UNIVERSITY OF PRETORIA

SCHOOL FOR THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT

DEPARTMENT OF
CONSTRUCTION ECONOMICS

BWT 110 COURSE NOTES

2020

PART 2:
INTRODUCTION TO
THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

DATE OF LAST
REVISION: JANUARY
2020
 BWT 110 PART 2: STUDY THEME 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

GENERAL OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY THEME:

The general objective of the study theme is to provide you with a basic
understanding of the pre- and post contract processes involved in the construction
of buildings

LEARNING OUTCOMES:

After completion of this study theme you should be able to:

Identify, describe and explain the nature, function and purpose of all the aspects of
development and construction process covered in these notes

ADDITIONAL READING:

There are no additional requirements for this study theme, but the work done in
BGG121 will help to explain this part in greater depth, and should be studied
simultaneously

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1. STEPS IN THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

1.1 PROJECT PLANNING AND PREPARATION (PRE-CONTRACT PHASE)

The decision to construct a building or develop a property is not lightly taken as it involves a lot of
money, effort and risk. Property development, which includes construction, usually comes about
because an individual or organisation identifies a need for additional accommodation (residential,
commercial, institutional, etc.), or a landowner or developer spots an opportunity to provide for a
need in the market by erecting a building for letting or selling to end-users at a profit.

Once it is decided to investigate further whether or not the development or construction should be
proceeded with, the steps usually are as follows:

If the proposed development is to build shops, offices, factory or warehouse space, or a

housing scheme for letting or selling, the employer would usually commission experts to
carry out a market survey or study first to see if there really is a demand for the planned
product
If the market study is positive a professional team is appointed and briefed by the
employer. (Briefing means to explain to the design team what the employer’s idea or need
is)
The design team usually under leadership of the architect (for building projects), or the civil
engineer (for infrastructure projects) interprets the employer’s needs and prepares concept
or sketch designs for the employer’s approval
The QS then prepares preliminary cost estimates from the above, including a financial
viability study to see if the projected returns on investment are attractive enough to off-set
the risks involved
The designs and estimates may have to be re-done or changed many times until the best
alternative is found
When the employer is satisfied with the proposals, he secures the finance for the project
and instructs the design team to go ahead and finalise the designs
The architect then submits on behalf of the employer plans to the municipality for scrutiny
to see if they comply with building regulations and the Town Planning Scheme (Refer back
to PART 1)
Detailed working drawings are prepared for procurement and construction purposes (by
design team)
Estimates are continuously refined as the design progresses (by the QS)
Procurement documents are prepared (by the design team and the QS). These usually
include:
-Specifications of workmanship and material
-Tender conditions
-Contract conditions that will have to be entered into between the successful tenderer and
the employer
-Bills of quantities setting out in detail the items of work involved in the erection of the
building for pricing by the tenderer
Tenders are invited or contracts negotiated
Tenderers prepare and submit tenders before certain time on a certain day (Tender
Closing). Tenders are opened immediately after the closing time and the results are
recorded
Tenders are adjudicated and awarded
A contract with the contractor is signed when pre-contract conditions have been met. These
conditions usually include the furnishing of guarantees/sureties, proof of insurance, priced
bills of quantities and contract programmes by the contractor for scrutiny and approval by
the client with the help of its professional consultants

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1.2 CONSTRUCTION OR POST-CONTRACT PHASE

After signing of the building contract the contractor takes possession of the site for the duration of
the contract. This is done formally through a site hand over meeting. At this meeting times and
agendas for future meetings are usually agreed, boundary pegs and datum level benchmarks are
pointed out to the contractor (after which he takes responsibility for their maintenance and
protection) and samples of brickwork, etc. are asked for to set acceptable standards.

There are standard procedures for contract administration. These include holding regular (weekly,
fortnightly or monthly) site meetings where progress, quality, contractor’s queries and information
needs, etc. are monitored and discussed in order to facilitate the smooth flowing of the project.
There are also procedures for claims from the contractor, variations required by the employer,
interim progress payments to the contractor, and for practical and final completion of the contract.

2. PROCUREMENT FOR CONSTRUCTION

In general terms procurement is the name for the process by which an organization obtains goods or
services from outside the organization. In construction it is where the employer invites contractors to
tender for the work leading to a signed contract between the two parties, or by which he negotiates a
contract with a contractor.

Procurement process for construction has two aspects to consider:

First the right professional team has to be selected, appointed and briefed. Selection could
happen on the basis of recommendation, existing/previous relationships or
competitions/calls for proposals.
The second part involves securing a main contractor to assume responsibility for execution
of the actual construction work at the right price and under the supervision of the professional
team.

The tendering procedure is as follows:

- Prepare tender documentation based on client needs

- Advertise or invite tenders and issue documents to prospective tenderers
- Closing of tenders
- Adjudication of tender and recommendation to client
- Acceptance of tenders and appointment of contractor
- Signing of contract (including ensuring that contractor complies with all pre-contract obligations
such as providing guarantees, etc.)

The procurement (tender) and contract documentation on a building project usually consists
of the following:

Specification:
Drawings Standard Description of work
And + = to be done
Project or
schedules
particular

Building Contract, consisting of:

Record of and
Agreement Schedule
Conditions of regulatory framework
between of =
Contract for agreements and
Parties Variables
relationships

Basis for price,

Without quantities With quantities
= performance and
(“Lump Sum”) (Bills of quantities)
agreements

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3. BUILDING DRAWINGS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Building drawings form part of tender and contract documentation, which is required among other
things to:

communicate to all parties a common understanding of what needs to be done, and their role in
it
regulate the roles, responsibilities and relationships between parties to the development
record agreements and ensure those agreements are kept to

Because drawings provide the visual description of the works that contractors need to “read” to be
able to execute the construction of the project, they need to contain all the necessary information,
and at the same time be clear, uncluttered, properly dimensioned, and drawn to a scale that is legible.

Drawings of different kinds can be used among other things for:

Visual presentations of concepts for appraisal and approval by clients, investors, financiers,
and for marketing
Quantification of the work for estimating purposes
Preparation of tenders
Obtaining approval to build from local authorities
Construction
Calculation of variations and final accounts
A record of what was built for future property management and maintenance purposes

3.2 TYPES OF DRAWINGS

The following are some of the types of drawings used in construction:

Drawings prepared prior to construction:

1. Sketch plans
2. Perspective drawings and presentation drawings

Drawings prepared for construction:

3. Location plans
4. Site plans
5. Key plans
6. Detailed floor plans
7. Elevations
8. Sections
9. Construction details
10. Sewerage plans
11. Water reticulation layouts
12. Structural details
13. Electrical reticulation layouts
14. Mechanical details
15. Fire protection plans

Designs and details of buildings are frequently changed during construction. To ensure that after
completion of the project the employer has a true record of how the building was actually built, and
where the different services run (for maintenance purposes, etc.) the design team will usually prepare
a set of drawings called:

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16. "As built" drawings

Some of the more common kinds of drawings and schedules are more fully described below.
(Building drawing will be studied in more detail in the second semester module BOU 120)

Sketch plans:

Provisional outline or “rough” drawings, used:

-To obtain client approval for the design
-As basis for early estimating of building costs
-To do initial marketing

Scales: 1:500; 1:200; 1:100

Example:

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SCALE, CONTOURS, DATUM LEVELS, BUILDING LINES:

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8
 Perspective and presentation drawings:

“Picture” drawings with rendering in monochrome or colour, giving an artist’s impression of

what the finished product will look like. (Used in the same way as sketch plans)

Location plans:

Plan of property in relation to neighbourhood or important nodes, showing surrounding

streets and nearby properties, proximity to highways, etc.

Scales: 1:10 000; 1:5 000; 1:2 500

Site plans:

Plan of the whole property to be developed, showing:

-Position and names of streets bordering on the property
-Erf numbers and adjacent properties
-Building lines
-Servitudes
-Property boundaries and dimensions
-Building area and position (outline plan only)
-Sewerage drains and connections
-Orientation: True north
-And possibly coverage, floor space ratio, contours

Scales: 1:1 000; 1:500; 1:300; 1:200; 1:100

Example:

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Key plans:

Indicates portion of building or building detailed on that particular drawing - large projects
only

Scales: Not indicated - Extremely small

Detailed floor plans:

Horizontal section showing structure as seen from a point somewhere above floor level
(position and size of walls, columns, lift shafts, ducts, stairs, cupboards, doors and windows,
etc)
Dimensions to enable contractor to lay out walls, etc.
Levels

Scales: 1:100; 1:50; 1:20

Sections:

Vertical section – cut-away view through structure inside (foundations, floors, walls, columns,
slabs, roofs, etc) showing vertical dimensions and type of construction

Scales: 1:200; 1:100; 1:50; 1:20

Elevations:

Vertical views of front, back, and sides of buildings as seen from outside
Dimensions, levels, heights
Doors, windows, finishes
Levels
Slope of ground

Scales: 1:200; 1:100; 1:50; 1:20

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Example:

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Drainage plans (waste, sewerage, storm water):

Superimposed on plans, elevations and sections

Shows layout, materials and sizes of pipes, position of inspection and cleaning eyes, invert
levels and gradients, etc.

Water, electrical reticulation, air conditioning and fire protection layouts, etc:

Superimposed on plans, elevations and sections

Used for co-ordination and installation of services

Construction details:

Where it is not practical to show intricate details clearly on the plans, sections or elevations
themselves, the relevant part is marked and referred to a detail drawing where it is drawn in
full detail on a larger scale

Scales: 1:50; 1:20; 1:10; 1:5; 1:2; 1:1

"As built" drawings:

Required by authorities for final approval and

occupation certificate
For future use by property and maintenance managers

Specifications and schedules:

If all the detailed information required for construction were to be put directly onto the drawings, they
would be far too cluttered to be legible. More detailed descriptions of materials, etc. are therefore,
provided in text form in separate specifications. Doors, windows, cupboards, sanitary fittings, etc. are
indicated on drawings in simplified form and referred back to more detailed schedules by code.

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Example of an item on a window schedule:

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What is a specification?

One dictionary definition of specification reads: "...details, instructions, etc. for the design and making
of something".

In the case of building projects, the specification is a comprehensive and detailed description of the
type and quality of materials and components to be used, and the
standards of workmanship required. It is a communication tool between the parties involved, and
supplements the architect's or engineer's drawings with information which cannot be clearly or easily
shown on the drawings. Sometimes, on smaller projects or often in the case of repair/renovations
and maintenance contracts, there are no drawings and the specification serves as the only description
of the work to be done.

4. BUILDING ELEMENTS AND “TRADES”

Buildings are divided into elements (e.g. foundations, structural frame, external envelope, roofs, internal
divisions, internal plumbing, etc.) An element is that part of a building that always performs the same
function irrespective of its construction or specification. It doesn’t matter for instance that the external
envelope of a building is made of brick walls and steel windows, or of reinforced concrete walls, or of
steel/aluminium curtain walling, or of corrugated iron cladding for that matter; it would still be seen as the
element external envelope, because its function remains the same – that of enclosing the building for
protection against the elements, and security and privacy of the occupants.

Each element is further sub-divided into components e.g. the element external envelope could be divided into the
components: brick and block walling, external finishes, windows, doors, etc. The method of division and sub-division
is defined and consistent for all buildings.

Note that this method of dividing up a building into smaller parts differs fundamentally from the method used in the
standard measurement method for bills of quantities, where work is divided into “trade bills”.

In the elemental method for instance there could not be an element such as “Concrete Work”. Concrete work can
occur in more than one element, for instance in the element:

“Foundations”, in the component unreinforced strip footings

“Ground Floor Construction”, in the component surface beds
“Structural Frame”, in the component columns
“External Envelope”, in the component reinforced concrete walls

“Brick walls” could likewise not be an element. Brick walls can occur in the element:

“Foundations”, in the component Brick and block walls

“External envelope”, in the component Brick and block walls
“Internal divisions”, in the component Brick and block walls
“Balustrading, etc.”, in the components Balustrade walls, or Parapet walls respectively

Trades on the other hand refer to particular types of work done by artisans or tradesmen trained in that
particular type of work, for instance:

A bricklayer is an artisan trained in the trade of bricklaying (included in the trade bill “masonry”
in the standard system of measurement)
A carpenter is an artisan trained in the trade of carpentry
A tiler is an artisan trained in the trade of tiling, and so forth

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TYPICAL BUILDING ELEMENTS:

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 5. STEPS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF A SIMPLE BUILDING

LIST OF TYPICAL ACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE ERECTION OF A SINGLE-STOREY DWELLING HOUSE

1. PRE-CONSTRUCTION PHASE

1.1 Obtain the site/property and register transfer at the deeds office (owner / employer with estate agent and
lawyer)
1.2 Determine position of erf boundaries and corner pegs, prepare contour plan if required
1.3 Do geotechnical investigation if necessary (owner with geotechnical engineer)
1.4 Apply for re-zoning, consent use, relaxations, etc. if required (owner with townplanner)
1.5 Prepare sketch plans (owner with architect)
1.6 Prepare cost estimates (owner with quantity surveyor)
1.7 Prepare and submit building plans for scrutiny by city council (owner with architect)
1.8 Apply to bank for building loan
1.9 Prepare documents (plans, specification, contract), call for tenders and appoint building contractor (owner
with architect and quantity surveyor)
1.10 Ensure that contractor complies with pre- contract obligations
-guarantees/surety
-proof of insurance
-building programme
-priced bills of quantities (if applicable}
-authorisation of signing powers
1.11 Signing of building contract (owner andcontractor with architect and quantity surveyor)
1.12 Formal handing over of site to contractor
-point out pegs and benchmarks
-provide 3 sets of documentation
-agree format and schedule of site meetings

READY TO START BUILDING!

2. CONSTRUCTION PHASE (Contractor under guidance of the professional team):

2.1 Construction planning and site establishment

2.1.1 Allocation of resources

2.1.2 Prepare building programme
2.1.3 Placing of site facilities, major plant and materials stockpiles
2.1.4 Fencing of the site
2.1.5 Temporary water and power connections
2.1.6 Arrange with plumber and electrician for installing above
2.1.7 Permits as required
2.1.8 Encase benchmarks in concrete
2.1.9 Order items with long delivery lead times: Bricks; Door and window frames; Master keyed locks
2.1.10 Sign contracts with sub- contractors (plumber, electrician, etc.) and provide them with plans and
work programme
2.1.11 Get kitchen layout from owner/architect

2.2 Construction process and activities

2.3 Clearing of site

2.4 Cut and fill to levels (bulk earthworks)
2.5 Set out foundations
2.4 Excavate foundations to correct levels
2.6 Order steel reinforcing if required
2.7 Arrange inspection of excavations by municipal and bank inspectors and steel reinforcing by engineer
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2.8 Arrange delivery of concrete
2.9 Cast foundations
2.10 Set up profiles for building of walls
2.11 Build foundation walls
2.12 Fill under floors
2.13 Arrange soil poisoning
2.14 Lay damp course under floors
2.16 Arrange plumber and electrician to lay pipes and conduits under floors
2.16 Arrange inspection of filling
2.17 Arrange and cast concrete in surface beds
2.18 Striking and curing of surface beds
2.19 Lay damp course under walls and set up door frames
2.20 Build superstructure walls to wall plate height (including setting up and building in windows, lintels,
pipes, conduits, wall, roof ties, brick reinforcing, etc.)
2.21 Bed and treat wall plates
2.22 Make and erect roof trusses
2.23 Build gables and beamfilling
2.24 Fix roof covering and bed on walls
2.25 Install window sills (remember DPC)
2.26 Plaster walls and screed floors
2.27 Install ceilings
2.28 Measure for kitchen cupboards, etc.
2.29 Measure for and glaze windows
2.30 Fit window handles, catches, etc.
2.31 Hang doors and fit locks

(HOUSE CAN NOW BE LOCKED)

2.32 Start paint undercoats
2.33 Install cupboards, kitchen, fittings, skirtings, curtain rails, towel rails, toilet paper holders, etc. sanitary
fittings
2.34 Fix wall and floor tiles
2.35 Final fix of fittings, taps, etc.
2.36 Final paint coats
2.37 Lay carpets, vinyl flooring, etc.
2.38 Hang light fittings, and test power
2.39 Cleaning, rubble removal, snagging, etc.
2.40 Final inspections and issuing of occupation certificate by municipality
2.41 Practical completion inspection and snag list by architect
2.42 Handing over of keys to owner
2.43 Repair defects during retention period
2.44 Final completion certificate by architect

NOTE: EXTERNAL WORK LIKE DRIVEWAYS AND WALKWAYS, PAVING, GARDENING, ETC. IS
CARRIED OUT CONTINUOUSLY

3. ADDITIONAL ONGOING ACTIVITIES:

3.1 By contractor:
3.1.1 Coordinating services with building work:
- laying of sewer and water pipes, electrical cables, inspection, backfilling and compaction of trenches,
building manholes
- Chasing for pipes, etc. in walls
- Building in water pipes and electrical conduiting
- Wiring
- Final connections, tests and inspections
3.1.2 Order materials timeously
3.1.3 Ensure that sub-contractors and specialists are provided with information, coordinate their work
and monitor for proper execution

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 3.2 By professional team (with inputs from contractor as required):
3.2.1 Contract management and administration:
- Site and other meetings
- Flow of information and documentation required by contractor
- Progress payments
- Cost reports to owner
- Variations and claims
- Supervision and monitoring of quality, progress, etc.
- Preparation of final account by quantity surveyor for signing by owner and contractor

The above information is processed into a building programme for the work

6. THE BUILDING PROGRAMME

Purpose:
a) To record agreed intentions with the client
b) To supply a time table for co-ordinating the issue of drawings and information, the
placing of orders and deliveries of materials, and the operation of plant and
subcontractors
c) To prepare for the basis for the introduction of an incentive scheme where used
d) Show the sequence of operations and the total output rates required of labour and
plant
e) To provide an indicator for progressing and costing
f) To furnish the promoter with the likely financial requirements
g) To discourage changes in design by indicating the natural consequences, whilst at
the same time facilitating amendments and minimizing their harmful effects should
changes arise

Process (SIMPLIFIED)
List each discrete activity
Quantify amount of work that goes into each activity
Determine resources (labour, plant, etc.)
Work out how long each activity should take
Determine critical path and put activities on the path in sequence ( with earliest and
latest start and finish dates
Determine overlaps, float times etc. and fill in rest of activities
Present in visual form (bar chart / Gannt chart)

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Example of construction programme

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