5 IH May 23

MAY, 2023
Volume: 51 § Number: 05 § Total Pages: 48
Longest Double-Decker Viaduct with Highway Flyover & Metro Rail in Nagpur
https://www.irc.nic.in
INDIAN HIGHWAYS
VOLUME : 51 § NUMBER : 05 § MAY 2023 § ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934
CONTENTS
Ø From the Editor’s Desk 4-5
Ø Advertisements 2, 6-15, 28, 42, 47 & 48
Ø IRC Technical Committees Meeting Schedule for the Month of May, 2023 35
Technical Papers
Ø “Utilization of Processed Recycled Aggregates (C&D Waste) in Concrete Pavements” 16

By Puneeth H C, S P Mahendra, Rohith M & Chaithra B R
Ø Ethical Considerations in the Design of Autonomous Vehicles: an Overview 29

By Dr.Pradip Kumar Sarkar & Sukanya Sarkar
Ø Determination of Vertical Pile Capacity Based on Elastic Settlement 36
By S.K. Bagui, Atasi Das & Faiz Ullah
Ø MoRT&H Circulars 43-46
FEEDBACK
Suggestion/Observation on editorial and Technical Papers are welcome and may be sent to IRC Secretariat on
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AIR POLLUTION – A SILENT KILLER
Mankind is familiar with air pollution occurring due to forest res, ash from volcanic eruptions and
ne dust in arid conditions which were all caused by natural phenomena. During the industrial
revolution, air pollution due to belching of smoke from chimneys of industries was 'accepted' initially
until the soot became a menace in townships. However, nature was 'self-healing' till the early 20
th
Century due to abundant forest cover and slow population growth. The world population has
quadrupled from about two billion in the year 1900 to about eight billion today with India alone
accounting to 1.4 billion people. Moreover, due to availability of health care, higher education,
employment opportunities and better wages led to migration of people to towns and Cities. Today
34% of India's population lives in urban areas and the migration of people from rural areas is
continuing.
Although bicycles and public transport were popular till the mid-20th Century, later due to an increase
in purchasing power, people began switching over to individual transport to enhance mobility. This
led to the exponential growth of automobiles both for inter and intra city travel, thereby creating high
demand for fossil fuels. Today the cause of climate change / global warming is attributed to high
consumption of fossil fuels for surface transport causing air cum dust pollution on the planet. It is
estimated that seven million deaths occur annually across the world due to air pollution, out of which
1.7 million die in India alone as per WHO report 2019. The economic costs are about ve Trillion US
Dollars.
India witnessed phenomenal rise in population of million plus and metro cities since the beginning of
the 21 century. At present, the pollution levels are being monitored on a daily basis in 307 cities and
st
towns as levels of Particulate Matter (PM i.e., tiny particles of width 1.5 to 2 Microns), the upper
tolerable limit being xed at PM 2.5. However, such data is lacking on National Highways and
Expressways in the Countryside where long-distance Commercial Vehicles ply. It is to note that all
vulnerable groups living adjoining the highways constantly breath dust and smoke (while tolerating
Noise) due to incessant movement of trucks which use diesel and no control on emissions. In addition,
pollution levels in the inner roads in urban areas, locations of industries and Warehouses and quarry /
construction sites are many times higher. No studies have been done on Indoor pollution due to usage
of coal and kerosene as cheap fuel for cooking by low-income groups. Scientic studies reported that
Soot can enter the blood stream affecting brain, placenta, and heart. Further, Scientic studies, on the
effect of air and dust pollution on children, pedestrians, drivers / users of Two or Three wheelers in
towns and cities and trafc police are not yet carried out.
Studies abroad indicate that, Air Pollution slowly affects different organs in humans particularly
lungs, heart, kidneys and reduce the body immune system. Some studies linking COVID related
deaths and Pollution levels were undertaken in the USA, and it is observed that such people became
more vulnerable (15% of the total toll in the USA and 27% in East Asia). Moreover, more deaths are
reported from densely populated pockets in urban areas and heavy trafc corridors. However, no such
systematic studies were carried out in India particularly in North-West India where stubble burning
from Punjab and Haryana and smoke from Diwali crackers increase levels of pollution, particularly in
Winter season. Further, generator sets combined with burning of Tyres / Trash by roadside and
4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023
temperature inversion, further aggravate the problem. It is to note that the additional number of deaths
in NCR Delhi during 4 months of winter due to higher PM levels is least studied. Earlier steps to
control pollution levels like switching on to CNG from petrol and diesel as alternative fuel for Auto
rickshaws, LMVs and DTC buses in Delhi and permitting Odd-Even number of Registered vehicles
to ply on roads in winter months, initially produced desired results but subsequent economic growth
and further growth of automobiles outpaced the earlier steps. As there are no stringent measures to
control emissions, the health of senior citizens, children, trafc police and those with comorbidities
continue to be affected, leading to premature deaths.
WAY FORWARD
India accounts for seven out of top ten polluted cities in the world and now is the time to seriously
mitigate air pollution due to automobiles and other sources in the Country. The alarm bell is ticking
and by 2030 the global temperatures will cross the xed targets if pollution levels generating CO2 are
not controlled.
From citizens' point of view, Pollution is a hidden killer and does not get listed in death certicates
issued by hospitals, although an X-Ray of the person's lungs can reveal the true cause. The forward
approach is to develop hybrid HMVs for inter- city trafc and only electric LMVs for intra city
movements. As there will be tremendous demand on Electrical energy for re-charging Auto mobile
batteries, the country is to harness SOLAR energy in a big way to reduce dependance on Thermal
power in a phased manner. The generating capacity in different States must increase commensurating
with demand of Electric vehicles. As Lithium based batteries used in Electric Vehicles (EV) are
expensive, Sodium based batteries being developed indigenously can be used. As the technology is
new, not many mechanics are conversant to x a problem with EVs. The Polytechnics and ITIs should
introduce courses on Automobile engineering with specialization on xing/repairing Electric
vehicles in the urban areas and at selective charging stations.
There are technological solutions to control Automobile pollution but controlling other sources such
as stubble and trash burning needs Political will and stringent measures. Less is being said about brick
kilns which burn coal or rewood polluting the neighborhood air. The brick making industry should
be organized and mechanized production encouraged with electric furnaces instead of burning coal.
Today, climate and pollution concerns are at an all-time high, and the technology industry is part of
both the problem and the solution. The new digital technologies can be used to develop solutions that
can dramatically reduce the global carbon footprint.
(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

Secretary General, IRC
INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 5

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TECHNICAL PAPER
UTILIZATION OF PROCESSED RECYCLED AGGREGATES (C&D WASTE)

IN CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
PUNEETH H C1 S P MAHENDRA2 ROHITH M3 CHAITHRA B R4
ABSTRACT
The possibilities and difculties of substituting Recycled Concrete Coarse Aggregates (RCCA) for Natural Aggregate (NA) in
concrete mixes are worked out in this research. The physical and mechanical properties of RCCA as well as the amount of
impurity present in it, determine the strength and durability of concrete. The characteristics of RCCA are investigated in this
study. In order to lower the mortar content and increase material quality, a variety of beneciation processes such as
mechanical, chemical, thermal, and microbiologically induced calcite CaCO3 precipitation were used. Furthermore,
according to the specications, the acid beneciation with Hydrochloric Acid (HCL) is found ideal in improving the properties
(specic gravity improved by 5.1%, abrasion value 14.4%, soundness test value 39.3%, and mortar content decreased to
18%). In addition, M40 grade concrete mix design for the base and RCCA with varied proportions replacing NA was prepared
in accordance with IRC:44-2017, IRC:15-2017, and IRC:114-2013. The optimal proportion blending was determined using
regression analysis prediction approach. The maximum replacement percentage of RCCA increased from 4.6 to 26.03%
during the beneciation process, followed by positive improvements in compressive, exural strength, fatigue failure cycle,
and lowered permeability value. By using computational prediction Articial Neural Network (ANN) tool from the Matrix
Laboratory (MATLAB) program, 18 input variables i.e. properties, mix proportions, and fresh concrete characteristics were
considered as per IS:1199-2018. When compared to analytical values the average ANN prediction is found to be 95.55%
precise, which signicantly validated the tool's accuracy. Furthermore, the wheel load and temperature stresses at the corner,
interior, and edge area were analysed from optimal pavement thickness as per IRC:58-2015. Based on the results of
Westergaard's study, rigid pavement models were created on ANSYS platform, by taking actual concrete characteristics made
from RCCA. The ANSYS validation accuracy was found to be 84.44%. As a result, current research on beneciation and
prediction approaches substantiates the improvement in RCCA concrete quality.
1. INTRODUCTION Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. The country

generates an estimated 150 million tonnes of C&D waste each
Road Construction trials in India have changed
year, according to the Building Material Promotion Council.
dramatically over past decades as a result of massive
However, the claimed recycling capacity is just 6,500 tonnes
investments and the use of cutting-edge construction
per day, or around 1%. Furthermore, unofcial estimates of
technology and design ideas. Integration of advanced
the country's overall waste generation range from three to ve
methods is increasing as a result of the greater freedom
times greater than the ofcial estimate. Concrete contributes
afforded to private investors. The Utilization Recycled for 40% of overall C&D waste, 30% for ceramics, 5% for
Concrete Coarse Aggregates (C&D waste) in rigid plastics, 10% for wood, 5% for metal, and 10% for other
Pavements sets an effort to move the road construction combinations [1]. RA's are generally NA bound with lasting
sector toward sustainable construction practises, assuring cement mortar obtained from building and demolition
safety & quality, reduction of environmental impact, and waste/excluded concrete components. The RAs are of inferior
greater cost effectiveness in pavement construction. quality because to the weak and porous cement mortar that
The Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) stated on has clung to them from the past. The proportion of adhering
August 25, 2020 that India recycles only 1% of its mortar is regulated by the aggregate size and quality of the
1 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, SJBIT, Bangalore, E-mail: [email protected]

2 Professor & Head, Department of Civil Engineering, GAT Bangalore, E-mail: [email protected]
3 Consultant, Bentley Systems Mumbai. E-Mail:[email protected]/[email protected]
4 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, SJBIT, Bangalore, E-mail: [email protected]

TECHNICAL PAPER
earlier formed base concrete, and it normally ranges from 25- been observed to range between 10% and 40%. Following
60% depending on its amount[2][3]. Interfacial transformation crushing process generally results in a signicant decline in
zones between deep-rooted and new cement mortars may be the overall production of coarse RCCA due to the
crucial for the internal microstructure of concrete. As a result, transformation of a signicant percentage of the
applications of Recycled Cement Concrete Aggregates comparably weaker original aggregates into ner
(RCCA) in concrete can be streamlined by either eliminating aggregates. Furthermore, adding further crushing processes
adhering mortar or enhancing its quality. Some of the methods to the recycling process dramatically raises prices,
used to remove the adhering old cement mortar off the surface necessitating a trade-off between the quality of recovered
of RAs include: (i mechanical treatment, ii) heat treatment, iii) cement concrete aggregate and cost [12].
chemical treatment, and iv) bacterial treatment. To enhance
the adhering mortar, numerous RA impregnation techniques 1.1 Beneciation of RCCA: Innovative Approaches
can be applied[4]. Coming to the physical properties, Adherent Many beneciation procedures have been developed to
cement paste, in particular, increases RA porosity, moisture reduce the RCCA mortar content. These methods typically
retention, and particle density over natural aggregates. The utilise mechanical, chemical, or thermal processing, or
high water retention of RA can have a signicant impact on bacteria-based processing, or combinations of one or more
the properties of recycled concrete. An erroneous calculation of these systems, to partially or total removal mortar. These
of water absorption results in signicant differences between methods include thermal beneciation [12], acid treatment,
the anticipated ideal water-to-cement ratio and that observed mechanical rubbing[13] [14], microwave-assisted
in fresh concrete, resulting in incorrect fresh and hardened beneciation [15], and another series of works [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21]
properties [5]. Unfortunately, conventional methodologies of
that have focused research on how to develop self-healing
categorising NA are not necessarily relevant to RAs,
materials and various combinations of these techniques [22].
necessitating the development of new processes. The process
of manufacture of RAs, particularly crushing, inuences their 1.2 Economic and Ecological Analysis of RCCA
properties; different crushing procedures produce in different Beneciation
shapes or particle size distributions.
The nancial and environmental repercussions of
The following circumstances affect the properties of RA: operations should be investigated and assessed before
· Aggregate source implementing a particular beneciation method. Counting
the amount of energy and/or carbon emissions generated in
· The recycling facility that creates Construction & a process might be one of the most common ways to assess
Demolition waste aggregate, especially the method the environmental impact of that activity. The energy
used to break the concrete utilised and carbon emissions generated by an activity or
· A scarcity of high-quality data on building and sequence of operations conducted to develop a specic
demolition waste. innovation are frequently added up and presented as the
Quality criteria for RAs in concrete structures shall be the related product's embodied energy and embodied
same as those for NAs in the same application. This means emissions [23][24][25][26].
that RAs shall be classied using regular physical and 1.3 Concrete Characteristics using RCCA
chemical criteria. The analysis of investigative papers, as
well as sets of regulations and recommendations, allowed A growing number of studies have been conducted over the
for the grouping of RA's quality standards into four groups past two decades to improve the sustainability of the concrete
based on the following property categories: 1. physical; 2. manufacturing process, with the main objective of consuming
chemical; 3. mechanical; and 4. Geometrical [6] [7] [8] [9] [10]. The less natural resources. The use of RAs to replace NA in
concrete mixtures has been the subject of much research
[27] [28]
amount to which the basic features of Recycled Concrete
. This is crucial since aggregates make up close to 80% of all
[29]
Coarse Aggregate (RCCA) differ from those of the original
NA is intimately connected to the mortar content. As a concrete. The use of RCCA has a signicant impact on the
result, fresh attempts have been made to develop RCCA qualities of new concrete, especially affecting its workability.
with lower mortar contents. This additional advantageous These aggregates' strong water absorption qualities, along
method is one of the strategies that has been primarily taken with their heterogeneity, nd it difcult to alter and manage
into account and demonstrated to be successful in achieving the consistency of the concrete. The quick and considerable
the latter. The effects of following crushing phases have water absorption of the RA's has a direct impact on the water
been thoroughly explored [11] [12]. It is widely known that the requirement of concrete. When only a small proportion of
employment of additional crushing processes can greatly coarse concrete RA's (20–30%) is utilised, the impact is
reduce the RCCA mortar concentration, depending on the minor, and the same concrete manufacturing technique as for
element structure of the RCCA, the strength of both the NA can be employed. The remainder of the time, extra water
mortar and the kind of crusher used. The reduction in mortar demand must be addressed in the manufacture of recycled
content due by the addition of an extra crushing phase has concrete, where many alternatives might be used:

TECHNICAL PAPER
· A signicant increase in the amount of mixing water methodologies over the last couple of decades to anticipate
· Employing chemical admixtures (plasticizers or the qualities of concrete created by varying mix amounts.
super plasticizers) Methods based on Articial Neural Networks (ANNs) are
· Post saturation of the RA [30][31][32]. among the most popular. This is mostly owing to ANN's clear
benets: (i) simple to use, because ANN can understand
RCCA are heterogeneous solids because their characteristics directly from examples, i.e. the connections amongst input
vary based on the kind and grade of material used in their and output variables are formed by the data. (ii) High
manufacture. The aggregate characteristics determine the accuracy, ANN could tolerate somewhat inaccurate or partial
properties of concrete during the dynamic and hardened tasks, numerical techniques, and is even less susceptible to
stages. As a result, the difference in RCCA against NA
outliers [52]. Because of the aforementioned characteristics,
quality may impact the performance of RCCA and regular
several researchers have used ANN approaches to forecast the
concrete [34][35][36][37][38][39][40].
performance of concrete . However, owing to the
[53] [54]
RCCA concrete exhibits less slump than conventional complicated composition of recycled aggregates, ANN are
concrete at the same w/c ratio due to the presence of pores currently only used within concrete created with natural
and high water absorption [41] [42] [43]. The enhanced water aggregates and are seldom utilised in concrete manufactured
absorption capacity of RCCA, rough textured surfaces, and with recycled aggregates.
more irregular shapes all contribute to the reduced
Nowadays, with the use of modern Operating systems and
workability of RCCA-containing concrete [44] [45]. The
capable assessment techniques, such as the nite element
decreased specic gravity & higher the amount of RCCA in
approach, numerous attempts are made to build analytical
concrete, leads to lower density. The density of concrete
answers that reduce the requirement for tests that
contains 100 percent coarse RCCA is around 5% lower
investigators must perform. As a result, the numerical
than those prepared using 100% NA [34] [35]. The correlation
modelling approach has evolved into an intense
coefcients of compressive strength for recycled concretes
computational device, allowing complicated analyses of
are often more than those for ordinary concretes [132]. The
the nonlinear behaviour of RC structures to be carried out
performed empirical investigations on literature data and
in a conventional manner [55][56][57].
demonstrated that it is possible to build a model to predict
the strength loss in concrete using RCCA for various
2. OBJECTIVES/AIM OF THE STUDY:
replacement amounts. However, the initial moisture level
of RCCA has a signicant impact on the effects of RCCA Following are the objectives of the study: -
substitution level on concrete compressive strength,
i. Characterize the properties of C & D waste
according to the results [103]. Depending on the water
aggregates.
content, compressive strength can be reduced by up to 30%
ii. Study the beneciation techniques used to improve
when 100% aggregate is replaced with RCCA.
the performance of recycled aggregates and
Furthermore, the lower compressive strength is caused by
quantify its environmental impact.
the fact that more water is frequently utilised in the RCCA
iii. Investigate the physical & mechanical properties of
concrete mixture to provide ideal workability [44][46].
concrete using recycled C&D waste aggregate in
The exural strength of concrete comprising RCCA was comparison with M40 grade base concrete mix.
signicantly reduced, especially when saturated with water iv. Determine the fatigue behaviour of the specimens
vary from 3.5-10% [44] [27] [9]. Research conducted by [48] [49] from repeated load test.
compared the fatigue life of RCCA and NA concretes for the v. Predict and validate the experimental & analytical
same w/c ratio and found that RCCA concretes showed a performance using software tools
larger drop in fatigue life. Concretes containing up to 20%
RCCA, on the other hand, exhibited fatigue behaviour 3. EXPERIMENTAL AND DESIGN TECHNIQUES
comparable to NA concrete. In general, the lower fatigue life WITH SPECIFICATIONS
of RCA concretes may be attributed to a larger number of
micro-cracks in the RCA created during the crushing process 3.1 Beneciation Process of RCCA
of concrete waste, which are more easily linked as a function
The following are the benecial techniques used in the
of cycle loading and increased interfacial transition zones
current work
between the cement paste and the RCA, which contribute as
extra weak bonds when subjected to cyclic loading . Thermal beneciation: In this beneciation, the RCCA
[50] [51]
are heated at 200, 300 & 400°C for 2 hours to disintegration

1.4 Prediction & Modeling of RCCA Concrete
and discrete the mortar.
Recycled aggregates differ signicantly in composition and The mechanical beneciation: Ten steel balls were
qualities from natural aggregates, making it difcult to loaded into the Los Angeles abrasion testing equipment, for
forecast the performance of recycled aggregate concrete and 200, 400, and 600 rotations of the spinning drum, the Los
design mix proportions. Many researchers have used various Angeles testing apparatus was utilised to rub the RCCA

TECHNICAL PAPER
specimen (10 kg oven dry weight) in contradiction of the role is to minimize the error function, mean square value.
steel balls and each other.
3.7 Design of Pavement Thickness and Evaluating
Acid beneciation: This procedure involves carefully Wheel Load & Temperature Stresses - IRC:58-
washing RCCA batches to remove the corroded mortar 2015
after soaking them in weak acidic solutions (HCl, H2SO4 & Provides thickness optimizing guidelines. Based on testing
H3PO4) for around 24 hours. results, the IRC:58 was employed for structural optimization
Bacterical Benication (Treatment with bio deposition of recycled aggregate concrete pavement.
on recycled aggregates): For 24 hours, dried recycled 3.8 Validation by ANSYS response
aggregates will be submerged in a 1-day-old Bacillus
sphaericus growing culture. Aggregates were then Westergard's analysis and ANSYS software were utilised
eliminated from the culture solution. Second, aggregates for analysis in this project. Conventional approaches relied
were submerged in a testimony solution containing 12 g/L on the basic concept of a semi-innite plate sitting on an
urea, 47 g/L Ca (NO3)4H2O Calcium Nitrate Tetra hydrate, elastic basis. This study investigates the dynamic response
and 5 g/L yeast excerpt for 4 days. Following this soaking of pavement for optimal pavement thickness.
period, the aggregates were carefully wash away and rinsed 4. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF
to eradicate calcium carbonate precipitate, which had a COARSE AGGREGATES
poorer connection to the aggregate's surface.
The physical characteristics of natural & RCCA were
3.2 Open LCA Software carried out as per IS & IRC standards, the following results
This programme provides a way for simulating the shown in Fig.1 & Fig.2 were obtained.
environmental implications of material/energy ows as
well as emissions and waste streams connected with a
product.
3.4 Mix Design
The mix design of project work is prepared based on the
following codes.
i. IRC:44-2017 “Guidelines for Cement Concrete
Mix Design for Pavement “
ii. IRC:15-2017 “Code of Practice for Construction of
Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement”
iii. IRC:121-2017 “Guidelines for use of C & D Waste
in Road Sector”
3.5 Regression Analysis for Prediction
Multiple regressions are a statistical approach for
investigating the connection among a single reliant
variable and numerous sovereign variables. In summary
the R-squared statistic is a measure of goodness of t that
informs us how much variation is explained by the best-t
line. The value of R-squared varies from 0 to 1. Fig.1 Physical Characteristics of Coarse Aggregates
3.6 ANN Analysis for Prediction using MATLAB

Application
The network is made up of several layers of neurons. One
hidden layer comprised of a number of nodes is advised for
predicting any measurable functional relationship between
predictors and output parameters to any desired precision,
and this assistance is applied in the current study. Weighted
connections are used to assess the strength of relationships.
These weights are learned in such a way that they help the
ANN model obtain the output variables as near to goal
values as feasible. ANN is made up of three steps: training,
validation, and testing. The training step's most signicant
Fig.2 Physical Characteristics of Processed RCCA

TECHNICAL PAPER
Fig.3 Percentage Improvement After Fig 4 Environmental Impact Assessment

Beneciation Process results for HCl & H2SO4
5. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT serious downsides, such as comparatively greater
RESULTS OF HCl & H2SO4 BY OPENLCA electricity consumption, reduced mortar removal
capability, and long processing timeframe, which make it
The following Table 1 and Fig.4 shows the the
inappropriate for large-scale industrial application.
contributions of the selected processes in the project setup
to the variant results of the selected Life Cycle Impact When compared to another beneciation technique, the
Assessment (LCIA) category. mechanical processing method is simpler to use and more
efcient in regard of total reduction in mortar content. It
6. DISCUSSION FOR SELECTING IDEAL does, however, have a number of well-known downsides,
BENEFICIATION PROCESS FOR RCCA such as excessive energy usage and noise emissions.
Even though thermal beneciation has several advantages, Furthermore, mechanical beneciation processes may limit
such as ease of use and operator insensitivity, it also has the utmost yield of coarse recycled aggregates because
Table 1 Environmental impacts of HCl & H2SO4

Indicator H2SO4 HCI Unit Indicator H2SO4 HCI Unit
Fine particulate matter 7.15E-04 1.42E-06 DALY Marine ecotoxicity 1.82E-11 2.74E-12 species.yr
formation
Fossil resource scaricty -1.99E-04 0 USD2013 Marine europhication 4.77E-11 1.37E-17 species.yr
Freshwater ecotoxicity 1.57E-10 6.56E-16 species.yr Mineral resource 1.35E-01 2.11E-02 USD2013
scarcity
Freshwater 1.58E-09 0 species.yr Ozone formation, -2.06E-06 1.84E-08 DALY
eutrophication Human health
Global warming, 2.69E-11 0 species.yr Ozone formation, -4.96E-07 2.61E-09 species.yr
Freshwater ecosystems Terrestrial ecosystems
Global warming, 3.26E-04 0 DALY Stratospheric ozone 2.81E-07 0 DALY

Human health depletion
Global warming, 9.85E-07 0 species.yr Terrestrial 7.93E-07 1.55E-09 species.yr
Terrestrial ecosystems acidication
Human carcinogenic -8.59E-06 5.77E-11 DALY Terrestrial ecotoxicity 2.19E-08 3.75E-15 species.yr
toxicity
Human non- 6.74E-05 2.72E-09 DALY Water consumption, 3.84E-12 1.51E-12 species.yr
carcinogenic toxicity Aquatic ecosystems
Ionizing radiation 5.30E-07 0 DALY Water consumption, 1.41E-05 5.55E-06 DALY
Human health
Land use -3.18E-09 0 species.yr Water consumption, 8.58E-08 3.38E-08 species.yr
Terrestrial ecosystem

TECHNICAL PAPER
mechanical rubbing and impact break down a signicant beneciation. As a result, it is essential that the acid
amount of the original natural aggregates to powder. employed for beneciation has no or little inuence on the
consistency of the NA present. For example, when the NA
Though treatment with bio deposition represent a potential in recycled concrete aggregates is primarily granite,
scenario for the creation of innovative self-healing hydrochloric acid (HCl) and sulfuric acid (H2SO4) are the
materials, they also allow for a wide variety of applications. best acids to employ to remove mortar. An effective
The use of bio-deposition for recycled aggregate recycled concrete aggregates beneciation process is acid
consolidation is an option to examine here. The utilization treatment at high acid concentrations. The use of powerful
of recycled materials as aggregates has a signicant sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, on the other hand, leads
potential for increasing the sustainability of the in a large rise in the sulphate and chloride content of the
construction sector. However, because of their high-water aggregates following treatment, which may lead to
absorption as compared to typical natural aggregates, concrete durability issues. As a result, soundness tests were
recycled aggregates often result in a loss in concrete performed to establish the durability in relation to various
characteristics. As a result, recycled aggregates benet molarity concentrations. The Environmental Impact
from bacterial treatment, which increases their density and Assessment results of HCl & H2SO4 by OpenLCA shows
the qualities of the RA by depositing CaCO3 into the pores the contributions of environmental impacts, the H2SO4
in which they are mixed. But compared to other processing has more toxicity than compared to HCl. Hence
beneciations, this technique doesn't remove any adhered HCl beneciation process is adopted for RA physical
mortar content & has less percentage of RA physical property improvement.
characteristic property improvements.
Furthermore, in addition to mortar removal efciency, 7. CONCRETE MIX PROPORTIONS
compatibility with the kind of Natural Aggregates (NA) The base and RCC concrete mix was designed as per
included in the recycled concrete aggregates being treated IRC:44-2017. The following Table 2 shows the mix
is a crucial parameter in selecting a suitable acid for proportion.
Table 2 Concrete Mix Proportions
(a) Blending proportion of RCCA with NA (b) Cement in kg/m3 (c) Water in kg/m3 (d) Fine Aggregates in kg/m3 (e) Coarse Aggregates
in kg/m3 (f) Silica Fumes in kg/m3 (g) Chemical Admixture in kg/m3
8. FRESH PROPERTIES OF RCCA 9. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

CONCRETE RESULTS
The following Table shows the fresh properties of RCCA The Fig. 5 shows Average 28 days compressive test results
concrete & Statistical Comparison with Regression Analysis data
Table 3 Fresh Properties of RCCA Concrete
(a) Blending proportion of RCCA with NA, (b) Slump value in Fig.5 Compressive Strength of RCCA with Statistical
mm, (c) Compaction test value & (d) Vee-Bee test result in Sec Comparison by Regression Analysis

TECHNICAL PAPER
10. FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF RCCA Table 4 Statistical Comparison with Regression

Analysis data for M40 RCCA
The following gure shows Average 28 days exural test results The Optimum dose was assessed based on statistical comparison
with regression analysis & was discovered to be y=48.25N/mm2.
On solving equation we get below x values
Avg. Avg.
Optimum Blending Proportion of Comppressiv Flexural
RCCA with NA in% e Strength in Strength
N/mm2 in N/mm2
Without any admixtures & Benication Process
y = -0.317x + 49.72
4.6 49.22 5.11
R2 = 0.9598
Concrete Mix with beneciation process by Acid soaking (HCI) &
without any admixtures
Fig.6 Flexural Strength of RCCA y = 0.315x + 52.51
13.49 50.33 5.05
11. PERME ABILITY TEST VALUE OF RCCA R2 = 0.9731
Concrete Mix with admixtures & Without beneciation process by

The following gure shows permeability test value as per Acid soaking (HCI)
IS 3085:1965 for various RCCA proportions under 5 bar
pressure applied for 72 hours. y = -0.3498x + 53.58
15.23 49.5 5.88
R2 = 0.977
With (10% silica fumes, Super Plasticizers & Beneciation

Process)
y = -0.3036x + 56.22
26.03 50.79 6.00
R2 = 0.9905
Fig.7 Permeability Test Value for RCCA

12. STATISTICAL COMPARISON OF REGRESSION
ANALYSIS DATA Fig. 8 Neural Network
The following Table 4 shows the comparison of regression
analysis with respect to R-square value and also shows
compressive and exural strength values for RCCA optimum
blend. The maximum replacement is 26.03% of RCCA for
concrete mix with 10% silica fumes, super plasticizers &
beneciation process. With respect to the optimum blend, the
experimental Values of compression and exural strength
obtained is more than the theoretical targeted strength.
13. ANN PREDICTION FOR RCCA CONCRETE
MIX
This ANN technique is done in MATLAB software, the
software will be trained with 18 variables such as ne &
coarse aggregates test results, mix proportions and fresh
properties are given as Input and the target values obtained
will be hardened properties such as compression, exural
& permeability and with RCCA proportion. The Table 5
shows the Input, Target & Sample datas. Fig. 9 ANN Traning & Validation Test Results

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 5 ANN In-put, Target & Sample datas for Prediction of RCCA Concrete Mix
analysis. The experimental compression & exural strength

values are considered in accordance with IRC:58-2015
Table 7 Pavement Thickness Design Parameters as

per IRC 58-2015
Temperature differential 21 Spacing between 450
in OC (t) joints in m
Compressive Strength in 50.79 Width if slab in m 350

N/mm2
Flexural Strength of 61.18 Design life in years 20

Cement Concrete in kg/cm2
Fig.10 ANN Predicted Values
Sub grade reaction modulus 8 Total two way trafc 3000
The following Table 6 shows the comparison of actual (K) in kg/cm3 in CVPD
experimental and predicted values
32070 co-efcient of 0.00
Output values Actual ANN Difference Elastic Modulus (E) Thermal Expansion 0007
Experimental Predicted in accuracy in (α)
Values Values In %
Average Compressive 50.79 51.58 1.53 Cumulative number
Tyre pressure in kg/cm2 4741
strength in N/mm2 8 of repetition
8626
C=365xA((1+r)n-
Average Flexural 6.0 6 00 1)/r
strength in N/mm2
Average Permeability 18.2 17.36 4.61 Design trafc
test value in mm 1185
Posson’s ratio 0.1575 accounts for 25% of
4657
total commerciaol
RFA Proportion 26.03 23 11.64 vehicle repetitions.
Rate of trafc increase 0.075 Thickness in cm 26

14. OPTIMIZATION OF M40 RCCA PAVEMENT
SLAB THICKNESS AS PER IRC:58-2002
From IRC:58-2015 charts, the cumulative fatigue life
Every Indian code procedure for pavement design utilises consumed is calculated and tabulated in Table 8. The total
Westergaard's analysis with assumptions such as. Soil is life consumed is less than one and hence the slab thickness
elastic and semi-innite, with zero horizontal deformation. 26 cm is considered safe and is taken further to calculate
IRC:58-2015 also makes reference to Westergaard's wheel load & temperature stresses as shown in Table 9.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 8 Cumulative Fatigue Life Consumed 15. VALIDATION OF M40 RCCA SLAB BY ANSYS
by M40 RCCA
The one-wheel load applied on the pavement (Corner,
Interior & Edge). As per westergaard's guidelines the load
is applied on circular manner with respect to radius of
equivalent circular contact area of tyre. The stresses with
respect to Corner, Interior & Edge are shown below.
Table 9 Wheel Load & Temperature Stresses
for M40 RCCA
From Table 8 & 9 Highest axle load Stress is 34 kg/cm2 &

highest wheel load stress is 10.52 kg/cm2 together is 44.52
kg/cm this value is less than Flexural Strength of Cement
2
Concrete 61.18 kg/cm , hence 26cm slab thickness is safe.

2
Fig. 11 Shows (a) loading position on the pavement (b) Meshing (c) Stress at the loading
position (d) ANSYS Analysis
Fig.12 ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA Corner Loading

TECHNICAL PAPER
Fig. 13 ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA Interior Loading
Fig.14 ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA Edge Loading
15.1 Comparison of Analytical solution (IRC:58-

2015) & ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA
The following Table 10 gives the comparison between
Analytical solution & ANSYS Solution
Table 10 Comparison of Analytical solution
(IRC:58-2015) & ANSYS Solution
for M40 RCCA
Fig.15 Fatigue and Permeability test setup
On an average the ANSYS solutions is having 15.55 %

variations than compared with Analytical solution
(IRC:58-2015)
16. FATIGUE AND PERMEABILITY TEST
VALUE FOR OPTIMUM BLENDING OF
RCCA
The fatigue test results for stress ratio.
i. For the optimum M40 RCCA blend of 20.44%, the Fig.16 Fatigue test value for Optimum
permeability test value is 21.5 mm blending of RCCA

TECHNICAL PAPER
17. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY aggregates, as well as the economic impacts of the
supplementary methodology in terms of overall cost,
The extent to which the essential features of RCCA differ
energy use, and carbon footprint of recycling. However,
from those of NA is linked to the mortar content. As a
OpenLCA software has been used to analyse the
result, attempts have been undertaken to manufacture
environmental impact assessment outcomes of HCl.
RCCA with reduced mortar contents. Beneciation
methods have primarily been explored and demonstrated 18. CONCLUSIONS
to be efcient at achieving the latter. Additional crushing
i. On the frame, the primary chemical, physical, and
typically results in a considerable drop in the total yield of mechanical characteristics of RCCA were tested
coarse RCCA due to the breaking of a major percentage of using different experimental techniques. The
the comparatively weaker original aggregates into ner results reveal that the adhered mortar content of
fragments. RCCA is affected by the parent concrete's
Furthermore, implementing extra crushing stages in the characteristics, the crushing procedure, and the
recycling process results in a signicant rise in expenses, grain size (the bigger the particles, the lesser the
necessitating a trade-off between RCCA quality and adhered mortar content).
expense. A number of beneciation techniques have also ii. Technical characteristics of coarse and ne RCCA
been developed to lower the mortar content of RCCA. To were evaluated in order to utilise literature methods
remove the mortar, these processes typically employ for predicting compressive strengths of mortars and
mechanical, chemical, thermal, and bacterial beneciation concretes. According to these investigations,
treatments. Cementitious materials corrode easily, and RCCA have a signicant threshold impact, which
because cement is alkaline, the adherend cement mortar may restrict the compressive strength of concrete.
may be removed using strong acids without compromising iii. The addition of RCCA to the same class of
the physical properties of the aggregate, unlike other compressive strength usually results in a drop in
beneciation methods. strength qualities. The amount of this drop is
dependent on the quality of the RCCA and can be
However, in addition to mortar removal effectiveness, comparable to that reported for concretes made
compatibility with the kind of NA contained in the RCCA with low-quality NA.
being treated is a crucial consideration when selecting an iv. Because of the presence of the previous adhered
appropriate acid for RCCA beneciation. The acid cement matrix, RCCA has a reduced specic
employed for RCCA beneciation must thus have no or gravity, water absorption, crushing test value,
very little impact on the quality of the NA already present. impact test value, Los angeles abrasion value,
For instance, HCl is best suited for usage to remove mortar soundness test value than compared to NA.
when the NA used in RCCA are primarily granite. This is v. In concerning to environmental impacts based on
due to the substantially poorer solubility of the component OpenLCA, H2SO4 has shown more impact to the
minerals of granite in these acids. The efciency of the acid surrounding environments than compared to Hcl.
treatment system is affected by a number of factors, vi. Amongst beneciation process, Acid beneciation
including mortar and NA porosities, acid concentration, technique have promising improvements in
acid volume, RCCA volume, temperature, container type physical and mechanical characteristics of RCCA
(static vs. dynamic), soaking period, and so on. The use of aggregates (specic gravity increased by 5.1 %,
stronger hydrochloric acids, on the other hand, causes a water absorption 28.8%, crushing test value 16.5%,
signicant rise in the chloride content of the aggregates impact test value 18.8%, Los Angeles Abrasion
after treatment, which may lead to concrete durability value 14.4%, soundness test value of 39.3% &
issues.To overcome this, current research has primarily mortar reduction 18%).
focused on the use of relatively low acid concentrations (1 vii. From the experimental results it is seen that the
molar), and this process is more time consuming than other strength properties like compression, exural &
beneciation techniques, requiring more than 24 hours to fatigue linearly decreases with increasing
percentage of RCCA.
complete. The HCl concentration used in the current study
viii. Based on Regression Analysis Prediction by
is primarily an excellent approach for eliminating adherent
Optimum blending of RCCA after beneciation
mortar content in RCCA rather than a legitimate process as in Table 4. The maximum replacement
beneciation technique on its own.The major limitations of percentage of RA increased for M40 RCCA from
this investigation that could be recommended for future 4.6 to 26.03 %.
research are the suitability of concrete using RCCA for ix. The beneciation process with 10% silica,
high-performance concrete, the utilisation of recycled superplastizer & acid soaking has exhibited
mixed aggregates, and the assessment of signicant optimistic improvements in physical and mechanical
environmental hazards of concrete made using recycled characteristics of RA's concrete, has providentially

TECHNICAL PAPER
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TECHNICAL PAPER
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF AUTONOMOUS

VEHICLES: AN OVERVIEW
DR. PRADIP KUMAR SARKAR1 SUKANYA SARKAR2
1. INTRODUCTION limitations experienced by humans resulting in saving road

accidents. Even in normal circumstances if there is a crash
It is generally believed that human drivers are prone to being unavoidable, the advanced computer system built in
taking poor decisions before the occurrence of crashes. It is to the autonomous vehicle should be designed in such a
therefore felt if any persons even with no and little way to quickly calculate the best way handling the
experience of driving would be able to use the autonomous situation. The advanced algorithm would react with
vehicle safely and comfortably. As regards to today's certainty in measurements; work much faster and with
conceived automated vehicles, it offers a limited sensing greater precision than a human. The algorithm in the
and processing power. Therefore, it is imperative to realize computer should be designed to address the problem of
whether the autonomous vehicles would be able to unavoidable crash not by deciding the braking alone which
eliminate all crashes with the help of sensors and may not be optimal, but also with at highway speeds based
algorithms developed with fully automated vehicle with on its effectiveness to combine braking with swerving, or
level ve, by taking into account the ndings of vehicle even swerving and accelerating in an evasive maneuver.
ethical safety research as it is concerned with evaluating
and choosing among alternatives in a manner consistent It would be interesting and note-worthy to discuss
aceptability and apprehension of the autonomous vehicle in
with ethical principles in context of Commitment,
Indian contest(1). There has been an empirical research
Consciousness and Competency. These are the key to the
conducted in India that investigates into perception of
concept of ethics. In this context, it could be elaborated Autonomous Vehicles' (AV) acceptance among forth-
further that the commitment of driving consciously safe coming probable users in India. Mathematical model using
with moral responsibility which would be consistent with Multinomial Logistic regression (MNL) was developed to
prevailing driving rules are the important factors to interpret the users' degree of interest regarding AVs in
develop competency of driving from the perspective of relation to socio-economic variables like users' education
ethical considerations. This is related to a person's moral and employment standards and other variables like cost and
choice from among the many possible choices leading to an expenses incurred, overall safety issues, obstacles and
ethical decision. benets concerning AV. It was revealed that about 91 percent
of the respondents are aware of AV while 50 percent
If even perfect vehicles experience occasional crash, then
opined their apprehensions regarding AVs' reliability of the
there should always be a scope for additional components to total respondents, 40 percent demonstrated strong interest in
be factored in the design of ethical decision-making system. AVs. It is worth mentioning that high order of interest
These advanced automated vehicles, as it is understood by towards AV increases with education and employment
all sections of our society will be able to make pre-crash standards. It needs to be further stated that the dearth of
decisions effectively using sophisticated software and consumer readiness and fear of accepting advanced
sensors. It can accurately detect nearby vehicle trajectories technology is also one of the major concerns with respect to
that would enable the AV to perform high-speed avoidance its reliability.
maneuvers. Thus it would help overcome many of the The results exhibited is a public opinion based on survey
1 Former HOD, Transport Planning at School of Planning and Architecture, New Delhi, Email: [email protected]
2 PhD Scholar at Vidya Sagar University, Midnapore, WB

TECHNICAL PAPER
conducted in China, India, Japan, USA, UK and Australia adaptability to the computers to follow the rules for
on people's perception towards AV with around 500 maximizing the functions.
samples per country, that people in China and India showed
Initially a rational system for automated vehicle's ethical
high interest towards automated vehicles, with 85 percent
safety may be designed which minimize global damage.
respondents delivering positive attitude while Japan
The standards for a set of rules in the system should be
observed 50 percent respondents with neutral views
arrived at through consensus by developers of automated
towards AVs. It may be stated that, 16 percent respondents
vehicles, lawyers, transportation engineers, and ethicists, to
from USA showed negative towards AVs (Schoettle &
make it open and transparent to discourage auto makers
Sivak, 2014). Besides these, cyber security, trafc safety,
from building in excessive self-protection into the
privacy issues and legal aspects are also key apprehensions
algorithms. It should be based on rules consisting of widely
towards commercial success of the vehicle.
agreed upon concepts that would help in decision making
2. ESSENCE OF ETHICAL SAFETY probably with respect to injuries rather than occurrence of
death caused by the automated vehicle, and property
Designing an ethical safe autonomous vehicle is as
damage with the prime objective of protecting vulnerable
complex as behavior of human mind as the perceptions of
users. The preparation of a safety matrix plays an important
exhibiting ethical safety behavior does appear to be varying
role as a part decision-making algorithm. A system should
across the different sections of people. The common
be based on value-of-life estimates to start with. It is
approaches so far used to study the ethical behavior on
important to state that the stakeholders are also required to
safety are namely i) Consequentialism, ii) deontological
identify the constraints and common interests and come to
iii) Virtual Ethics that offer their own merits and demerits.
consensus decisions to select the most appropriate suiting to
The above can be dened and elaborated as under:
the values arising out from the three components of
i) Consequentialism: Consequentialist ethics technically possibility, ethically justiable and legally
postulates that the normative properties of an action desirable[1a] to societies' requirement out of various conicts
depend on the consequences they bring about. situations as shown in Fig 1.
Consequentialist ethics assumes that humans are
goal-directed and that aim at producing certain
results to achieve their goals, hence the emphasis
on the consequence.
ii) Deontological ethics: As consequentialism
focuses on the consequences of an action, on the
other hand, deontological ethics focuses on the
actions themselves, more specically on the duties.
From the perspective of deontological point of
view, something is moral not because of its
consequences, but is moral because the motive or
intent is good. The concept of DUTY becomes an
important part of his ethical framework.
iii) Virtue Ethics: In contrast to the consequences of a Fig. 1 Issues from common interests and constraints
behaviour or duties, virtue ethics is concerned with to address Ethical components (Source:1)
the moral character of actions that relates to how
3. DESIGN CONSIDERATION FOR ETHICAL
virtues are acquired, and applied to behaviour. It
has its origins in the work of Plato and Aristotle. SAFETY
Instead of asking the question, “What should I The automated vehicle can interpret the sensor data and
do?”, virtue ethics asks itself, “What would a make a decision, but the decision itself is a result of logic
virtuous person do in this situation?”. It is developed and coded over months or years ago. Fig 2 & Fig
concerned with overall moral character and making 3 demonstrate how human and computer function their tasks
decisions that demonstrate your virtues. Virtue in driving the vehicle while Fig 3 exhibits the process of the
ethics shares the conict problem with AV responding road trafc situations using the data
deontological ethics. collected from the sensors. The study by Noel[2] examines
the automated vehicle crashing and conclusive ndings are
Rather than strictly adhering to the rules demonstrated in related to: (i) automated vehicles will almost certainly crash,
the above methods, perhaps rules of rational approaches, (ii) an automated vehicle's decisions preceding certain
which go beyond with the inclusion of the methods. This crashes will have a moral component, and (iii) there is no
method has an appeal to the engineers for its quick response obvious way to effectively encode complex human morals
to apply its moral behavior when encountering new unsafe in software. Finally the authors made a three-phase
situations. It offers major advantage with respect to its easy approach to developing ethical crashing algorithms, which

TECHNICAL PAPER
consist of a rational approach, an articial intelligence should be able to exhibit the compliance of their rational
approach, and a natural language requirement. In the behavior with legislative norms coupled with ethical
following, the discussion on ethical deliberations guidelines.[6]
surrounding the autonomous vehicle, including involved
stakeholders, technologies, social environments, and costs When it comes to hardware and hardware-software
vs. quality can be put forward along with emphasis security systems, the manufacture should ensure that the quality of
and privacy, trust and transparency [3,4] . sensors which are error free providing absolute correct data
should be considered over cheaper unreliable sensors,
Human without compromising price and safety. Even a mechanism
of transferring the responsibility from AV to manually
driven system is to be built if a critical situation could not
be handled and it would allow the users to intervene. From
the legal perspective, one could raise a question under
which conditions it should be required to have a driving
license for a self-driving car? Or whether Police would
have any role to check the status of driver driving the AV
vehicle?
Fig. 2. Comparison of human and computers sense, 3.2 Security
think and act process (Source:4)
Overall Security can be said to be very important, with
more emphasis on the requirement of software security for
AV. “Key principles of vehicle cyber security for
connected and automated vehicles”[5] rest on the following
eight basic principles:
i. Organizational security is owned, governed, and
promoted at board level;
ii. Security risks are assessed and managed
appropriately and proportionately, including those
specic to the supply chain;
iii. Organizations need product aftercare and incident
Fig. 3. Abstract representation of decision making in response to ensure systems are secure over their
functioning of AV (Source:4 lifetime;
iv. All organizations, including sub-contractors,
3.1 Safety suppliers, and potential 3rd parties, work together
to enhance the security of the system;
Safety comes as a primary requirement of autonomous
v. Systems are designed using a defense-in-depth
cars. The moot question is then: what are methods by
approach;
which should a self-driving car[4] be tested? How the
vi. The security of the software is managed throughout
guideline should be to formulate to make sure that AV is
its lifetime;
safe for its use. For example, the ISO 26262 is one of the
vii. The storage and transmission of data is secure and
documents specifying the safety standard for road
can be controlled;
vehicles. Presently an attempt is being made to develop
viii. The system is designed to be resilient to attacks and
self-driving cars standards, based on experiences and
respond appropriately when its defenses or sensors
R&D. It is noteworthy to mention that Google autonomous
fail.
car tests have already travelled more than one million
kilometers without any accident. The question arises what kind of a minimum-security
threshold should be developed to allow a self-driving car to
The question arises that what kind of software along with
be used? We are aware that whenever there is a crash of
the source code is to be developed for AV to address various
airplane in the air, the black boxes built in the airplane
issues connected with ethical, technological and legal
captures the causes of incidence of the crash. Similarly, it
aspects. Should there be an independent organization to
check those? But could it actually be checked? Who else is also imperative that there should be a provision of black
than the developers at a car manufacturer or supplier will boxes in the AV too to determine what happened before a
understand such a complex system? These are the pertinent crash. There may be more questions on security issues and
questions to be addressed before we embark on to software updates. Whether it would be ethical or legal to
implementing AV for commercial scale. drive AV vehicle self- driving car without having the latest
software version running? How the bugs in the new
The concerned authority for testing of present-day AV cars software are required to be addressed?

TECHNICAL PAPER
3.3 Privacy compromise with transparency that would acknowledge

Privacy is also one of the very important factors which
[4,5] the facts of copyright, corporate secrets, security concerns
can not be ignored while designing the AV. The more the and many other related topics.
data being collected from the AV while one is driving, the The question is how much to be disclosed, whether it is to
more the system would interfere with data, the more it be at all disclosed and if so, to who is to be disclosed?
penetrate in the domain of privacy protection. An example
may be cited with respect to privacy. Even a single sensor Further the question arises if the entire ecosystem becomes
associated with recording visual objects or sound could transparent then what manner the intellectual property
invade privacy of the concerned person during driving the rights are to be tackled?
AV, if the data is distributed without the consent of the 3.6 Reliability
involved persons. The general question is what would be
nature and magnitude of data the car supposed to collect for In order to ensure the functioning of the AV , one of the
the decision-making? Who will access those data? When important questions on reliability remains to be answered
will these data to be destroyed? related to reliability of the mobile cell network[4,5]. How
reliable is the mobile network? In the absence of mobile
It may also be related to use of active signals generated by network or failure of sensor(s), would the system be
the devices to detect moving obstacles within the car when turned into redundancy for everything? At these
some one is using the car as contrary to who is not carrying circumstances, can a threshold value be determined to
such devices? ensure reliability for using AV ? The reliability factors
Again the question is how much is required for the purpose should be based on i) the diagnostic of the vehicle, ii)
of evaluation? The data generated by sensors or devices efciency of the functioning of the vehicle sensors, the data
installed in the AV poses threat for being connected to other received from the external sources.
types of data like the phone number, the bank account, the 3.7 Responsibility and Accountability
credit cards, personal details, or health data?
It is of utmost importance to dene the responsibility of the
All the questions raised are somewhat related to legislation autonomous cars. There are frequent questions arising out
and also to some extent, it may be called ethical. There is most when the AV meets with an accident. After the
evidence that Regulation (EU) 2016/679 of the European accident or incident, the question is: how is the
Parliament and of the Council (the General Data Protection responsibility to be dened. The present EU regulations [9]
Regulation) is setting a legal framework to protect personal on algorithmic decision-making and a “right to
data [7]. explanation” elaborates that it is the right of the user to ask
for an explanation of the algorithmic (machine) decision
3.4 Trust
that was made about them. Perhaps one learns a great deal
Trust is an integral part of behavior which is also
[4]
with respect to ethical aspects of responsibility, from the
somewhat related to ethical system, which cannot be existing Robo-ethics and the responsibility in autonomous
overlooked even in the design, and development of robots, e.g., [10]
autonomous vehicle. Let us take an example, whenever any
3.8 Quality Assurance Process
users would use his AV, he would be interested to ascertain
whether vehicle's in-built hardware including sensors as Finally it is believed that any product released from the
well as software are free from all errors and the data factory can be placed in the market through the process of
received from external sources such as GPS, map data, testing and quality assurance. It is extremely imperative
which are used in the calculation of the route are reliable or that all concerned activities must be contemplated and
trust worthy for his safe journey. placed in proper scientic framework in order to ensure
adherence to the high quality of the product. The question
Therefore, one can even argue that are the sensors, is how to ensure overall quality of the product within the
hardware and software designed as a part of the system appropriate time framework of the decision-making? The
trustworthy? quality always depends on how the lifetime of the
3.5 Transparency components functions along with their maintenance
schedules? What would be standard operating protocol for
In addition to above, the transparency of the vehicle's maintenance to be observed for ensuring desired quality? It
performance is of immense signicance. It is felt necessary is a pertinent question to address when car manufacturers
that transparency is an important component for ethical adopt a non-transparent process of software engineering,
engagement in the development of autonomous cars that how could anyone ensure that the car would adhere to a
should address all aspects such as nothing hidden, no certain ethical guideline? It therefore calls for to identify
cover-ups, no withholding of information[8]. This challenge responsibility on who is to be placed?
arises from multi disciplinary areas. The stakeholders from
the various sections of society should ensure that there is no Quality Assurance (QA) process is mostly placed with

TECHNICAL PAPER
assembling of components of the vehicles. All components a modicum of chance for injury to passengers and drivers
of a vehicle are designed, manufactured and then upon the crash. Whereas decisions of minor effect are less
assembled to the overall car making. A standard non- morally important, it may be addressed with an action to
autonomous good vehicle today is generally characterized avoid the occurrence of possibilities of fatalities at the rst
by more than 100 electronic control units that are instance itself during the event of crash. With less concern
responsible for the control of the engine, wipers, with lower risk situation of self-driving cars, it might even
navigation system or the dashboard[11]. For the purpose of cause less harm to the crash. Would there be an interference
self-driving, it is expected that the number of electronic with the freedom of choice; will passengers be informed
control units will be increased. Most of the time, parts of about the reasons for such decisions? It is important to
the vehicle are usually manufactured by a multitude of determine how much control a person should have, that
suppliers located at various places, which calls for an will be taken into account to choose the safest path and help
extensive design and development process. This again is him proceed. However if injury cannot be avoided, the
also linked to various disciplines, such as engineering, automated vehicle must decide how to decide to travel safe
software engineering or project management. When to avoid crash. This would quickly become a moral
thinking the whole system from the wider perspective, it decision, demonstrated in an example from Marcus [13]. In
obviously gives rise to the ethical questions and the example, as illustrated in Fig 4, an automated vehicle is
traveling on a two-lane bridge when a bus traveling in the
challenges. It is therefore imperative to include ethical
opposite direction suddenly veers into its lane. The
deliberations in not only the overall processes but also in all
automated vehicle must decide how to react using
sub processes. As it is stated in[12] “value-based ethical whatever logic has been programmed in advance. There
aspects, which today are implicit, should be made visible in are three alternatives[2,13]:
the course of design and development of technical systems,
and thus a subject of scrutiny”. a. Veer left and off the bridge, guaranteeing a severe
one vehicle crash.
If we take seriously from understanding the whole b. Crash head-on into the bus, resulting in a moderate
processes from the angle of ethics, it will help us to make two-vehicle crash.
ethically justied decisions. c. Attempt to squeeze pass the bus on the right. If the
3.9 Stakeholders - General Public Interests bus suddenly corrects back towards its own lane, a
Human concerns must be taken into account in the decision low-probability event given how far the bus has
making of self-driving cars. Should there be an emergency drifted, a crash is avoided. If the bus does not
button to allow the human to intervene with the decision correct itself, a high-probability event, then a
making of the self- driving car? Putting the human back in severe two-vehicle crash results. This crash would
the loop of decision making also inicts with the autonomy be a small offset crash, which carries a greater risk
of the system. Is it then truly self- driving? Giving of injury than the full frontal collision in
passengers a choice to intervene with the decisions of the alternative b .
self-driving car puts the passenger back in charge, which
would be responsible to press or not to press the button in
all situations. In the context of the self-driving car, the
computer decision might be better, but it might also be
worse than human, because of possible errors .
[6]
3.10 Design Perspective

Based on the above discussions with respect to ethical
values of safety to that of AV, one has to agree that the AV
should not be designed and manufactured without Fig. 4. Diagram of three alternative trajectories for
incorporating ethical safety in the design. There are a an automated vehicle when an oncoming bus
number of risky situations that a driver is confronted with suddenly enters its lane (Source:2,13)
before avoiding a crash. Many a times, the crash cannot be It is important to note that these outcomes can only be
avoided due to complexities of issues. The question is how predicted by the automated vehicle, the algorithm of
to program the AV to avoid the crash by taking ethical automated vehicle's path planning would have to quickly
values in the design. determine the range of possible outcomes for each
An example can be cited to strengthen the above decision- considered path, the likelihood of those outcomes
making process. When any stakeholders takes a high stake occurring, and the algorithm's condence in these
moral decision with respect to how an AV would behave at estimates based on quality of sensor data and other factors.
the event of crash, including whether it would steer itself Finally, the algorithm would need to somehow optimize an
for which the resulting harms are distributed in a certain objective function over the range of considered paths and
way without resulting in any fatalities but however keeping quickly determine the safest route.

TECHNICAL PAPER
4. ETHICAL ASPECTS OF SOCIAL to be reported in the domain of autonomous vehicle as the

CHALLENGES future of transportation systems in the world[14, 15]. At this
stage we must look into start taking up more R& D into the
The success of self-driving cars will obviously bear a great manifold of ethical challenges surrounding self-driving
impact on job markets. For example for taxi drivers, and connected vehicles . Presently a lot of efforts are
[16]
chauffeurs or truck drivers, they nd themselves directed towards to attain the AV technology to a ve level
redundant. The perception of cars will change and cars system under controlled conditions with the focus on the
might be seen as a service that is used for transportation. practical technological solutions and their social and
The idea of having a vehicle that is specialized for the ethical consequences. It is needless to say that human
specic use, e.g. off road, city road, long travels might factor is the major safety concern. This calls for the basic
become attractive. This might impact the business model requirements like security, safety, privacy, trust etc. and
of car manufacturer and their market. social challenges in general including legislation and
This in itself poses ethical problems: what strategy should be stakeholders interests. Therefore these real-world techno-
applied for people loosing jobs because of the transition to social problems must be taken seriously.
self- driving cars? It is expected that the accident frequency The implementation of the output derived from the
will decrease rapidly, so car insurances may become less decision-making process is one of the primary concerns to
important. This may affect insurance companies in terms of the behavior of vehicles as the end users would have to be
jobs and the business. There are experiences that may help satised from the perspective of internal and external
anticipate and better plan for the process of transition. performances with respect to its technology. It should be
mandatory for this emerging technology designed for self-
5. IMPORTANCE OF RULE-BASED SOFTWARE driving cars to follow ethical guidelines where all types of
FOR ETHICAL SAFETY stakeholders should agree upon to use an autonomous black
box as used in the aircraft to assess the causes and effects of
In the next phase, an automated vehicle's software should be
the behavior of driving activity. This would lead to new
designed to make use of machine learning techniques to expectations, affecting software engineering which is
understand the correct ethical decision, along with keeping involved in all its stages - from its regulatory infrastructure,
the rule-based system in track which has been developed in to the requirements engineering, development,
the initial stage. The neural network to be integrated as a part implementation, testing and verication[17, 18] Software is the
of articial intelligence software may be one of the ideal central and integral part dealing with a complex
solutions to be trained and developed on a combination of relationship of man–machine system. As different types of
simulation and data on recordings of crashes and near- issues are likely to emerge over a period of time, it is
crashes. It is increasingly felt that in order to improve the expected that software engineering is also likely to be
shortcomings in neural network's comprehensibility, affected and its need to be adjusted with improved
recently developed techniques to extract rule-based algorithm to cope up with the situation in the near future.
explanations from neural networks, Neuro-Fuzzy, Fuzzy
Logic and Genetic Algorithm that are understandable by a There is a need to explore all possibilities for a trade off
human may be more appropriate to translate into Articial analysis between businesses needs and addressing the
Intelligence working with the machine language. This can be issues on ethics. It would be imperative to certainly avoid
treated as natural language. It may not be always necessary to compromise safety from the perspective of business
that every decision be accurately represented by a rule, priorities, e.g. equipping the car with cheaper but
wherein some rules may be overly complex. Regardless, rule unreliable sensors. It is strongly advisable to incorporate
extraction will likely be a useful of starting point to ethical thinking and reasoning into the design and
understanding of the logic of articial intelligence, and development process of autonomous and self-driving
similarly the decisions of automated vehicles. The research vehicles. It is therefore felt necessary to consider ethical
also suggest that one can develop ethical safety of automated aspects in every phase of a software development process,
vehicle considering three phase approaches i) Rational right from requirements, till testing, maintenance, and
approach, ii) Hybrid Rational and Articial Intelligence evolution along with architectural and design decisions for
Approach to nally to iii) Articial Intelligence Approach. autonomous vehicles. Bringing transparency of this
These three stages of development of ethical safety[2] of process of development & evaluations should be the key
autonomous vehicle can be said to be through the process of requirement to the AV success.
an incremental approach to the development of ethical safety REFERENCES
approach for the automated vehicle ethics and will ultimately
nd a place in domain of articial intelligence. 1. Amab, Jana. et al, “Autonomous Vehicle as a future mode of
transport in India: Analyzing the perception, opportunities
6. CONCLUSIONS
and hurdles”, https://www.researchgate .net/publication/
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TECHNICAL PAPER
1.a Ryan Jenkins”Autonomous Vehicles, Ethics & Law, 165–168, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, The Netherlands,
Toward Overlapping Consensus , New America”, Sep, 2016 2008. IOS Press.
2. Noah Joseph Goodall, “Ethical Decision Making During 11. P. Pelliccion, E. Knauss, R. Heldal, S. M. Ågren, P.
Automated Vehicle Crashes”, Transportation Research Mallozzi, A. Alminger, and D. Borgentun. Automotive
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Pelliccione,” Ethical Decision Making During Automated Inclusion of ethical aspects in multi-criteria decision
Vehicle Crashes” , ARXIV'18, January 2018, Gothenburg, analysis. In 2016 1st International Workshop on Decision
4. Tobias Holstein “Ethical and Social Aspects of Self Driving Making in Software Architecture (MARCH), pages 1–8,
Cars” ARXIV' 5th, February, 2018, Gothenburg. April 2016.
5. Daimler. Daimler claries: Neither programmers nor 13. Marcus, G. Moral Machines. The New Yorker Blogs, Nov. 27,
automated systems are entitled to weigh the value of human 2012. http://www.newyorker.com/ online/blogs/
lives - Daimler Global Media Site, 2016 newsdesk/2012/11/google- morality.html. Accessed Mar. 8, 2013.
6. Department of Motor Vehicles (State of California). Testing 14. Ethics commission on automated driving presents report:
of Autonomous Vehicles. First guidelines in the world for self-driving computers.
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/testing.
Infrastructure, 2017.
7. European Union. Regulation (eu) 2016/679 of the European
15. N. H. T. S. A. (NHTSA). "dot/nhtsa policy statement
parliament and of the council of 27 april 2016 on the
concerning automated vehicles" 2016 update to
protection of natural persons with regard to the processing
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repealing directive 95/46/ec (general data protection vehicles". Technical report, National Highway Trafc
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IRC's Technical Committees Meeting Schedule for the month of May, 2023

TECHNICAL PAPER
DETERMINATION OF VERTICAL PILE CAPACITY BASED

ON ELASTIC SETTLEMENT
S.K. BAGUI1 ATASI DAS2 FAIZ ULLAH3
ABSTRACT:
Vertical capacity of a pile is initially determined based on geotechnical investigation report and conrmed by conducting
initial static pile load test and dynamic and routine pile load tests. There are many empirical formulas which are used to
conrm the vertical capacity and those formulas vary from country to country. Final settlement is usually considered up-to
10% of pile diameter and adopted by many countries. When a top-down load is applied, the load is resisted by skin friction and
end bearing and settlement to some extent occurs in the pile and surrounding soil. Elastic settlement in pile occurs during pile
load test which can be determined by cyclic load testing or unloading the load. Therefore, elastic settlement in a pile is an
important parameter which shall not be overlooked. Pile capacity can be determined in consideration of elastic settlement
with a suitable factor of safety. This paper presents a methodology based on 20 initial pile load test results and one routine pile
load test result. Elastic settlements of 6 mm and 6.5 mm for initial pile load test mm are considered for initial static pile load test
to determine the ultimate pile capacity. A factor of safety of 2.0 can be applied to obtain design pile capacity for initial pile load
tests conducted by static method considering elastic settlement of 6 mm. It is observed that proposed methods give better
results within permissible design value with standard deviation of 0.172 and coefcient of variation 0.083.
1. INTRODUCTION C depends on the type of the distribution and C is 0.5 for

rectangular distribution and 0.333 for triangular
Elastic shortening of pile is given by the following
distribution.
equation if a load (P) acts on the top of the pile and no shaft
resistance acts along the periphery of pile. Pile capacity is generally from pile load Vs settlement
curve and a lot of literatures are available and very limited
criteria are available for the determination of pile capacity
based on elastic settlement. This paper presented a method
to determine pile capacity based on elastic settlement based
on real eld pile load testing data.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
There are various methods of interpretation to obtain the
pile failure load capacity from load-deformation curve
obtained in a static load test (AASHTO LRFD 2012 ).
The following paragraphs are discussed briey the
Due to resistance of soil, this value is less by factor C as interpretation of the results of static load test and presented
shown in Equ.2 [England M (2009)]. herein.
Consistent with AASHTO (Fellenius, B. H. 1980) the
ultimate capacities were interpreted for each of the test
1 CGM, ICT Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, Email: [email protected]

2 Assistant Vice President, GR Infra Projects Ltd., Gurugram, Email: [email protected]
3 International Resident Engineer, Oriental Consultants Global, Dhaka, Bangladesh

TECHNICAL PAPER
piles using Davisson's criterion. The offset line is dened static load tests. The method consists of dividing each
by the following equation (Hannigan et. Al. 2005) respective load applied by the settlements and putting it in
the y-axis. In turn, the x-axis, places the settlements
S = PL/AE+4+0.008B obtained during the static load test (Chin 1990).
Where, 2.5 Method of Decourt
S=movement of the pile head in mm; Decourt proposes a method is similar to the Chin-Kondner
P=test load in kN ; and Hansen methods. To apply this method, divide each
L=pile length in mm; load with its corresponding settlement and plot the
A=cross sectional area of pile in m2; resulting value against the applied load. The load
E=modulus elasticity of pile in kPa; and settlement graph shows the results: a curve that tends to a
B=pile width in mm. line that intersects with the abscissa. A linear regression
over the apparent line determines the line (Beer. and
2.1 Davisson's method Wallays 1989).
This method proposed by Davisson (1972) to obtain the 2.6 Method of Fuller-Hoy
load corresponding to the movement which exceeds the
elastic compression of the pile by a value of 4mm plus a In the Fuller-Hoy method, the ultimate load corresponds to
factor equal to the diameter of the pile in mm divided by the point where the slope of the load-settlement curve is
120. This method was developed in conjunction with the 1.27 mm/ton. Practically, the ultimate load is determined
wave equation analysis. by nding the point at which a line with a gradient of 1.27
mm/ton plotted on the graph is tangent to the curve
2.2 Method of Brinch Hansen (Decourt 1999).
Proposed a denition for pile capacity as the load that gives 2.7 Method of De Beer
four times the movement of the pile head as obtained for
80% of that load. This '80%- criterion' can be estimated In this method, the load–settlement values were plotted on
directly from the load-settlement curve, but it is more a double logarithmic chart. When the values fall on two
accurately determined in a plot of the square root of each approximately straight lines, the intersection of these
movement value divided by its load value and plotted denes a limit load that is considered a pile yielding load
against the movement. Normally, the 80%-criterion agrees (Fuller and Hoy 1970)
well with the intuitively perceived “plunging failure” of the Chin (8 and 12) proposed a method that assumes that the
pile. The following simple relations can be derived for load movement curve is of hyperbolic shape when the load
computing the capacity or ultimate resistance, Qu, approaches the failure load. In this method, each load value
according to the Hansen 80%-criterion for the ultimate is divided with its corresponding movement value and the
load (Brinch Hansen (1963) resulting value is plotted against the movement. After some
Qu=0.5 ×(C1×C2) -0.5 variation, the plotted values will fall on a straight line. The
inverse slope of this line is the failure load(Chin 1971)
Where,
2.8 Indian and other Country Practices
C1 =Slope of the straight line; and
C2 =Y-intercept of the straight line. Indian Standard (IS): 2911 Part 4-2013 and Indian Roads
Congress (IRC:78-2000)(14) have been revised in 2014. The
2.3 Method of Mazurkiewicz safe vertical load on single pile having diameter more than
Mazurkiewicz suggested a method of extrapolating the 600 mm for the initial test should be least of the followings:
curve of load vs settlement. Thus, the method proposed i. Two thirds of the nal load at which the total
horizontal parallel lines with distance H between them, displacement attains a value of 18 mm or maximum
intercepting the curve, and then vertical lines are drawn, of 2 percent of pile diameter whichever is less
starting from each point of intersection to the x-axis, unless otherwise required in a given case on the
corresponding to the loads at the top. Line segments to 45° basis of nature and type of structure in which case,
are plotted, each with ends at the point of intersection of the the safe load should be corresponding to the total
x-axis and the vertical parallel line next. Finally, the line
displacement permissible; and
passing through the intersections of the segments with the
vertical as it crosses the horizontal axis indicates the ii. 40 percent of the nal load at which the total
breaking load (Butler and Hoy 1977) displacement equal to 10 percent of the pile
diameter in case of uniform diameter piles and 7.5
2.4 Method of Chin-Kondner percent of bulb diameter in case of under-reamed
The method proposed by Chin, in a study based on work by piles.
Kondner, allows the extrapolation of the failure load in the iii. For pile in cohesion-less soils, shaft skin friction is

TECHNICAL PAPER
typically fully mobilized at displacements of 0.1 ii. DND Maharani Bagh To Junction With Jaitpur-
percent to 1.0 percent. The shaft end bearing is Pushta Road Section Two Reports.
typically fully mobilized at displacements of two to iii. Major Bridge Over River Chambal at Kota
ve percent of the base diameter for shafts in Rajasthan- One Report, India
cohesion-less soils. The range of settlement for iv. 4-Laning of Aligarh - Kanpur section from km
cohesionless soil varies from 2.1 % to 6% or more 289.000 (Design Chainage km302.180) to km
as recommended in AASHTO LRFD 2012. 356.000 (Design Chainage km 373.085) (Package-
IV from Naviganj- Mitrasen) of NH-91 in the State
Numerous methods for predicting pile capacity based on of Uttar Pradesh on Hybrid Annuity Mode under
data of pile loading tests have been available. The latest Bharatmala Pariyojana-One Report, India
method proposed by Lastiasih et.al. 2012 - Hyperbolic v. Delhi Vadodara at km 332+800-One Report Two
Method. The assumption also used the hyperbolic approach Reports, India
suggested by Toha (16) to use hyperbolic equation with the vi. Jaipur Ring Road-Two reports, India
higher order i.e., the quadratic hyperbolic, which has the vii. SASEC 1Project-Four Reports, Bangladesh
following equation: viii. SASEC1 Project –One Report, Bangladesh
ix. Kalyani Expressway-One Report, India
x. Bundel-khand Expressway-One Report, India
xi. Debok Bazar Bridge, One Report, Bangladesh
xii. Shetrunji River-One Report (Routine Test), India
An excel sheet can be developed to determine the
extrapolated value pile capacity with higher settlement i.e., 5. CASE STUDIES
10 % diameter using a hyperbolic function. Several case studies are considered. Reports from different
Based on literatures review the following points may be projects have been collected and one case study has been
highlighted: taken for detailed analysis.
· Different methods and country practices are available This report presents the Test Results of Initial Vertical Pile
Load test for Test Pile with (1500 mm dia 28.650 meter
for the estimation of pile capacity; and
deep below COL) with design load of 6400 kN.
· Very few documents are available to determine pile
capacity based on the elastic settlement of the pile. 5.1 Cyclic Pile Load Test
3. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPES OF THE PRESENT Testing Procedure: Purpose of Initial Cyclic Vertical Load Test
STUDY is to determine contribution from skin friction and point bearing
load by loading and unloading in cycle load testing. Pile was
Based on the literature review and needs of present tested as per IS:2911 Part 4 - 2013. Kentledge platform is used
requirement, following objectives and scopes are for loading. Loading arrangement is carried out in such a way
identied: that centre of gravity of Kentledge should coincide with the
There is a need of study to determine pile capacity based on centre of the testing pile. Alternate loading and unloading were
elastic compression/settlement of the pile and compare pile carried out each stage of the loading increment. Total ultimate
capacity with other methods. Determine the probable value load shall be divided 10-20 equal parts. Four dial gauge and one
of elastic settlement. to four hydraulic jacks will be used for loading depending on
the ultimate load. Each load shall be kept for 60 minutes and
Based on these objectives, the following scopes are deection will be noted 15 minutes interval. If deection is less
identied in the present analysis: than 0.2 mm/hour, next load will be tested. If deection is more
i. Collect vertical test pile reports from different than 0.2 mm/hour, load will be kept for 2 hours and unload will
projects be done in 15 minute and deection after unloading shall be
recorded. The difference in deection between nal at the end
ii. Analysis of elastic compression /settlement of each
of 1 or 2 hours loading and deection after releasing load 0 will
pile
be considered as elastic deection/settlement. After unloading,
iii. Plot vertical load Vs elastic settlement
next load will be applied and deection will be recorded.
iv. Adopt reliable Factor of Safety (FoS) Maximum ultimate shall be kept for 24 hours.
v. Determine design capacity of pile and probable
permissible elastic settlement. 5.2 Analysis of Test Results
4. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY During top down pile load test, vertical compressive load is
applied at the top of the pile and this load is resisted by the
Vertical pile load test reports collected from different
frictional force developed during testing. Friction force is zero
ongoing and past project sites and presented below:
at the top of the pile and increases gradually with triangular
i. Design and construction supervision of Paira distribution and average force is considered which acts in the
Bridge Project- one Report, Bangladesh opposite direction.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Let T and F/2 be top down load and friction force. Hence 5.3 Routine Pile Load Test
net force for elastic settlement is T-F/2.
Factor of safety and elastic settlement are considered 2.0
From the approximate value of skin friction and knowing and 6 mm to 6.5 mm. Testing load for the case of initial pile
the loads on the top of pile, compute the elastic load test and routine pile load test are 2.5 and 1.5 times of
compression of the pile corresponding to these loads using the design load. For capacity analysis factor of safety is
following formula (IS :2911 Part 4 2013): taken 2.0 for elastic settlement 6-6.5 mm. For the case of
routine pile load test settlement will be projected for elastic
settlement of 6 – 6.5 mm and factor of safety shall be taken
will be derived.
A pile was tested Shetrunji River, Gujrat where routine test
pile load test was conducted static pile load test method and
the details are mentioned below:
Pile Diameter=1200 mm
Design Load=3250 kN
Test Load 4900 kN
Pile length= 15 m
Load Settlement curve has been prepared and shown in
These elastic settlements for each load measured during Fig.3.
conducting pile load test and recorded. Load Vs.
Settlement results are plotted and shown in Fig.1.
Fig. 1 Load Vs Elastic Settlement Curve

Fig. 3 Load Vs Elastic Settlement Curve for Routine
From Fig.1, it is found that Load and elastic settlement curve Pile Load Test
is more or less linear with R2 = 0.992.Testing load at 6 mm and
6.5 mm have been measured from Fig.1 and found 12600 kN Pile capacity for elastic settlement of 4.5 mm is 4900kN.
and 13200 kN. Considering factor of safety 2, design load is Pile capacity has been project for elastic settlement of 6
found to be 6200 kN and 6600 kN i.e., close to design load. mm and found to be close to 6660 kN
Design capacity=6660/2 = 3330 kN.
Elastic settlement for each load has been measure during pile
load test and other properties pile as mentioned in Equ 6 are Same method was followed to determine vertical pile
known. Hence, friction force can separated from total force. capacity piles as mentioned above and summary of the
End bearing will be equal to T-F. These forces are plotted and ndings are presented in Table1.
presented in Fig.2.
Factor of safety varies from 1.85 to 2.3. In some cases FoS
varies more than 2.3 where elastic settlement of 6 mm did
not achieve during pile load test and minimum values are
taken in the analysis. Neglecting Higher factor of safety,
mean and standard deviation and coefcient of variation
has been determined and these are found to be 2.06 (mean),
0.172 (standard deviation) and 0.083 (Coefcient of
variation, CoV). The value of mean is satisfactory. CoV is
less than 0.25. Therefore, results are good correlation as
recommended in Austroads 2017. Hence, recommended
factor of safety of 2 is adopted based on the consideration
Fig. 2 Variations of Skin and End Bearing of elastic settlement of 6 mm.

TECHNICAL PAPER
Table 1 Pile capacity Based on Elastic Settlement
S. Project Pile Details Design Pile Capacity Based Pile Capacity Based Remarks
No Capacity(kN) on 6 mm Elastic on 6.5 mm Elastic
Settlement (kN) Settlement(kN)
1 Project 1-TP 1 Dia=1.5 m, L=51m 4500 4500 5000 FoS=2

2 Project2-TP 1 Dia=1.5 m, L=28.5 m 6350 6200 6600 FoS=1.95
3 Project 2-TP 2 Dia=1.5 m, 6700 >6750 >6750 4.75 mm.Load
L=29.2 m projected. FoS
>2.05, adopt 2.05
4 Project 3-TP 1 Dia=1.5 m, 9400 >9550 >9550 Elastic

L=11.5 m Settlement=1.8
mm. FoS>2.03,
adopt 2.03.

L=13m Settlement=2.2
mm. FoS>2.03,,
adopt 2.03.
6 Project 5-TP 1 Dia=1.2 m, L=21.0 m 4400 4950 5250 FoS=2.5.

L=27.0 m Settlement
=2 mm, FoS
>2.04, adopt 2.04
8 Project 5-TP 2 Dia=1.2 m, L=30 m 5000 5300 5750 FoS=2.24

9 Project6-TP 1 Dia=1.0 m, L=24 m 2970 3150 3250 FoS=2.12
10 Project 6-TP 2 Dia=1.0 m, L=24 m 2970 3050 3200 FoS=2.05
11 Project 7-TP 1 CH 12+233 2075 >2080 >2080 5 mm..
Dia=1.0 m, L=31 m FoS>2.01,
adopt 2.01
12 Project 7-TP2 CH 7+365 1965 >1980 >1980 Settlement

Dia=1.0 m, L=25 m =4.3 mm. FoS>
2.02, adopt 2.02
13 Project 7 TP 3 CH 1+345 2315 >2250 >2250 4.1 mm. FoS

Dia=1.0 m, L=25 m >1.94, adopt 1.94
14 Project 7TP 4 CH 3+594 3150 3160 3300 FoS=2.02
Dia=1.0 m, L=35 m
15 Project 8-TP1 Dia=1.0 m, L=25 m 1980 1940 2025 FoS=1.96
16 Project 9 TP 1 Dia=1.0 m, L=32 m 2750 2550 2750 FoS=1.85
17 Project 10 TP 1 Dia=1.0 m, L=32 m 4000 >4000 >4000 4.04 mm. FoS
>2, adopt 2.
18 Project 11 TP 1 Dia=1.2 m, 4200 4100 4250 FoS=1.95

L=37 m
Routine Test
1 Project 12TP1 Dia=1.2.0m, 3250 3750 (6 mm 4070 (6.5 mm 4.9 mm
L=23.25m Settlement) Settlement) settlement.
FoS=2. 3

TECHNICAL PAPER
5.4 Modication of Pile Capacity based on IRC:78 Design pile capacity can also be considered based on latest
(Part 2)-2020 IRC:78-2020(Part 2) and pile capacity may be increased by
5 % or factor of safety for the case test will be considered
Pile capacity and elastic settlement has been revised based
2.38 in place of 2.5.
on recently published code and presented here in. It is
adopted one pile has been tested. Hence, from Table 7 of 7. VALIDATION OF THEORETICAL ANALYSIS.
this CR3 and CR4 values are 1.4 and 1.4. From pile load test
Pile capacity has been calculated for 6 mm and 6.5 mm
results, total ultimate capacity for each pile location has
elastic settlement and expresses in term of design load for
been divided into skin friction, end bearing and ultimate all piles and it is found average pile capacities for 6 mm and
total pile capacity. Consider pile case 1 and ultimate load is 6.5 mm elastic settlement are found to be 101% and 105 %
1000 T(600 T Skin and 400 T, end bearing) and one pile is of the design pile capacity with standard deviations values
tested. Hence mean and minimum pile capacity is equal in 0.042 and 0.057 coefcient variations 0.042 and 0.057<
this case. Therefore, Quc=1000/1.4 T=714.29 T(Say). 0.25. Therefore, the method of analysis is statically viable
Design capacity will be found out dividing by partial FoS with good correlation and the method validates initial pile
as mentioned in Table 5 of IRC:78-2020(Part 2) is taken 1.4 load test result. Hence elastic settlement of 6 mm may be
for seismic case and 1.7 for loading GR2 loading case. adapted to determined pile capacity in continuation of
Hence design capacity is 714.29/(1.4)=510.2 T for seismic other methods as mentioned in the literature review.
load combination and 714.29/(1.7)=420.2 T for load
combination GR2 . Pile capacity for the case of working 8. CONCLUSIONS
stress method will be =1000/2.5=400 T. For load Many methods are proposed to determine the vertical pile
combination GR2, design load will be 420 T which is close capacity. It is observed from the literature review that
to 400 T. Factor safety=1.4×1.7=2.38 in place of 2.5 methodology for the determination of pile capacity based
working stress method. This shows that there is small on elastic settlement of pile is very limited. Hence, there is
difference in FoS (2.5/2.38=1.05) for working and limit a need of this study. Initial and routine pile load test reports
state methods which may be neglected or increased by 5 % have been collected different ongoing and completed
approximately.. Hence, it may be concluded that pile projects. Elastic settlement Vs. vertical load is plotted for
capacity as mentioned in Table 1 may be considered. all 17 test reports and pile capacity has been determined for
6. DISCUSSION elastic settlements 6 mm, 6.5 mm, 4.5 mm and 4.8 mm for
initial pile load test and routine pile load test. Design
A typical load Vs elastic settlement has been plotted and capacity is determined dividing this using factor of safety 2
presented in Fig.1. From Fig.1, it is observed that load and and 1.5 for initial pile load and routine pile load. These
elastic curve is more or less linear with R² = 0.992. End loads are very close to design capacity of pile. Therefore,
bearing, skin friction and total pile are plotted and the proposed method may be adopted to determine vertical
presented in Fig.1. pile capacity. However, based on the present study
From Fig.2, it is found that end bearing did not initiate after following conclusions may be drawn as mentioned below:
third increment of the load during pile load. All graphs show i. The proposed method may be used for the
that these are linear with positive slope i.e., end bearing, skin determination of the vertical capacity of a pile;
friction and total pile capacity increase with the increasing ii. Total Pile capacity increases with increasing elastic
load on the pile top. Pile capacity at elastic settlement of 6 settlement of pile linearly with positive upward
mm is same as design pile capacity and same is shown in slope. Similar trend is observed for skin friction
Table 1. Hence, proposed method is found to be in order. and end bearing. End bearing is not initiated
A routine pile load test result is shown in Fig.3 Nature of initially. It is developed after 2-3 increment of load.
graph is similar to Fig.1 with negative slope i.e., elastic In several cases, it is found that end bearing was not
settlement increases with increasing load. developed fully at the end of pile load test.
iii. Equation 6 can be used to separate skin friction and
Initial and routine pile load test reports have been collected end bearing force.
from different project site. Based on test results, graphs, iv. Pile capacity of test may be determined based on
elastic settlement Vs load plotted for 16 reports (10 latest IRC:78-2020(Part 2) and factor of safety
projects). From graphs, pile capacity has been determined may be considered 2.38.
for elastic settlement of 6 mm and 6.5 mm for initial pile v. Design pile capacity may be nalized based on
load test (elastic settlement of 4.5 mm and 4.9 mm for elastic settlement of 6 mm for the case on initial pile
initial pile load test) and test load was divided by 2 to obtain load test with factor of safety 2 and it shall be 4.5
design pile capacity and same is presented in Table 1. mm with factor of safety for the case of routine pile
Factor of safety is considered 1.5 for the case of routine pile load test.
load test. Test results are found in order and may be vi. When elastic settlement is less than 6 mm for the
considered for design analysis. case of initial pile load test or 4.5 mm for the case of

TECHNICAL PAPER
routine pile load test, pile capacity shall be same as Failure”, Proceedings 2ndSouteast Asian Conference on
design capacity as achieved from Geotechnical Soil Engineering, Singapore, pp. 81-90.
Investigation Report. 9. De- Beer, E.E. and Wallays, M.(1989). “Franki Piles
with Over expanded Bases”, La Technique des Travaux,
REFERENCES No:333, PP. 48.
1. England M (2009) Review of methods of analysis of test 10. Decourt, L.(1999). “Behavior of Foundations Under
Working Load Conditions”, Proc. of the 11th Pan-
results from Bi-directional static load tests. In:
American Conf. on Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical
Proceedings of deep foundations on bored and auger
Engineering, Dolguassu, Brazil, V. 4, PP 453-488.
piles. Taylor & Francis, Milton Park, pp 235–239. 11. Fuller, F.M. and Hoy, H.E.(1970). “Pile Load Tests
2. AASHTO LRFD 2012 American Association of State Including Quick Load Test Method Conventional
Highway and Transportation Ofcials (LRFD Bridge. Methods and Interpretations”, Highway Research
Design Specication. Record No.333, PP 78-89, Transportation Research
3. Fellenius, B. H. (1980). ''The analysis of results from Board, USA.
routine pile loading tests.'' Ground Engrg., 13(6), 19–31. 12. Chin, F.K.(1971). “Discussion on pile test. Arkansas
4. Hannigan, P.J., Goble, G.G. Thendean, G., Likins, E., River project”. American Society of Civil Engineers,
and Rausche, F. (2005). Design and Construction of
ASCE, Journal for Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Driven Pile Foundations, FHWA-HI-97-013, Federal
E n g i n e e r i n g , Vo l . 9 7 , S M 6 , p p . 9 3 0 – 9 3 2
Highway
5. Davisson, M. T(1972). High Capacity Piles, Administration, US Department of Transportation,
Proceedings, Lecture Series Innovations in Foundation Washington DC.
Construction, ASCE, Illinois Section, Chicago, pp. 52. 13. IS:2911 Part 4 (2013). Guidelines for Test Pile,
6. Hansen, B.J. (1963). “Discussion, Hyperbolic Stress- Government of India
Strain Response of Cohesive Soils”, Journal of Soil 14. IRC:78-2014 Design of Road Bridge Structures
Mechanics, Foundation Division ASCE, V. 89 No.SM 4, 15. Lastiasih, Y., Irsyam, M, Sidi, I.D., and Toha, F.X(2012).
PP 241-242. Study Reliability Evaluation of Axial Bored Pile
7. Butler, H.D. and Hoy, H.E.(1977) “User's Manual for the Bearing Capacity in City of Jakarta, Proceedings of Fifth
Texas Quick Load Method for Foundation Load Asian-Pacic Symposium on Structural Reliability and
Testing”, FHWA, Ofce of Development, Washington, its Applications (5APSSRA), Singapore and Jakarta
D.C., FHWA-IP-77-8, PP. 59. 16. Toha, F.X., Personal Communication, Bandung, 11
8. Chin, F.K.(1970).“Estimation of Pile Not Carried to
March 2010.

MoRT&H Circular

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UNDER ‘U’ NUMBER U(SW)-12/2022- 2024
At Lodi Road, PSO on dated 28-29.04-2023 LICENCE TO POST
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PUBLISHED ON 29 APRIL 2023
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MAY, 2023

Volume: 51 § Number: 05 § Total Pages: 48

Ø “Utilization of Processed Recycled Aggregates (C&D Waste) in Concrete Pavements” 16

Ø Ethical Considerations in the Design of Autonomous Vehicles: an Overview 29

Ø MoRT&H Circulars 43-46

Publisher & Editor: Sanjay Kumar Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 5

6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 7

8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 9

10 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 11

12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 13

14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 15

UTILIZATION OF PROCESSED RECYCLED AGGREGATES (C&D WASTE)

PUNEETH H C1 S P MAHENDRA2 ROHITH M3 CHAITHRA B R4

1. INTRODUCTION Construction and Demolition (C&D) waste. The country

1 Assistant Professor, Civil Engineering Department, SJBIT, Bangalore, E-mail: [email protected]

16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 17

are heated at 200, 300 & 400°C for 2 hours to disintegration

18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

3.6 ANN Analysis for Prediction using MATLAB

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 19

Fig.3 Percentage Improvement After Fig 4 Environmental Impact Assessment

Table 1 Environmental impacts of HCl & H2SO4

Global warming, 3.26E-04 0 DALY Stratospheric ozone 2.81E-07 0 DALY

20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

Table 2 Concrete Mix Proportions

8. FRESH PROPERTIES OF RCCA 9. COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 21

10. FLEXURAL STRENGTH OF RCCA Table 4 Statistical Comparison with Regression

Concrete Mix with admixtures & Without beneciation process by

With (10% silica fumes, Super Plasticizers & Beneciation

Fig.7 Permeability Test Value for RCCA

22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

analysis. The experimental compression & exural strength

Table 7 Pavement Thickness Design Parameters as

Compressive Strength in 50.79 Width if slab in m 350

Flexural Strength of 61.18 Design life in years 20

Rate of trafc increase 0.075 Thickness in cm 26

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 23

From Table 8 & 9 Highest axle load Stress is 34 kg/cm2 &

Concrete 61.18 kg/cm , hence 26cm slab thickness is safe.

Fig.12 ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA Corner Loading

24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

Fig. 13 ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA Interior Loading

Fig.14 ANSYS Solution for M40 RCCA Edge Loading

15.1 Comparison of Analytical solution (IRC:58-

Fig.15 Fatigue and Permeability test setup

On an average the ANSYS solutions is having 15.55 %

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 25

26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023 27

28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS MAY 2023

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF AUTONOMOUS