Notes in Preparing Solutions

Outline
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Concentration units
–
mass percent, volume percent, mass to volume percent
–
Parts per million, parts per billion
–
formality, molarity, molality, mole fraction
–
normality
●
Ways of preparing solutions
–
Preparing stock solutions
–
Preparing solutions by dilution
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Conversions Between Concentration Units
Concentration

-An expression stating the relative amount of

solute per unit volume or unit mass of solution.

Concentration= amount of solute / amount of solution

Concentration units
Concentration units
 ppm (parts per million) (wt/wt) (wt/vol) (vol/vol)
mg/kg mg/L μL/L
ppb (parts per billion) μg/kg μg/L nL/L
Ppt (parts per trillion) ng/kg ng/L

Concentration units
Molarity vs Formality
●
Molarity (M)- number of moles solute per liter
of solution.
Formality (F)- number of moles solute,
●

regardless of chemical form,per liter of solution.

Difference of M & F:
The NaCl solution case
●
Dissolving 0.1 mol of NaCl in 1 L of water gives a
solution containing 0.1 mol of Na+ and 0.1 mol of Cl–.
●
The molarity of NaCl, therefore, is zero since there is
essentially no undissociated NaCl in solution.
●
The solution is instead 0.1 M in Na+ and 0.1 M in Cl-
Concentration units
mmol of solute

mL of solution
 Normality (N)
-the number of equivalents of solute per liter solution.

-where n = #equivalents per mole, n is an integer constant ≥ 1

-n for a particular species is defined by the reaction type and the
balanced chemical reaction.

Normality
●
Normality is usually used in old references as a
concentration unit in calculations.

●
Normality is still used in some handbooks of
analytical methods.
●
Normality is the concentration unit used in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, a commonly used source of analytical methods for environmental laboratories

Normality
●
Normality makes use of the chemical equivalent, which
is the amount of one chemical species reacting
stoichiometrically with another chemical species.
Equivalence, equivalence weight
●
Number of equivalent
–
The moles of a species that can donate one reaction unit.
●
Equivalent weight
–
The mass of a compound containing one equivalent (EW).
*The weight of one equivalent of a compound can never be computed without reference
to a chemical reaction in which that compound is, directly or indirectly, a participant.

*Normality of a solution can never be specified without knowledge about how the solution
will be used

Equivalence
●
The number of equivalents is based on a reaction unit, which is
that part of a chemical species involved in a reaction.

Reaction type: precipitation reaction

Reference of reaction unit: charge of the cation or anion involved in the
 reaction n=2 (Pb2+) and n=1 (I-)

Reaction type: acid-base reaction

Reference of reaction unit: number of H+ ions donated by an acid or accepted
by a base
n=2 (H2SO4), n=1 (NH3)

Equivalence
●
The number of equivalents is based on a reaction unit, which is
that part of a chemical species involved in a reaction.

Reaction type: complexation reaction

Reference of reaction unit: number of electron pairs that can be accepted by
the metal or donated by the ligand
 n=2 (Ag+) and n=1 (NH3)

Reaction type: oxidation-reduction reaction

Reference of reaction unit: number of electrons released by the reducing
agent or accepted by the oxidizing agent
n=2 (Sn2+) and n=2 (Fe3+)

Number of equivalent weights

(EW) ●
EW= molar mass / n

Relationship between Normality and

 Molarity Normality= n x Molarity
Computing equivalence weight (EW)
Acids, bases and salts

molecular weight
molecular weight

number of replaceable H+/OH- or electron pair lost or gain (redox rxn) EW= number of
replaceable H+/OH- or electron pair lost or gain (redox rxn)

molecular weight
EW=
EW= EW=

molecular weight
number of replaceable H+
number of replaceable H+

molecular weight
molecular weight
number of replaceable OH
number of replaceable OH-

molecular weight
molecular weight number of total positive valence of metals
 number of total positive valence of metals
inorganic acids inorganic bases salts

Example - Calculate the equivalent weight and normality for a

solution of 6.0 M H3PO4 given the following reactions:
(a) H3PO4(aq) + 3OH–(aq) PO43–(aq) + 3H2O(l)
(b) H3PO4(aq) + 2NH3(aq) HPO42–(aq) + 2NH4+(aq)
(c) H3PO4(aq) + F–(aq) H2PO4–(aq) + HF(aq)
a. EW= molar mass/ n = 97.994/3 = 32.665 N= n x M = 3 x 6.0 =18 N b. EW=molar mass/n

= 97.994/2 = 48.997 N= n x M = 2 x 6.0 =12 N c. EW=molar mass/n = 97.994/1 = 97.994 N=

n x M = 1 x 6.0 =6.0 N

n- the number of H+ ions donated to the base

M-molarity

Example
A solution of 0.10 M SO42– is available. What is the
normality of this solution when used in the following
reactions?
 Answer: a. 0.20 N
b. 0.10 N
c. 0.20 N

Example
Calculate the normality of a solution that
contains 150 g NaOH in 1.5 L solution.
Example
Find the normality of a solution containing 6.34 g of
ascorbic acid in 250.0 mL if the relevant half reaction is
Example
Describe the preparation of 5.000 L of 0.1000 N Na2CO3
(105.99 g/mol) from the primary-standard solid, assuming the
solution is to be used for titrations in which the reaction is
Computation
Preparing Stock solution
Preparing 1 L of 0.100 M potassium chromate

Weigh 19.4 g K2CrO4 is

transferred to a 1000-mL
 volumetric flask.
Preparing Stock solution
Preparing 1 L of 0.100 M potassium chromate

Enough water is added to

●

fully dissolve all of the solid

by swirling.

●
The final step is to shake the
flask repeatedly until a
homogeneous solution is
formed.
Preparing Solution by Dilution

C1V1=C2V2 C-concentration

V-volume
1-initial (concentrated)
2-final (diluted)

*It’s easier to dilute a concentrated solution than to start

from “scratch.”
*Only volume measurements are necessary.
Preparing Solution by Dilution
Preparation of 1L of 0.100 M CuSO4 by dilution.
Example
Copper sulfate is widely used as a dietary supplement for animal
feed. A lab technician prepares a “stock” solution of CuSO4 by
adding 79.80 g of CuSO4 to enough water to make 500.0 mL of
solution. An experiment requires a 0.1000 M solution of CuSO4.

(a) What is the molarity of the CuSO4 “stock” solution prepared by the technician?
(b) How would you prepare 1.500 L of 0.1000 M solution from the stock solution?

Computations
A laboratory procedure calls for 250 mL
of an approximately 0.10 M solution of
NH3. Describe how would you prepare
this solution using a stock solutiom of
 concentrated ammonia (14.8 M)
Example
Glucose, C6H12O6 , in water is often used for intravenous
feeding. Sometimes sodium ions are added to the solution.
A pharmacist prepares a solution by adding 2.0 mg of
sodium ions (in the form of NaCl), 6.00 g of glucose, and
112 g of water.
–
What is the molality of the glucose in solution? –
How many ppm of Na+ does the solution contain?
Describe how you would prepare the following
solutions:
●
0.20 M NaoH using solid NaOH
●
1L of 150.0 ppm Cu2+ using Cu metal
●
2L of 4% v/v acetic acid using concentrated glacial acetic acid

Computations
What to do in conversion of
units? You can have assumptions.
Original concentration Start with
Mass percent 100 g solution
Molarity 1.00 L solution
Molality 1000 g solvent
 Mole fraction 1 mol (solute+ solvent)

Example
●
Using the information given below, calculate – The
molarity of HCl
–
The molality of HCl
p-Functions
A function of the form pX, where pX = -log(X).
–3
What is pNa for a solution of 1.76 × 10 M
Na3PO4 ?
What is the [H+] in a solution that
has a pH of 5.16?

Stoichiometric Calculations
The amount of oxalic acid in a sample of rhubarb
was determined by reacting with Fe3+.In a typical
analysis, the oxalic acid in 10.62 g of rhubarb was
extracted with a suitable solvent. The complete
oxidation of the oxalic acid to CO2 required 36.44
mL of 0.0130 M Fe3+ . What is the weight percent of
oxalic acid in the sample of rhubarb?
Solved problems
An analyst wishes to add 256 mg of Cl – to a reaction
mixture. How many milliliters of 0.217 M BaCl2 should be
added?
The concentration of lead in an industrial
waste stream is 0.28 ppm. What is its molar
concentration?
Commercially available concentrated hydrochloric acid is
37.0% w/w HCl. Its density is 1.18 g/mL. Using this
information calculate the molarity of concentrated HCl.
The density of concentrated ammonia, which is 28.0%
w/w NH3 , is 0.899 g/mL. What volume of this reagent
should be diluted to 1.0 × 10^3 mL to make a solution that
is 0.036 M in NH3 ?
A 250.0-mL aqueous solution contains 45.1 μg of a
pesticide. Express the pesticide’s concentration in
weight percent, parts per million, and parts per
billion.
A city’s water supply is fluoridated by adding NaF. The
desired concentration of F – is 1.6 ppm. How many
milligrams of NaF should be added per gallon of treated
water if the water supply already is 0.2 ppm in F – ?
A series of dilute NaCl solutions is prepared, starting with an
initial stock solution of 0.100 M NaCl. Solution A is prepared
by pipeting 10 mL of the stock solution into a 250-mL
volumetric flask and diluting to volume. Solution B is
prepared by pipeting 25 mL of solution A into a 100-mL
volumetric flask and diluting to volume. Solution C is
prepared by pipeting 20 mL of solution B into a 500-mL
volumetric flask and diluting to volume. What is the molar
concentration of NaCl in solutions A, B, and C?
To determine the concentration of ethanol in cognac a
5.00-mL sample of cognac is diluted to 0.500 L.
Analysis of the diluted cognac gives an ethanol
concentration of 0.0844 M. What is the molar
concentration of ethanol in the undiluted cognac?
Practice problems
Complete the following table for aqueous solutions of aluminum

nitrate.
 (a) 0.05413 M (b) 7.076 mL (c) 139 g
Complete the following table for aqueous solutions of urea, CO(NH2)2 .
Complete the following table for aqueous solutions of
ammonium sulfate.
Acetone, C3H6O, is the main ingredient of nail polish
remover. A solution is made up by adding 35.0 mL of
acetone (d = 0.790 g/mL) to 50.0 mL of ethyl alcohol,
C2H6O (d = 0.789 g/mL). Assuming volumes are additive,
calculate

(a) the mass percent of acetone in the solution. (b) the

volume percent of ethyl alcohol in the solution. (c) the mole
fraction of acetone in the solution.
 (a) 41.2% (b) 58.8% (c) 0.357
The “proof ” of an alcoholic beverage is twice the
volume percent of ethyl alcohol, C2H5OH, in
solution. For an 80-proof (2 significant figures)
rum, what is the molality of ethyl alcohol in the
rum? Take the densities of the ethyl alcohol and
water to be 0.789 g/mL and 1.00 g/mL,
respectively.
 11 m

0.069 M Cl – ; pCl = 1.16

A martini, weighing about 5.0 oz (142 g), contains

30.0% by mass of alcohol. About 15% of the alcohol
in the martini passes directly into the bloodstream (7.0
L for an adult). Estimate the concentration of alcohol
in the blood (g/cm3) of a person who drinks two
martinis before dinner. (A concentration of 0.00080
g/cm3 or more is frequently considered indicative of
intoxication in a “normal” adult.)

0.0018 g/cm 3 —intoxicated