160104c

Millwright

Lathe Components and Accessories

FIRST PERIOD
Machining
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 Table of Contents
Objective One ............................................................................................................................................... 2
Lathe Safety .............................................................................................................................................. 2
Objective Two............................................................................................................................................... 4
The Engine Lathe ...................................................................................................................................... 4
Objective Three........................................................................................................................................... 12
Workholding Devices ............................................................................................................................. 12
Cutting Toolholders ................................................................................................................................ 21
Toolposts ................................................................................................................................................. 23
Objective Four ............................................................................................................................................ 24
Lathe Accessories ................................................................................................................................... 24
Objective Five ............................................................................................................................................. 27
Cutting Tools .......................................................................................................................................... 27
Tool Sharpening ...................................................................................................................................... 29
Objective Six............................................................................................................................................... 30
Lathe Maintenance .................................................................................................................................. 30
Objective Seven .......................................................................................................................................... 33
Taper Applications .................................................................................................................................. 33
Parts of a Taper ....................................................................................................................................... 38
Measuring Tapers.................................................................................................................................... 40
Objective Eight ........................................................................................................................................... 41
Methods of Producing Tapers ................................................................................................................. 41
Self-Test ...................................................................................................................................................... 45
Self-Test Answers ....................................................................................................................................... 48
 NOTES
Lathe Components and Accessories

Rationale
Why is it important for you to learn this skill?
Knowing how to use a lathe and lathe accessories helps you to make better choices when
approaching a job. Making or repairing the parts you install reduces communication
errors.

Outcome
When you have completed this module, you will be able to:
Describe lathe components and accessories.

Objectives
1. Describe lathe safety.
2. Describe construction of lathes.
3. Describe work holding and tool holding devices.
4. Describe lathe accessories.
5. Describe cutting and forming tools and sharpening procedures.
6. Describe lathe maintenance.
7. Describe the application of tapers.
8. Describe manufacture and repairs of tapers.

Introduction
This module addresses lathe safety, components and related accessories. It also addresses
how to select lathe tools and how to perform maintenance on lathes. The use and cutting
of tapers is also covered.

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NOTES
Objective One
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe lathe safety.

Lathe Safety
While the basic engine lathe is a common tool in industry, it has not evolved like most
other machines. The hazards that existed centuries ago are still present, so training and
caution are necessary. Lathe operators work in close proximity to many moving and
rotating parts. Rotating components may appear to have a smooth finish, but they can
quickly and securely grab fabrics and draw in the operator.

Millwrights typically do not operate these machines for days on end, so it is imperative
they remain cautious and aware. Following these precautions reduces your likelihood of
injury.
• Always wear safety glasses and steel-toed safety boots.
• Remove rings, watches and any other jewellery, as they can catch easily on
spinning parts.
• Do not wear loose or torn clothing.
• Never leave a chuck key in a chuck.
• Before changing chucks or back-gears on a lathe, turn off the main power supply
to the machine and lock it out.
• Place a cradle on the ways when changing chucks.
• Use cutting tools with chip breakers and operate at the correct speed and feed to
prevent long, dangerous chips.
• Do not use rags around a lathe. They can wrap around the workpiece or chuck
and pull in your hand.
• Make sure the workpiece is held securely.
• Use the correct speeds, feeds and depth of cut. An excessive depth of cut on a
long workpiece may dislodge it.
• Be extremely respectful of lathe dogs. You can suffer impact harm and be drawn
into the machine.
• When you use a file, hold the handle in your left hand and the end in your right.
This prevents you from reaching over the chuck.
• Use coolant shields to prevent being sprayed and creating a slipping hazard.
• Do not allow spectators too close.
• Everyone in the area must wear appropriate personal protective equipment
(PPE).
• Do not wear clothing that allows chips to drop inside easily.
• Use a brush or vacuum to clear away chips. Do not grab or handle chips with
your bare hands, especially when the chuck is turning.
• Do not attempt to measure a rotating workpiece.

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Long chip can be dangerous, so produce short, broken chips (Figure 1). NOTES

Figure 1 - Curled chips.

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NOTES
Objective Two
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe construction of lathes.

The Engine Lathe

The engine lathe, the most common of all lathes, has become the workhorse of machining
in most shops (Figure 2). It is a general-purpose machine that can do practically any
machining job. It is seldom used for production work, but is very convenient for repairs
or one-off workpieces.

Figure 2 - Engine lathe.

Sizing a Lathe
The size of a lathe is determined by the largest diameter of workpiece that can be
supported over the ways (the swing) and the greatest length of workpiece that can be
supported between centres (Figure 3).

Figure 3 - Sizing a lathe.

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Horsepower and Weight of Machines NOTES
The horsepower of a lathe's motor determines the amount of material that can be removed
within a given time. Larger lathes have more powerful motors because they are expected
to take heavier cuts.

The weight of the machine refers to the rigidity of the bed. It refers to the machine's
ability to resist deflection under heavy load, rather than the actual weight in pounds or
kilograms.

Parts of a Lathe
The main parts of an engine lathe, that are also common to all lathes, are:
• the bed;
• the ways;
• the headstock;
• the back gears;
• the quick-change gearbox;
• the lead screw, feed rod and rack;
• the carriage and
• the tailstock.

Bed
The bed of a lathe is a heavy iron casting (Figure 4). It must be strong enough to support
large workpieces and rigid enough not to distort under the stress of machining. Iron is the
most widely used material for beds because it dampens vibration, thereby reducing
chatter.

Figure 4 - Bed of a lathe.

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NOTES Way
Ways are machined on the top of the bed and are hardened to resist wear. All modern
machines use an inverted prism design (Figure 5). There is one set of ways for the
carriage and another smaller set for the tailstock.

Figure 5 - Inverted prism ways.

Headstock
The headstock attaches to the left side of the bed. It houses the headstock spindle, the
bearings, the gears and the belts used to drive the spindle (Figure 6).

Figure 6 - Headstock.
The headstock spindle is a hollow shaft supported in bearings. The work end holds a live
centre, chuck or faceplate. The spindle on a small hobby lathe might be driven by a belt
and pulleys, but industrial lathes use gears and are called geared head lathes.

On most lathes, the spindle speed is set by shifting levers on the headstock. Some lathes
have a variable speed drive, allowing the spindle speed to be set anywhere within the
drive's range while the spindle is turning. The feed reverse lever, used for reversing the
feed of the carriage and cross-slide, is found on the headstock.

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Back Gears NOTES
The back gears link the spindle to the input shaft of the quick-change gearbox (Figure 7).
It is often necessary to remove one set of gears and replace it with another in order to
achieve a particular feed rate or pitch listed on the quick-change gearbox.

Figure 7 - Back gears.

When changing gears, ensure that the power to the machine is locked out. When
installing gears, make sure the backlash is correct. Backlash is the amount of slack or
space between meshing gears. It can also be described as the amount that a gear rotates
freely before engaging another gear when reversing the direction of power or movement.

Quick-Change Gearbox
The movement of the carriage is timed with the rotation of the spindle, causing the
carriage to move a specific distance every time the spindle completes a revolution. This
feature is fundamental to a lathe because it allows the lathe to cut threads. The timing is
accomplished with gears and the gears must be changed every time a new ratio is desired.
The quick-change gearbox allows you to change gears quickly and easily by shifting
levers (Figure 8).

Figure 8 - Quick-change gearbox.

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NOTES Lead Screw, Feed Rod and Rack
The quick-change gearbox drives the lead screw or feed rod. A lead screw is an accurate
threaded rod that runs the length of the bed. There is a split nut housed in the carriage.
When the nut engages the lead screw, it moves the carriage at a predetermined speed
relative to the rotation of the spindle (a predetermined thread pitch per revolution). The
feed rod transmits power from the quick-change gearbox to another set of gears within
the carriage. A pinion (a small gear) engages the rack, which is found just under the front
ways, to move the carriage under power. The feed rod moves the carriage at a slower rate
(more suitable for turning) than the lead screw does for threading (Figure 9).

Figure 9 - Lead screw, feed rod and rack.

Many lathes have a feed change mechanism on the quick-change gearbox, which
activates either the lead screw or the feed rod.

Carriage
The carriage (Figure 10) rides directly on the ways and is made up of the saddle, cross-
slide, compound rest, apron and various controls.

Figure 10 - Carriage.
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Saddle NOTES
The saddle is an H-shaped casting that rides directly on the ways. Saddle movement is
longitudinal, or parallel, to the axis of the machine spindle.

Cross-Slide
The cross-slide sits on top of the saddle and moves at right angles to the axis of the
workpiece. The cross-slide is moved by turning a handwheel, which turns a screw. A
graduated dial on the handwheel measures the movement of the cross-slide (Figure 11).

Figure 11 - Cross-feed handwheel and graduated dial.

Compound Rest
The compound rest sits on top of the cross-slide (Figure 12). It is a small sliding
mechanism that allows the tool to be adjusted a short distance. The compound rest can be
swivelled 360º to obtain any angle to the machine spindle face. Most lathes provide
power feed to the saddle and cross-slide, but not to the compound rest. The tool post
mounts to the compound rest using the T-slot.

Figure 12 - Compound rest.

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NOTES Apron
The apron hangs down in front of the saddle and houses the drive gears and split nut
mechanism. The split nut lever, found on the apron, closes the split nut on the lead screw
when thread cutting. The automatic feed lever engages the power feed for the carriage or
cross-slide. The feed change lever allows you to select whether the carriage or the cross-
slide moves under power when the automatic feed lever is engaged (Figure 13).

Figure 13 - Apron.

Tailstock
The tailstock consists of a heavy two-part casting that sits on the ways and is clamped in
place with the tailstock clamp. The top part of the casting may be adjusted from side to
side as needed for parallel or taper turning (Figure 14).

Figure 14 - Tailstock.
The tailstock spindle can be moved in and out of the casting like the quill on a drill press
by turning the tailstock handwheel. The spindle bore is usually a standard Morse taper to
accommodate a dead centre, drill chuck or any number of cutting tools such as drills or
reamers. The spindle can be locked in place with the tailstock clamp.
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Lathe Controls NOTES
All lathes have a main power switch that must be turned on before any of the lathe's
features can be used. There is also a motor switch on some lathes that must be turned on
before the main motor runs. Other switches control the operation of the coolant pump and
work light.

A starting clutch is used to start the rotation of the spindle (Figure 15). The clutch on
many lathes consists of a lever mechanism attached to the side of the apron. Typically,
lifting the lever starts the spindle turning forward, and pushing it down starts the spindle
in reverse. Returning the lever to the central position stops the spindle. Other lathes use a
similar lever mechanism on the headstock, while others use electric switches to start and
stop the spindle.

Figure 15 - Starting clutch lever.

Many lathes have a brake lever or brake pedal to stop the spindle quickly in an
emergency. Depressing the lever turns off the motor and applies a braking force to the
spindle. You could be tempted to use the brake lever or pedal as a normal part of your
machining practice, but doing so only wears out the brake and stresses the machine
unnecessarily. However, you should step on the brake when making adjustments or
taking measurements.

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NOTES
Objective Three
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe work holding and tool holding devices.

Workholding Devices
Workholding devices on lathes include centres, chucks, faceplates, mandrels and special
attachments such as catheads and spiders.

Workholding devices on a lathe must have the following characteristics.

• They must hold the work securely. The forces generated by the cutting tool can
be intense; therefore, if the work is not held securely, it may fly out and injure the
operator or damage the lathe.
• They must hold the work accurately.
• They must be convenient and quick to use. Set-up is usually a large part of the
job.

No single workholding device has all of these characteristics. For example, a four-jaw
chuck can be extremely secure and accurate, but it takes more time to use than a three-
jaw chuck. It is your responsibility to select the workholding device that best meets the
requirements of the job.

Holding Work Between Centres

Lathe centres are the oldest and simplest workholding devices. A workpiece may be held
between centres directly or it can be mounted on a mandrel held between centres
(Figure 16). Because lathe centres generally do not apply a driving force, they must be
used with a lathe dog and drive plate.

Figure 16 - Workpiece held between centres.

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Lathe Centres NOTES
Lathe centres are ideal for supporting long workpieces, such as shafts. The workpiece can
be taken out of the lathe and flipped end for end without any loss of accuracy, assuming
that the centres are in good condition.

The four common types of lathe centres are:

1. live centres,
2. solid dead centres,
3. half centres and
4. revolving dead centres.

Live Centre
A live centre fits in the headstock spindle (Figure 17). It is made of hardened steel. The
work end is cut or ground to a 60º included angle. The other end of the live centre is
tapered (usually Morse) to fit in the headstock spindle. It is called a live centre because it
turns with the headstock spindle.

A temporary live centre can be machined from a short piece of steel held in a chuck. It
stays accurate as long as it is not removed from the chuck.

Figure 17 - Live centre in headstock spindle.

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NOTES Solid Dead Centre
A solid dead centre is much like a live centre in appearance, except it is held in the
tailstock spindle and is made of hardened steel or carbide (Figure 18). It is called a dead
centre because, unlike a live centre, it does not turn. When a workpiece turns on a dead
centre, it creates friction and heat, so a dead centre should be lubricated and cooled in
order to prevent damage to both the dead centre and the centre-drilled hole in the
workpiece.

Figure 18 - Solid dead centres.

Half Centre
A half centre (Figure 18) is a dead centre with part of the tip cut away to make room for a
cutting tool.

Revolving Dead Centre

A revolving dead centre is used in the tailstock (Figure 19). The workholding end rotates
on a bearing to prevent friction and heat buildup. A revolving centre is more convenient
to use than a solid dead centre, but is not as accurate because clearance in the bearing is
transmitted to the workpiece. When extreme accuracy is required, use a solid dead centre.

Figure 19 - Rotating dead centre.

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Lathe Dogs NOTES
Lathe dogs are used to transmit drive power from the spindle to a workpiece when it is
held between centres (Figure 20). Without a lathe dog, the workpiece stops turning as
soon as the cutting tool is applied.

Figure 20 - Lathe dogs.

Lathe dogs clamp directly to the surface of a workpiece or mandrel and engage in a slot
or by a pin in a drive plate. Lathe dogs are available in various designs.

DANGER

All lathe dogs, particularly clamp-style lathe dogs, should be used with
great care. Any protruding part on the lathe dog or drive plate can
catch loose clothing and severely injure the operator.

Drive Plates
A drive plate is a flat disc that attaches to the spindle nose. It has grooves and pins to
engage and turn a lathe dog (Figure 21).

Figure 21 - Drive plate.

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NOTES Holding Work in a Chuck
Chucks are the most secure and common workholding devices. They are ideal for holding
short workpieces. Long pieces may be supported by a chuck at one end and a tailstock
centre at the other. Lathe chucks are available in many different sizes and are defined by
their outside diameter and not by their work holding capacity.

Three-Jaw Universal Chucks

Three-jaw chucks (Figure 22) are simple and quick to use, but not as accurate as four-jaw
chucks.

Figure 22 - Three-jaw universal chuck.

There is a scroll plate inside a three-jaw chuck (Figure 23). A spiral groove on the face of
the scroll plate engages teeth on the back of each of the three jaws. The scroll plate
causes the three jaws to move in and out simultaneously. That way, when a workpiece is
gripped by the jaws, it will run true.

Figure 23 - Scroll plate inside a three-jaw chuck.

NOTE

Using a three-jaw chuck to grip hot rolled steel or a workpiece with an

irregular surface damages the scroll.
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Jaws for three-jaw chucks are made in matching sets. They are made of hardened steel NOTES
and each set is numbered to correspond with a number stamped beside each slot on the
chuck (Figure 24). When installing these jaws, ensure that the jaws and slots match up,
such as placing the #1 jaw in the #1 slot. Install the jaws in numerical order.

Figure 24 - Number on jaw and slot.

Three-jaw chucks have inside and outside jaws.

Outside Jaws
Outside jaws are used to grip the outside of a workpiece (Figure 25). There are two steps
on these jaws, allowing for them to grip a wider range of diameters. The shoulders are
useful for aligning the face of a workpiece at right angles to the axis of the lathe.

Figure 25 - Outside jaws.

Inside Jaws
Inside jaws are similar outside jaws, but the steps are reversed so the jaws can grip the
inside of a tube or bore and the outside of a small diameter (Figure 26).

Figure 26 - Inside jaws.

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NOTES Four-Jaw Independent Chucks
A four-jaw independent chuck is less convenient than a three-jaw chuck, but is much
more accurate. It can hold square or oddly shaped workpieces (Figure 27).

Figure 27 - Four-jaw independent chuck.

Each jaw on a four-jaw chuck moves independently of the others. This allows a
workpiece to be adjusted (dialed in) until it runs true (Figure 28).

Use the following procedure to dial in a round workpiece in a four-jaw chuck.

1. Set the headstock gears to neutral so you can rotate the chuck by hand.
2. Adjust each of the four jaws until they are at approximately the desired diameter.
Use the grooves cut in the face of the chuck as a guide.
3. Insert the workpiece and tighten the jaws lightly.

Figure 28 - Setting up a dial indicator.

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4. Place the plunger of a dial indicator against the surface of the workpiece. The NOTES
dial indicator should be set to the centre height of the lathe and the plunger
should be horizontal.
5. Rotate the chuck until jaw #1 is in line with the dial indicator (Figure 29). Set the
dial to zero.

Figure 29 - Dial at jaw #1.

6. Rotate the chuck until the #3 jaw is in line and note the difference in the reading
(Figure 30). Alternate between loosening and tightening the two jaws until the
workpiece moves half the difference in the correct direction.

Figure 30 - Reading at jaw #3.

7. Repeat this process using the #2 and #4 jaws.
8. Spin the chuck and check to see if the pointer on the dial indicator moves. If it
does, go back and repeat steps 5 and 6 until the workpiece runs within acceptable
limits.
9. When the workpiece runs true, go around and check to see if all the jaws are truly
tight. If not, tighten them and check the runout of the workpiece again.

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NOTES Holding Work on Faceplates
A faceplate is a large disc that may attach to the lathe spindle nose. It is similar to a drive
plate, but is larger. Faceplates are used to hold oddly shaped workpieces that cannot be
held in a chuck or between centres.

A workpiece clamps to the surface of the faceplate with a combination of bolts, straps,
step blocks and angle plates. Weights may have to be added to compensate for imbalance.

Mandrels
A mandrel is used to grip a workpiece by its bore. Several types of mandrels are
available. They are used when gripping a workpiece with jaws could mar the surface.
Workpieces are held in mandrels by a shallow solid taper, a tapered sleeve or a nut on the
threaded portion.

Catheads
A long workpiece must sometimes be supported with a steady rest. If the workpiece is not
round, a cathead attachment can be used to provide a true surface for the steady rest
(Figure 31). The adjusting screws are used to bring the workpiece true to the cathead
diameter in the steady rest.

Figure 31 - Cathead.

Spiders
Spider attachments are used when long, tubular workpieces require a centre, but the
inside diameter is too large to run on the centre. The spider mounts to the inside of the
tube and the adjusting screws are used to true the workpiece to the centre (Figure 32).

Figure 32 - Spider.
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 NOTES
Cutting Toolholders
The cutting tool of a lathe is clamped into a toolholder, which stays with the cutting tool
when it is removed from the machine. Ideally, there is a separate toolholder for each
cutting tool. Toolholders include standard toolholders, carbide insert holders and boring
bars.

Tooling for modern lathes consists almost exclusively of carbide inserts and their holders
(Figure 33). Carbide inserts offer significant advantages in terms of accuracy, cutting
efficiency, ease of use and cost.

Figure 33 - Carbide insert holder.

Toolholding systems must meet the following requirements.
• The cutting tool must be held rigidly. The force on the cutting tool is intense; the
tool must remain stable and cannot be allowed to deflect. If these conditions are
not met, vibration contributes to chatter.
• The height of the cutting tool must be adjustable because all cutting tools must
be set to the centre height of the lathe axis.
• The tool setting should be repeatable. Cutting tools must be removed from the
lathe often for sharpening or to be replaced with a different kind of tool. A good
toolholding system allows the tool to be reset in the same position it was in
before it was removed.

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NOTES Cutting Off (Parting) Toolholders
Cutting off (parting) toolholders consist of a long, thin parting tool clamped into a holder.
The carbide insert is changed rather than re-sharpened (Figure 34).

Figure 34 - Parting tool.

Boring Bars and their Holders

Boring is an accurate method of sizing an inside diameter. Boring bars are available in
various diameters. Use the largest bar that fits to minimize deflection (Figure 35).

Figure 35 - Boring bars.

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 NOTES
Toolposts
Toolholders are clamped into the toolpost, which usually remains attached to the
compound rest of the lathe. Two common toolposts are the square quick-change and the
multi-position quick-change.

Square Quick-Change Toolposts

A square quick-change toolpost holds only one tool at a time, but the tools can be
removed and reset quickly and easily (Figure 36).

Figure 36 - Square quick-change toolpost.

The cutting tools are clamped in special toolholders. The toolholders mate with guides on
the side of the toolpost and are held in place by a cam mechanism. The height of the
cutting tools is adjusted precisely with the aid of a height adjustment screw.

Clamp all the cutting tools needed for a job in several toolholders. The toolholders are
then rapidly inserted and removed in succession.

Multi-Position Quick-Change Toolpost

A multi-position quick-change toolpost is similar in principle to the square toolpost, but
the toolholders can be set around the toolpost in increments of 15º (Figure 37).

Figure 37 - Multi-position quick-change toolpost.

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NOTES
Objective Four
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe lathe accessories.

Lathe Accessories
A number of lathe accessories extend the usefulness of a standard lathe. These include:
• the steady rest,
• the follower rest,
• the taper attachment,
• the toolpost grinder and
• the thread-chasing dial.

Steady Rests
Long, thin workpieces present special problems for the lathe operator. A steady rest
solves these problems by supporting the workpiece either at the end or in the middle
(Figure 38).
• First, they tend to whip around and deflect during a cut, unless properly
supported.
• Second, it is not always possible to support one end of the workpiece with a
tailstock centre, so another means of support must be found.

Figure 38 - Supporting a workpiece with a steady rest.

A steady rest is an optional piece of equipment supplied with most lathes. It is a frame
that can attach firmly to the ways of the lathe. Three adjustable jaws mount in the frame
120° apart. The top part of the frame is hinged so it can be swung out of the way,
allowing the workpiece to lower into the steady rest.

The workpiece rides between the three adjustable jaws, as if it were riding in a bearing
(Figure 39).

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 NOTES

Figure 39 - Steady rest.

Follower Rests
A long, thin workpiece tends to deflect away from the cutting tool during a cut. The
deflection is greater in the middle of the workpiece than at either end, which results in a
diameter that is not uniform (Figure 40).

Figure 40 - Deflection in a long, thin workpiece.

A follower rest keeps the workpiece from deflecting away from the cutting tool by
supporting it in the immediate area of the cut (Figure 41). It is an optional piece of
equipment that is supplied with many lathes. It is an open frame that bolts rigidly to the
saddle of the lathe. There are two adjustable jaws mounted in the frame

Figure 41 - Follower rest.

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NOTES Taper Attachments
Normally, a lathe machines only parallel or perpendicular to the axis of the lathe spindle.
A taper attachment allows a lathe to cut a taper by causing the carriage and the cross-
slide to move at the same time. As the carriage moves parallel with the machine axis, the
cross-slide moves perpendicular to that axis. The movement of the cross-slide is
controlled by a guide bar set to the angle of the taper to be cut (Figure 42). Computer
numerical control (CNC) lathes use a co-ordinate system to cut tapers.

Figure 42 - Taper attachment.

Toolpost Grinders
A toolpost grinder consists of a grinding wheel and motor that can be attached to the
compound rest in place of the normal toolpost. Simple cylindrical external or internal
grinding can be performed on a lathe with this attachment. The toolpost grinder is
particularly useful for reconditioning the headstock centre.

CAUTION

The abrasive grit generated by a toolpost grinder damages the ways.

Cover the ways with a piece of plywood, cardboard or paper. Do not
use a rag because it might entangle itself in the lathe.

Thread Chasing Dials

The thread chasing dial tells you when to close the split nut. On top of the unit is a
numbered dial that rotates slowly past a pointer when the split nut is not engaged.

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 NOTES
Objective Five
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe cutting and forming tools and sharpening procedures.

Cutting Tools
While high-speed steel (HSS) tools still exist, most lathe work is done with carbides.
Cemented carbides are pieces of carbide soldered to a steel shank. When you require a
custom shape, you grind a cemented carbide. Carbide inserts are the most popular choice
because they are changed quickly and are relatively inexpensive. Inserts are available in a
variety of shapes and sizes for turning and facing operations (Figure 43).

Figure 43 - Inserts.

Forming Tools
Forming tools are produced for special shapes such as threading, radii (Figure 44),
chamfering and grooving.

Figure 44 - Radius inserts.

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NOTES Knurling Tools
A knurling tool is unique in that it does not cut the metal, but displaces it on the surface
of a workpiece. The tool consists of a shank, a swivelling head and two hardened steel
rollers (Figure 45). When the rollers are pressed into the surface of a rotating workpiece,
they form a pattern of small ridges or points (a knurl), making the piece suitable for
gripping.

Figure 45 - Knurling tool.

Knurls may be either diamond or straight and each type can be fine, medium or coarse,
depending on the size and intended use of the workpiece. The rollers may be removed
and replaced to produce different knurls. The rollers in Figure 46 have opposite helixes
and produce diamond knurls. Rollers for straight knurls have grooves that run parallel to
the axis of the roller.

Figure 46 - Diamond knurl on a micrometer.

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 NOTES
Tool Sharpening
When you chip or dull an insert, you simply replace it. However, HSS and cemented
carbides can be re-sharpened. Sharpen high speed steel tools on a grinder with an
aluminum oxide (grey) wheel (Figure 47). Consult reference sources like machinery
handbooks for the correct clearance angles. You can over heat HSS very easily, so
remember to quench it often.

Figure 47 - HSS form tool.

When you sharpen cemented carbides (Figure 48), use an aluminum oxide wheel to grind
away the supporting steel and sharpen the carbide on a silicon carbide (green) wheel.

Figure 48 - Cemented carbide.

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NOTES
Objective Six
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe lathe maintenance.

Lathe Maintenance
Lathes are versatile, rugged machines. They are also precision machines that need proper
care. Metal chips and dust damage lapped surfaces. Clean these machines after use and
protect them from rust with a light coat of oil.

Cleaning
The following points serve as a reminder of how to clean a lathe.
• Take all tools off the headstock, the ways and the entire machine. This includes
the cutting tools. They are hazardous to the next person who sets up a job.
• Do not leave heavy workpieces in the machine overnight (especially if they are
extended from the chuck) without supporting them with a tail centre. It puts
undue stress on the headstock bearings.
• Do not leave your workpiece in the lathe if the next shift is going to need the
machine.
• Starting at the top of the machine and working down, wipe off the chuck,
headstock, tailstock, cross-slide, compound rest, saddle, apron, ways, feed rod,
lead screw, taper attachment and chip tray.
• Do not leave any chips on the ways of the machine or caught under the carriage.
Coolant in the chips rusts the ways.
• Move any parts or tools that could create tripping hazards.
• Sweep up the floor area around the machine and wipe up any cutting oil or
coolant.
• Check the coolant supply and change it if it is low, smelly or off-colour.

NOTE

Do not use compressed air for clearing debris. It is a hazard to you and
potentially drives chips into areas that cannot be cleaned.

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Oiling NOTES
The ways, cross-slide, compound slide and taper attachment of the lathe must be oiled at
the end of each day to prevent rusting. The following are reminders for oiling procedures.
• Use the carriage oil pump (Figure 49) to lubricate the carriage ways.

Figure 49 - Carriage oil pump.

• Check all the lubrication pots every day, and top up as required. There should be
lubrication pots at both ends of the lead screw and feed rod.
• Check the headstock sight glass for oil level (Figure 50).

Figure 50 - Headstock sightglass.

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NOTES • With the motor running, check the headstock bull's eye (Figure 51) for flow. The
spindle and crank on the tailstock should be lubricated after each day of use.

Figure 51 - Headstock bull's eye.

• All feed screws and levers on the carriage should be oiled daily. This includes the
taper attachment on the back of the lathe.
• Check the wipers on the carriage (Figure 52) and tailstock. Replace them if worn.

Figure 52 - Carriage wiper.

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 NOTES
Objective Seven
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe the application of tapers.

Taper Applications
Tapers are gradual increases or decreases in width, thickness or diameter. Almost all
lathes have a Morse taper. You use tapers on a day-to-day basis for a number of
applications, including:
• cutting tool shanks (Morse),
• wedges,
• machine tool spindles (Morse and Steep machine tapers),
• tapered mandrels and arbours (0.006 to 0.008 inch taper per foot [TPF]),
• tapers pins (14 inch TPF) and
• tapered gib-head keys (1/8 inch TPF).

Cutting Tool Shanks

The shanks of many cutting tools are tapered, which allows them to be installed
repeatedly in machine spindles quickly and accurately (Figure 53).

Figure 53 - A twist drill with a tapered shank.

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NOTES Machine Tool Spindles
Almost all machine tools have a tapered spindle to accept the tapered shank of a cutting
tool, toolholder or chuck. Types of machine tool spindles include:
• lathe headstock spindles,
• lathe tailstock spindles,
• milling machine spindles and
• drilling machine spindles.

Lathe Headstock Spindles

The outside of the spindle nose on a lathe is tapered to accept and align a chuck. The
inside is also tapered to hold a centre (Figure 54).

Figure 54 - The tapers used on a lathe spindle.

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Lathe Tailstock Spindles NOTES
The tailstock spindle on a lathe has an internal taper to accept the tapered shank of a drill,
reamer or other cutting tool (Figure 55).

Figure 55 - Lathe tailstock spindle.

Milling Machine Spindles

The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard steep machine taper (milling
machine taper) is a steep taper of 3 1/2 inch taper per foot. It is designed to align a milling
cutter and to release easily when changing tools (Figure 56).

Figure 56 - Milling machine spindle.

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NOTES Taper Mandrels (Arbors)
Taper mandrels, sometimes called arbors, are widely used in lathe work when a number
of work pieces are to be held by the bore. They are especially useful when the outside
diameter must run true with the bore (Figure 57).

Figure 57 - A tapered solid mandrel.

Jacobs Taper
A Jacobs taper is used to secure a drill chuck to its shank (Figure 58). A series number
identifies the Jacobs chuck taper, with larger numbers accepting larger chucks. For
example, a 1/2 inch drill chuck uses a No. 2 Jacobs taper. The amount of taper per foot
ranges from 0.591 to 0.979 inch.

Figure 58 - Jacobs taper.

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Taper Pins NOTES
Taper pins are used to locate workpieces in relation to each other when extreme accuracy
is required and when the assembly is often taken apart (Figure 59). The taper allows
quick disassembly of parts, when compared to dowel or roll pins. Many taper pins have
threads on the large end to aid in removal from blind holes. Taper pins are made of
hardened and ground steel and have a 1/4 inch taper per foot.

Figure 59 - Taper pin.

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NOTES Parts of a Taper
A taper is a uniform change in the diameter of a piece along its axis. The parts of a taper
are: large diameter, small diameter and length (Figure 60).

Figure 60 - Parts of a taper.

In the metric system, the amount of taper is expressed as a taper ratio. This is the
distance, measured parallel to the axis, in which the diameter changes by one millimetre.
It is written as 1:N, where N is the distance travelled. In Figure 61, the taper ratio is 1:10
because the diameter of the taper increases 1 mm over 10 mm of length.

Figure 61 - Taper ratio.

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In the imperial system, the amount of taper is expressed as a taper per foot (TPF) or the NOTES
amount of change in diameter of the piece over one foot of travel. Figure 62 shows a
workpiece with a 1.500 inch taper per foot. On this workpiece, the taper increases in
diameter by 1.500 inch over 1 foot of length and the length is measured parallel to the
axis of the workpiece.

Figure 62 - Taper per foot.

The angle of a taper is important for machine tool set-up. The angle between the sides is
the included angle, while the angle between one side and the centreline is the centreline
angle (Figure 63).

Figure 63 - Included and centreline angles.

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NOTES Measuring Tapers
Tapers may be measured with a taper plug gauge, a taper ring gauge, a micrometer, a
taper micrometer or a sine bar.

Gauges are quick and easy to use and provide the best way to check the fit of a taper.
They have two disadvantages.
• They are more expensive than other means because a different gauge is required
for each taper.
• They determine if a taper is wrong, but not by how much.
A micrometer (Figure 64) may be used for a quick, although somewhat inaccurate,
measurement. Scribe two lines on the workpiece, one inch apart (along the axis). Take a
measurement at each line. The difference between the measurements is the taper per inch.
To find the taper per foot, multiply this value by 12.

Figure 64 - Measuring a taper with a micrometer.

A taper micrometer (Figure 65) may measure the taper per inch more accurately than a
micrometer. The spindle of a taper micrometer attaches to a hinged bar. The pivot points
of the bar are one inch apart. The reading off the micrometer is the amount of taper per
inch.

Figure 65 - Measuring a taper with a taper micrometer.

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 NOTES
Objective Eight
When you have completed this objective, you will be able to:
Describe manufacture and repairs of tapers.

Methods of Producing Tapers

Four ways to produce tapers are available. You should know the proper procedures.
Tapers are most often used for the positive location, sealing or locking of two parts. The
end use of the taper determines the accuracy and finish required. The following are
conventional methods of producing tapers.

Using the Tailstock Offset for Cutting a Taper

One way to cut a taper on a lathe is to offset the tailstock a certain distance and then hold
the work between centres. Use this method for cutting shallow tapers because of the
limited offset of the tailstock. The principle for cutting metric and imperial tapers is the
same. The formulas are different because of the way each taper is expressed.

To calculate the tailstock offset for an imperial taper, multiply the TPF by the overall
length (OL) of the workpiece (not just the length of the taper) and divide by 24
(Figure 66).

Figure 66 - Using the tailstock offset method to cut a taper.

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NOTES Example
Calculate the amount of tailstock offset for a workpiece 12 inches long and with a taper
of ¾ inch per foot.

TPF× OL
Tailstock offset =
24

0.750 12
=
24

= 0.375

Solution
To calculate the amount of tailstock offset for a metric taper, divide the amount of taper
(D - d) by twice the length of the taper (2 × l) and then multiply the result by the length of
the workpiece (L).

Example
Calculate the amount of tailstock offset to cut a taper having a large diameter of 50 mm, a
small diameter of 40 mm, a taper length of 100 mm and an overall length of 300 mm.

D−d
Tailstock =  OL
2  TL

50 − 40
= 300
2 100

= 15 mm

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Using a Taper Attachment NOTES
Taper attachments can cut steeper angles and are more commonly used for producing
tapers. To set a taper attachment, a guide bar must swivel until the required angle or taper
reading shows on a scale. These scales are graduated in one of three ways, which are:
• taper per foot,
• included angle (degrees) or
• centreline angle (degrees).

If the scale you are using is graduated in degrees, you must determine if the taper
attachment must be set to the included or centreline angle of the taper to be cut. This
depends on the type of taper attachment you are using. Once you have set the attachment,
take a trial cut and measure the taper. It is common to require several adjustments to
obtain the correct angle.

Compound Rest
When you require a short, steep taper, use the compound rest. Since it swivels 360, it
can be set to any angle. The taper length is limited to the amount of feed on the
compound rest. Another disadvantage is that there is no power feed (on very large
machines only) on the compound rest. It is difficult to produce a good finish when hand
feeding.

Form Tool
The form tool method involves using a tool shaped like the part to be produced. You use
this method most often for producing chamfers (Figure 67), profiles, snap ring grooves
and O-ring grooves.

You might not use a lathe, but you produce a taper with a form tool when you install
taper pins or reface valve seats.

Figure 67 - Chamfer.

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NOTES Methods of Repairing Tapers
When tapers are damaged or worn, they can be repaired or replaced, depending on the
application and the extent of the damage. The following are common methods of
repairing tapers.
• To repair a reamed, centre drilled or countersunk taper, use the same tool to re-
establish an accurate taper, if material allows. If it does not, use the next larger
size of centre drill or reamer.
• Tapers used for location and alignment of large couplings do not always require a
fine surface finish. Nicks or burrs occur on the shaft or inside the coupling, and
ridges can sometimes be found on new couplings. A die grinder is sometimes
used to remove them. When you use a die grinder on a tapered part of this kind,
remove only the burrs that sit proud of (stick out from) the tapered surface of
each part. You are just re-establishing the positive location and alignment of the
two components. Do not remove material from the rest of the taper. You must
leave enough of the original tapered surfaces to maintain the fit between parts.
After using the die grinder, remove any small burrs from the ground area with
emery cloth.
• Drill bit tapers regularly suffer damage. Use a small honing stone to repair the
Morse taper on the drill or in the tailstock bore. Use the stone only on the nick
itself. Any marks left on the drill bit or bore alter the alignment and the strength
of lock on the drill bit.
• Tapered gib-head keys are marred in regular use, as their function is to lock the
hub onto the shaft. Before reinstalling the key, draw file it to remove any high
spots. Never use a file on a taper with a fine surface finish. Files cut too much
material and ruin the finish.
• A tapered shaft can be re-cut with very little difference in the length of the shaft.
However, if the length is critical, undercut the taper and weld the end of the shaft
(including the shaft centre). Then, re-centre and re-cut the shaft to original
specifications.
• If a lapped valve seat is scratched across the seat, its seal is broken. This scratch
must be taken out. You must either re-lap the original seat (if material allows) or
have the seat undercut, welded, rebored to size and relapped. Because of the
surface finish and the concentricity required, you must carefully follow standard
lapping procedures and check your lap for wear against a gauge.

NOTE

Lapping tapers is not as common as it was years ago. New materials

are available for seat inserts, sleeves and valves, so that most lapping
is now done on flat surfaces.

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 NOTES
Self-Test
1. When changing back-gears on a lathe:
a) block the chuck.
b) use a hoist to remove the cover.
c) lock out the power supply.
d) wash the gears with an approved solvent.

2. When filing a workpiece in a lathe, hold the file handle:

a) in your right hand.
b) in your left hand.
c) with both hands.
d) in either hand.

3. Lathes are considered to be more dangerous than other machines because:

a) they have not evolved with safety features like most machines.
b) the chuck can rotate in either direction.
c) the cutting tools are extremely sharp.
d) the tailstock can be offset.

4. The size of a lathe is determined by the:

a) size of the hole in the headstock.
b) horsepower of the motor and its capacity for metal removal.
c) maximum distance between centres.
d) maximum distance between centres and the amount of swing.

5. The compound rest may be rotated:

a) 180.
b) 60.
c) 360.
d) 90.

6. The apron handwheel moves the carriage by means of:

a) spur gears.
b) bevel gears.
c) a rack and pinion.
d) mitre gears.

7. The headstock of a lathe:

a) is on the right and turns the workpiece.
b) supports the revolving dead-centre.
c) contains the coolant reservoir.
d) is on the left and contains the spindle.

8. A lathe dog is used to:

a) transmit drive power to a mandrel or workpiece held between centres.
b) prevent a workpiece from turning when it is being filed.
c) support the end of a long workpiece.
d) keep the lathe operator company during a long night shift.

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NOTES 9. A follower rest has:
a) three adjustable jaws.
b) two adjustable jaws.
c) one adjustable jaw.
d) three jaws, none of which are adjustable.

10. A revolving centre is installed in the:

a) headstock.
b) quick-change toolpost.
c) tailstock.
d) threading attachment.

11. The thread chasing dial is used to:

a) change the pitch of the thread being cut.
b) change from a right hand to a left-hand thread.
c) determine when the thread has reached its full depth.
d) time engagement of the split nut when cutting a thread.

12. The tailstock is locked in position on the ways of the lathe with the:
a) spindle clamp.
b) micrometer stop.
c) tailstock clamp.
d) carriage clamp.

13. The chuck best suited to holding odd-shaped pieces is the:

a) three-jaw chuck.
b) collet chuck.
c) four-jaw chuck.

14. An O-ring groove would be cut with:

a) the tailstock offset method.
b) a right-hand cemented carbide tool.
c) a form tool.
d) a left-hand cemented carbide tool.

15. When grinding HSS, you must remember to:

a) use a silicon carbide wheel.
b) use a rough stone.
c) quench often.
d) not quench HSS.

16. Cemented carbides are sharpened on aluminum oxide wheels.

a) true
b) false

17. The manual oil pump on the carriage pumps oil to:
a) the headstock (back gears).
b) the rack and pinion.
c) the tailstock spindle.
d) the ways.
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18. Worn wipers could allow chips to get between the carriage and the ways. NOTES
a) true
b) false

19. Chips left on the ways are a concern because

20. What type of taper is used in the tailstock?

21. How are metric tapers designated?

22. What is the amount of taper on taper pins?

a) 18 inch per foot
b) 14 inch per foot
c) 12 inch per foot
d) 58 inch per foot

23. Cutting a taper with the compound rest has what major disadvantage?
a) Only shallow tapers can be cut.
b) Work cannot be held between centres.
c) You must grind a form tool.
d) There is no power feed.

24. What is affected when drill bit tapers get damaged?

25. Once you have set a taper attachment to the desired angle, what important step must
you follow?
a) Take a trial cut and measure the taper.
b) Cut the taper to the desired length.
c) Cut the taper until the small diameter is reached.
d) Offset the tailstock.

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NOTES
Self-Test Answers
1. c) lock out the power supply.
2. b) in your left hand.
3. a) they have not evolved with safety features like most machines.
4. d) maximum distance between centres and the amount of swing.
5. c) 360.
6. c) a rack and pinion.
7. d) is on the left and contains the spindle.
8. a) transmit drive power to a mandrel or workpiece held between centres.
9. b) two adjustable jaws.
10. c) tailstock.
11. d) time engagement of the split nut when cutting a thread.
12. c) tailstock clamp.
13. c) four-jaw chuck.
14. c) a form tool.
15. c) quench often.
16. b) false; They are sharpened on silicon carbide.
17. d) the ways.
18. a) true
19. Chips left on the ways are a concern because coolant on the chips may cause rusting.
20. Morse taper (self-holding)
21. Metric tapers are designated as a ratio. A 1:25 taper would have a diameter change of
1 millimeter in 25 millimeters of length.
22. b) 1
4 inch per foot
23. d) There is no power feed.
24. the alignment and locking capability
25. a) Take a trial cut and measure the taper.

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 NOTES

49
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NOTES

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This learning material is the result of a collaborative effort between the Northern
Alberta Institute of Technology, the Southern Alberta Institute of Technology, and the
following Alberta apprenticeship training providers:

Grande Prairie Regional College | Keyano College | Lakeland College

Lethbridge College | Medicine Hat College | Northern Lakes College
Olds College | Portage College | Red Deer College
The Individual Learning Modules Initiative is committed to continuous
updating and is interested in your comments regarding technical accuracy
and clarity of presentation. Please visit our website to register your
comments. To view the ongoing discussion, go to the Bulletin Board:
http://ilm.nait.ca
The Individual Learning Modules Initiative would like to thank the many
individuals and companies for their contribution and gratefully
acknowledges their valuable input.

160104c | Version 21