the signal.

Activity 1.12

1. Modulation is transformation of a digital or analog signal into

another analog signal; encoding is the conversion of streams
of bits into a digital signal.

2. Digital-to-digital encoding is the conversion of digital

information into a digital signal.

3. The D.C. component is the constant portion of a signal.

4. NRZ, RZ and Biphase.

5. Manchester and Differential Manchester.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 98

 Summary of Unit 1

Summary

We have discussed basic and elementary concepts of computer

networks in this unit. You have learnt the concepts of data
communications and networking. It discussed the evolution and
development of computer networking and types of networks that
are presently used in organisations. The basic concepts related
to computer networking were also explained. The seven layers of
OSI and the functions of each layer were discussed. Each of the
layers interacts with one another to complete the data transmission
process. Analog and digital data can be converted into analog
or digital signal. Various signal encoding methods such as RZ,
NRZ-I, NRZ-L, Manchester and Differential Manchester were
explained. Guided and unguided transmission media are used
to carry signals. A signal travels through guided or unguided
media such as twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable and fibre-optic.
Unguided media such radio wave, microwave and infrared are
used to overcome some of the obstacles faced by guided media.
You will learn about LAN and WAN in the next unit.

99 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Suggested Answers to Self-
tests

Feedback

Self-test 1.1

1. B

2. A

3. D

4. A

5. C

6. A

7. C

8. D

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 100

 9. B

10. C

11. D

12. A

13. C

14. B

15. A

16. a. Talking to a friend on the phone.

b. Checking banking account information and making

transactions online.

c. Sending email.

d. Registering for classes online.

e. Watching a news broadcast from other parts of the world

on cable TV.

101 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

17. Multiple users trying to access the same server can result in
increased transmit and response time.

18. A fibre-optic cable provides a greater bandwidth for data

transmission than a coaxial cable. This increases the data
rate and the effectiveness of communication.

19. A small memory capacity on the hard drive of a computer

will slow down the downloading and uploading processes.

20. Dynamic routing software is more efficient than static routing

table if there are frequent address changes.

21. a. Marketing and sales

b. Financial services

c. Teleconferencing

d. Directory services

e. Manufacturing

Self-test 1.2

1. B

2. C

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 102

 3. B

4. D

5. B

6. B

7. A

8. C

9. A

10. C

11. a. Network

b. Transport

c. Data link layer

d. Application

e. Presentation

f. Transport layer

103 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

 g. Network

h. Data link layer

i. Application layer

12. presentation

13. physical

14. data link

15. End-to-end message delivery

Self-test 1.3

1. Analog data is a set of specific points of data and all possible

points in between. Digital data is a set of specific points of
data with no points in between.

2. Digital signal.

3. Guided and unguided media.

4. Guided media has physical boundaries, while unguided media

is unbounded.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 104

 5. Twisted-pair, coaxial and fibre-optic.

6. In multimode, multiple beams of light from one source travel

through the core in different paths. In graded-index multimode,
the core’s density is not constant but is higher in the centre
and decreases gradually to a lower density at the edge. In
single mode, a step-index fibre is used with a highly focused
source of light.

7. Noise resistance, less signal attenuation, and higher

bandwidth.

8. See the following figure.

0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1
NRZ-L Time

NRZ-I Time

RZ Time

Manchester Time

Differential Time
Manchester

105 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

9.
Guest Pizza cook
Host Order clerk

Telephone Telephone

Telephone line

10 a.
French Chinese
PM (French) PM (Chinese)
Staff (English) Staff (English)

Telephone Telephone
Telephone line

b.
French Chinese
PM (French) PM (Chinese)
Staff (German) Staff (Japanese)
Telephone Telephone
Telephone line
Telephone

Translator
(Japanese German) Germany

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 106

 References
Comer (2006) Computer and Network Internets with Internet Applications,
4th edn, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, ISBN: 0131433512.

FitzGerald, J (2006) Business Data Communications and Networking,

9th edn, New York: John Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 0471771163.

Forouzan, B (2003) Data Communications and Networking, 3rd edn, Iowa:

McGraw-Hill Higher Education, ISBN: 0072923547.

Kurose, J F (2006) Computer Networking: A Top Down Approach Featuring

the Internet, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, ISBN: 032126974.

Olifer, N (2006) Computer Networks: Principles, Technologies and

Protocols for Network Design, New York: John Wiley & Sons. ISBN:
0470869828.

Peterson, L (2003) Computer Networks: A Systems Approach, 3rd edn,

CA: Morgan Kaufmann, ISBN: 155860832X.

Stallings, W (2007) Data and Computer Communications, 8th edn, Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN: 0131006819.

Tanenbaum, A (2002) Computer Networks, 4th edn, Upper Saddle River,

NJ: Prentice Hall, ISBN: 0130661023.

White, C (2006) Data Communications and Computer Networks: A Business

User’s Approach, 6th edn, Course Technology: ISBN: 1418836109.

107 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Glossary
Advanced Research The government agency that funded
Projects Agency (ARPA) ARPANET.

Advanced Research The packet-switching network that

Projects Agency Network was funded by ARPA.
(ARPANET)

Amplitude The strength of a signal, usually

measured in volts, amperes or watts.

Analog A continuous varying entity.

Analog data Data that is continuous and smooth

and not limited to a specific number
of values.

Analog signal A continuous waveform that changes

smoothly over time.

Analog-to-digital The representation of analog information

by a digital signal.

Application layer The 5th layer in the Internet model;

provides access to network resources.

Attenuation The loss of signal’s energy due to the

resistance of the medium.

Backbone A network that connects smaller

networks in an organisation.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 108

 Bandwidth The difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies of a
composite signal. It also measures the
information-carrying capacity of a line
or a network.

Bit Binary digit; the smallest unit of

information; 1 or 0.

Bits per second (bps) A measurement of data speed; bits

transmitted per second.

Bus topology A network topology in which all

computers are attached to a shared
medium.

Circuit switching A switching technology that establishes

an electrical connection between
stations using a dedicated path.

Cladding Glass or plastic surrounding the core

of an optical fibre; the optical density
of the cladding must be less than that
of the core.

Coaxial cable A transmission medium consisting of

a conducting core, insulating material,
and a second conducting sheath.

Crosstalk The noise on a line caused by signals

travelling along another line.

109 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Datagram An independent data unit in packet
switching.

D.C. component A zero-frequency signal with a constant

amplitude.

Demodulation The process of separating the carrier

signal from the information-bearing
signal.

Differential Manchester A digital-to-digital polar encoding

encoding method that features a transition at the
middle of the bit interval as well as an
inversion at the beginning of each 1 bit.

Digital data Data represented by discrete values

or conditions.

Digital signal A discrete signal with a limited number

of values.

Digital-to-digital encoding The representation of digital information

by a digital signal.

Distortion Any change in a signal due to noise,

attenuation, or other influences.

Distributed processing A strategy in which services provided

for the network reside at multiple sites.

Ethernet A local area network using CSMA/CD

access method.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 110

 Fibre-optic cable A high-bandwidth transmission
medium that carries data signals in the
form of pulses of light. It consists of a
thin cylinder of glass or plastic, called
the core, surrounded by a concentric
layer of glass or plastic called the
cladding.

File Transfer Protocol (FTP) An application layer protocol that

transfers files between two sites.

Full-duplex mode A transmission mode in which

communication can be two way
simultaneously.

Gigabit Ethernet Ethernet with a 1000 Mbps data rate.

Guided media Transmission medium with physical

boundary.

Half-duplex mode A transmission mode in which

communication can be two-way but
not at the same time.

International Organisation of A worldwide organisation that defines

Standard (ISO) and develops standards on a variety
of topics.

Internet A collection of networks connected

by internetworking devices such as
routers or gateways.

111 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Intranet A global Internet that uses the TCP/IP
protocol suite.

Internet Architecture Board The technical adviser to the Internet

(IAB) society; oversees the continuing
development of the TCP/IP protocol
suite.

Internet Protocol (IP) The network-layered protocol in the

TCP/IP protocol suite governing
connectionless transmission across
packet-switching network.

Internet society The non-profit organisations established

to publicise the Internet.

IP datagram The internetworking protocol data unit.

Layered architecture A model based on ordered tiers.

Line-of-sight propagation The transmission of very high frequency

signals in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.

Local area network A network connecting devices inside a

single building or inside buildings close
to each other.

Manchester encoding A digital-to-digital polar encoding

method in which a transition occurs at
the middle of each bit interval for the
purpose of synchronisation.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 112

 Mesh topology A network configuration in which each
device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other devices.

Microwave Electromagnetic waves ranging from 2

GHz to 40 GHz.

Modem A device consisting of a modulator

and a demodulator. It converts a digital
signal into an analog signal (modulation)
and vice versa (demodulation).

Modulation Modification of one or more

characteristics of a carrier wave by
an information-bearing signal.

MT-RJ A fibre-optic cable connector.

Multimode graded-index An optical fibre with a core having a

fibre graded index of refraction.

Multimode step-index fibre An optical fibre with a core having a

uniform index of refraction. The index
of refraction changes at the core/
cladding boundary.

Network A system consisting of connected

nodes made to share data, hardware
and software.

113 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Network address An address that identifies a network
to the rest of the Internet. It is the first
address in the block.

Network layer The third layer in the Internet model,

responsible for the delivery of a packet
to the final destination.

Node An addressable communication device.

Node-to-node delivery Transfer of a data unit from one node

to the next.

Noise Random electrical signals that can be

picked by the transmission medium
and result in degration or distortion of
the rate.

Non-return to Zero (NRZ) A digital-to-digital polar encoding

method in which the signal level is
always either positive or negative.

Non-return to Zero Invest An NRZ encoding method in which the

(NRZ-I) signal level is inverted each time a 1 is
encountered.

Non-return to Zero Level An NRZ encoding method in which the

(NRZ-L) signal level is directly related to the bit
value.

Open System A seven-layer model for data

Interconnection (OSI) communication defined by ISO.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 114

 Packet switching Data transmission using a packet-
switched network.

Packet Synonym for data unit, mostly used in

the network layer.

Packet-switched network A network in which data are transmitted

in independent units called packets.

Physical address The address of a device used at the

data link layer.

Physical layer The first layer of the Internet model,

responsible for the mechanical and
electrical specifications of the medium.

Point-to-point link A dedicated transmission link between

two devices.

Polar encoding A digital-to-digital encoding method

that uses two levels (positive and
negative) of amplitude.

Presentation layer The 6 th layer of the OSI model

responsible for translation, encryption,
authentication and data compression.

Process-to-process delivery Delivery of a packet from the sending

process to the destination process.

Propagation speed The rate at which a signal or a bit

travels, measured by distance/second.

115 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Protocol Rules for communication.

Protocol suite A stack of family of protocols defined

for a complex communication system.

Quality of service A set of attributes related to the

performance of the connection.

Radio wave Electromagnetic energy in the 3 KHz

to 300 GHz range.

Reflection The phenomenon related to the

bouncing back of light at the boundary
of two media.

Refraction The phenomenon related to the

bending of light when it passes from
one medium to another.

Return to Zero (RZ) A digital-to-digital encoding technique

in which the voltage of the signal is zero
for the second half of the bit interval.

Ring topology A topology in which the devices are

connected in a ring. Each device on
the ring receives the data unit from the
previous device, regenerates it, and
forwards it to the next device.

RJ-45 A coaxial cable connector.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 116

 Router An internetworking device operating
at the first three OSI layers. A router is
attached to two or more networks and
forwards packets from one network to
another.

Security The protection of a network from

unauthorised access, viruses, and
catastrophe.

Semantics The meaning of each section of bits.

Session layer The 5 th layer of the OSI model,

responsible for the establishment,
management and termination of logical
connections between two end users.

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) Twisted-pair cables enclosed in a foil

or mesh shield that protects against
electromagnetic interference.

Signal Electromagnetic waves propagated

along a transmission medium.

Simple Mail Transfer T h e T C P / I P p ro t o c o l d e f i n i n g

Protocol (SMTP) electromagnetic mail service on the
Internet.

Simplex mode A transmission mode in which

communication is one way.

117 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

Single-mode fibre An optical fibre with an extremely
small diameter that limits beams to
a few angles, resulting in an almost
horizontal beam.

Sky propagation Propagation of radio waves into the

ionosphere and then back to earth.

Source-to-destination The transmission of a message from

delivery the original sender to the intended
recipient.

Space propagation A type of propagation that can penetrate

the ionosphere.

Star topology A topology in which all stations are

attached to a central device.

TCP/IP protocol suite A group of hierarchical protocol used in

Internet.

Terminal network (telnet) A general purpose client-server

program that allows remote login.

Transmission Control A transport protocol in TCP/IP protocol

Protocol (TCP) suite.

Transmission Control A five-layer protocol suite that defines

Protocol/ Internetworking the exchange of transmissions across
Protocol (TCP/IP) the Internet.

UNIT 1 Introduction to data communication and networking 118

 Transport layer The 4th layer in the Internet and OSI
model, responsible for reliable end-to-
end delivery and error recovery.

Twisted-pair cable A transmission medium consisting of

two insulated conductors in a twisted
configuration.

Unguided media A transmission medium with no physical

boundary.

Unshielded twisted-pair A cable with wires that are twisted

cable together to reduce noise and crosstalk.

119 TCC 243/05 Data Communication and Networking

COURSE TEAM
Course Team Coordinator: En. Muhammad Norhadri Bin Mohd Hilmi
Content Writers: Ms. Kang Chon Moy and Ms. Eben Christy
Instructional Designers: Dr. Madhu Parhar, Ms. Marsyitah Ismail, Ms. Marnisya Rahim and
Ms. Jeanne Chow
Academic Member: Mr. Chandarasageran s/o Natarajan

COURSE COORDINATOR
En. Muhammad Norhadri Bin Mohd Hilmi

EXTERNAL COURSE ASSESSOR

Professor Kinshuk, Athabasca University

PRODUCTION
In-house Editors: Ms. Jeanne Chow and Mr. Khoo Chiew Keen
Graphic Designer: Ms. Leong Yin Ling

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First revision 2018

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