Vectors:

1. Have both magnitude (how much) and direction.

2. Examples include displacement, force, torque, momentum, acceleration, and velocity.
3. When adding vectors, both magnitude and direction need to be considered.
Scalars:
1. Have only magnitude.
2. Examples include temperature, speed, work, mass, and density.
3. Follow standard algebraic rules when added or manipulated.
Representation:
1. Vectors are depicted with arrows or boldface letters to show both magnitude and direction.
2. Scalars are represented by numbers alone.

Position:
1. Represents the location of an object at a given moment in time.
2. Is a vector quantity, possessing both magnitude and direction.
3. Described using coordinates and reference from an origin.
4. In a Cartesian coordinate system, uses X and Y axes for representation.
5. Positive and negative directions for horizontal and vertical positions.
Distance:
1. Reflects the total movement of an object without considering direction.
2. Is a scalar quantity, having magnitude but no direction.
3. Can be mathematically expressed as Average Speed x Time.
4. Measured in units of meters.
Coordinate System:
1. Uses rectangular coordinates with X and Y axes.
2. X coordinates (abscissas) come first, followed by Y coordinates (ordinates).
3. A point's coordinates are represented as (X, Y).
Relationship between Position and Distance:
1. Position reflects an object's specific location, while distance accounts for the total path
traveled.
2. Displacement (a vector quantity) is related to position and measures the change in position
from the initial to the final point.

Understanding this distinction between position (a vector) and distance (a scalar) is crucial in
grasping how motion is described in physics. The scenario of searching for hidden cash in an
auditorium highlights how your position constantly changes, but the distance covered varies
based on the path taken.
The connection between position and displacement lies in the concept of displacement being
the straight-line change in position from the starting point to the final point, emphasizing
direction as well as magnitude.

- Topic: What is displacement?

- Definition: Displacement is the change in position of an object relative to a frame of reference.
- Formula: Δx = xf – xi
- SI Unit: Metre (m)
- Note: Displacement has both magnitude and direction.
- Topic: What is VELOCITY?
- Definition: Velocity is the speed at which something moves in a particular direction.
- Formula: r = d / t
- SI Unit: Meter per second (m/s)
- Explanation: Velocity measures motion from one place to another, considering both speed and
direction.
- Topic: ACTIVITY
- Activities:
1. Toss a ball up and let it fall down freely. Identify acceleration.
2. Move your car and apply the brakes. Identify deceleration when applying brakes.
- Topic: What is acceleration?
- Definition: Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with respect to time.
- Formula: Acceleration = Velocity / Time
- SI Unit: Meter per second squared (m/s²)
- Explanation: Acceleration can result from changes in speed, direction, or both.
- Topic: MID-LESSON QUESTION
- Question 1: When is acceleration maximum in simple harmonic motion?
- Answer: At 0 degrees.
- Question 2: Which motion is used only up to moderate speeds?
- Answer: Uniform acceleration and retardation.
- Topic: TYPES OF DISPLACEMENT
- Types:
- Zero Displacement: Occurs when the initial and final positions are the same.
- Negative Displacement: Object moves in the negative direction.
- Positive Displacement: Object moves in the positive direction.
- Topic: TYPES OF VELOCITY
- Types:
- Uniform Velocity: Equal distance covered in equal intervals of time.
- Variable Velocity: Displacement varies in equal time intervals.
- Average Velocity: Change in position divided by time.
- Instantaneous Velocity: Rate of change of position for a very small time interval.
- Topic: TYPES OF ACCELERATION
- Types:
- Average Acceleration: Change in velocity over a given interval.
- Instantaneous Acceleration: Change in velocity with time interval approaching zero.
- Uniform Acceleration: Object's velocity increases at equal intervals of time.
- Topic: APPLICATIONS OF DISPLACEMENT
- Examples:
- A teacher walking across the blackboard
- Passenger walking relative to the airplane
- Topic: APPLICATIONS OF DISPLACEMENT
- Examples:
- Motion parallel to the latitude
- Jogger on a jogging track
- Football coach pacing along the sidelines
- Topic: APPLICATIONS OF VELOCITY
- Examples:
- Earth’s rotation about the sun
- Moon’s orbital motion around the earth
- Topic: APPLICATIONS OF VELOCITY
- Examples:
- A vehicle’s speed
- The rate at which water leaves a faucet
- The speed at which a bat strikes a ball
- Topic: APPLICATIONS OF ACCELERATION
- Examples:
- The falling of an apple due to gravity
- The moon orbiting around the earth
- When a car is stopped at the traffic lights
- Topic: UNITS OF DIMENSION
- Subcategories:
- Fundamental Unit
- Derived Unit
Topic: FUNDAMENTAL UNIT
- List of Fundamental Units:
- Length (m)
- Mass (kg)
- Time (s)
- Electric Current (A)
- Temperature (K)
- Amount of Substance (mol)
- Luminous Intensity (cd)
- Topic: SI unit of velocity = m/s
- Explanation: Velocity units are derived from base units of length (meter) and time (second).

- Examples: SI Units of Density, Force, and Energy

- Density = kg/m³
- Force = Newton (N)
- Energy = Joule
- Overview: Kinematics is the study of motion, focusing on how things move, their position
changes, speed, and changes in speed.
**Displacement implies that an object has moved or has been displaced in a specified direction.
It can be said to be the distance covered in a specified direction.**
Explanation:** Displacement refers to the change in position of an object in a specified direction.
It is the distance covered in a specific path or route.**Correct Answers:** direction
 Introduction to Newton's Laws:
- Sir Isaac Newton established three fundamental laws explaining the connection between
forces and motion.
Newton's First Law (Law of Inertia):
- Objects persist in their state of motion (constant speed in a straight line) or at rest unless acted
upon by an unbalanced force.
- Also known as the law of inertia.
- Everyday occurrences, like passengers lurching forward in a car when it stops, exemplify this
law.
Newton's Second Law:
- F = ma, where force (F) equals mass (m) multiplied by acceleration (a).
- Quantitatively describes how force influences an object's motion.
- Momentum, a vector quantity, can alter in magnitude or direction under the influence of force.
- Considered one of the most crucial laws in physics.
Newton's Third Law (Law of Action and Reaction):
- When two bodies interact, they exert equal-magnitude but opposite-direction forces on each
other.
- Important for analyzing static equilibrium problems and applicable to bodies in uniform or
accelerated motion.
Historical Context:
- Newton's laws originated in his work "Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica" in 1687,
displacing the Aristotelian perspective.
- Emerged amidst the scientific revolution, alongside influential figures such as Copernicus,
Galileo, and Kepler, reshaping scientific understanding.
Summary:
- Newton's laws illustrate how objects respond to forces.
- Applicable to real-world scenarios, these laws profoundly impact physics and astrophysics.
These laws provide the foundational framework for understanding the behavior of objects in
response to forces and have shaped modern physics significantly.

Introduction to Relative Motion

- Relative motion refers to how different observers perceive the motion of the same object based
on their frames of reference.
. Frames of Reference
- Frames of reference are points from which measurements are taken, not experiencing
acceleration.
- Crucial for comprehending relative motion.
Example 1 - Throwing Apples:
- When a person standing still throws an apple upwards at 15 m/s, an observer in the same
reference frame sees the apple moving at 15 m/s.
Example 2 - Throwing Apples from a Moving Truck:
- When the person is on a moving truck, the sidewalk observer sees the apple initially moving at
the truck's speed (20 m/s).
- After the throw, the sidewalk observer calculates a total speed of 35 m/s (20 m/s from the truck
+ 15 m/s from the throw).
. Changing Direction of Motion:
- If the person on the moving truck throws apples in the opposite direction, the sidewalk
observer perceives the apple moving at 5 m/s (20 m/s - 15 m/s).
. Frames of Reference in Relative Motion:
- Involves different observers with various frames of reference.
- Observations and measurements rely on the observer's frame of reference.
Motion Sickness and Frames of Reference:
- Motion sickness may arise due to conflicting signals about the body's motion received by the
brain.
- Focusing on distant points ahead and maintaining visual concentration can help alleviate
motion sickness.
Conclusion:
- Frames of reference are essential for understanding relative velocity and motion.
- The concept relates to Newton's first law, stating that a body at rest or in uniform motion will
remain so unless acted upon by an external force.
Understanding frames of reference is pivotal in grasping how different observers perceive
motion, highlighting the importance of context in relative motion scenarios.

. Introduction to Mechanics:
- Mechanics has a historical development and forms the foundation for understanding how
objects behave under the influence of forces.
Newtonian Mechanics:
- Explains the motion of everyday objects, based on Newton's laws.
- Assumes the absoluteness of space, time, and mass, and describes motion within an inertial
framework.
. Assumptions of Newtonian Mechanics:
- Central assumptions: closed/isolated systems and particles moving at speeds slower than
light.
Types of Newtonian Mechanics:
- Divided into Newtonian dynamics (involving forces) and Newtonian kinematics (results without
considering force).
. Applications of Newtonian Mechanics:
- Widely applied, from celestial bodies to objects on Earth, forming the fundamental framework
for understanding motion.
. Newton's Three Laws:
- First law (law of inertia): Objects maintain motion unless acted upon by external forces.
- Second law: Force depends on mass and acceleration.
- Third law: Every action has an equal and opposite reaction.
Real-Life Applications of Newton's Laws
- Examples include airbags in cars, resting books, and racing car weight reduction based on the
second law.
- Third law applications include rocket propulsion, lift in helicopters, and flying birds.
Advanced Mechanics
- Classical, quantum, and relativistic mechanics address different aspects of motion and
physical systems.
Quantum Mechanics Applications
- Quantum principles applied in quantum computers, entanglement-based microscopy, quantum
tunneling, flash memory, and laser technology.
Classical Mechanics and Analysis- Allows determination of position, velocity, and acceleration of
objects at any given time.
In Summary:
- Newtonian mechanics and its branches have extensive applications across various domains,
from daily life to cutting-edge technology.
These principles form the backbone of classical mechanics, explaining the behavior of objects in
motion and providing the groundwork for advancements in diverse scientific fields.
Here's the content in a text-based format without bold text:

- Title: EQUATIONS OF MOTION

- Definition: Equations of motion describe the basic concept of the motion of an object, including
the position, velocity, or acceleration of an object at various times. These three equations of
motion govern the motion of an object in 1D. The derivation of equations of motion is one of the
most important topics in Physics.
- Definition of EQUATIONS OF MOTION:
- They are equations that describe the behavior of a physical system in terms of its motion as a
function of time.
- There are four equations of motion that can be used to derive components such as
displacement, velocity, and acceleration:
- V = u + at
- S = ut + ½ at²
- V² = u² + 2as
- S = (u+v)/2 * t
- DERIVATION OF EQUATIONS OF MOTION:
- The equations of motion can be derived using three methods: Simple Algebraic Method,
Graphical Method, and Calculus Method.
- Consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration. Variables: u (initial
velocity), a (acceleration), t (time), v (velocity), s (distance traveled).

- DERIVATION BY ALGEBRAIC METHOD:

- Acceleration is represented as a = (v-u)/t
- Rearranging, we get the first equation of motion: V = u + at

MID-LESSON QUESTION 2:
The equations of motion are valid for which of the following types of motion?
a) Constant energy
b) Uniformly accelerated
c) Non-uniformly accelerated
d) Motion along a curve
Answer: The three equations of motion are valid for uniformly accelerated motion. The
equations do not work in situations where the acceleration is non-uniform. In that case, it is
better to work with the differential forms of velocity and acceleration.
DERIVATION BY GRAPHICAL METHOD:
- Graphical representation of the initial and final velocities and their relation.
DERIVATION OF THE SECOND EQUATION OF MOTION:
- Derivation process: S = ut + ½ at²
DERIVATION OF THE THIRD EQUATION OF MOTION:
- Derivation process: v^2 = u^2 + 2as
ACTIVITY:
- When a body changes its position with respect to its surroundings with time, what is this
called? Answer: Motion.
- Question: For the derivation of the second equation of motion, consider the same variables
that were used for the derivation of the first equation of motion. S = (u + ___) / 2t
- Answer: v
- Explanation: In the second equation of motion, S represents displacement, u is the initial
velocity, v is the final velocity, t is the time, and a is the acceleration. When considering the
same variables used for the first equation of motion, we can fill in the blank with "v," which
represents the final velocity. So the equation becomes S = (u + v) / 2t.

**KINETIC ENERGY & WORK:**

- Definition of Kinetic Energy:
- Kinetic Energy (KE) is the capacity of an object to do work due to its motion.
- The formula for Kinetic Energy: KE = (1/2) * m * v^2, where 'm' is the mass and 'v' is the
velocity of the object.
- Relation between Kinetic Energy and Work:
- Work (W) done by a force causing displacement is given by W = Fs = ( m * v^2 / 2) - ( m * u^2
/ 2).
- Work-Energy theorem states: W = ΔKE, meaning work done equals the change in kinetic
energy.
**KEY POINTS:**
1. Understanding Kinetic Energy:
- Kinetic Energy represents an object's ability to set other objects in motion.
2. Defining Kinetic Energy:
- The formula for Kinetic Energy is KE = (1/2) * m * v^2, where 'm' is mass, and 'v' is velocity.
3. Work Done and Kinetic Energy:
- Work transfers energy, altering an object's kinetic energy.
4. Force, Work, and Kinetic Energy Relationship:
- Work done by a force changes an object's kinetic energy.
5. Engine Principles & Work-Energy Theorem:
 - Motorcycle engines operate based on the principles of this theorem.
- Engineers analyze work to enhance the efficiency of the engine.
6. Work and Energy Relations:
- Work transfers energy between different forms.
7. Applications and Practical Understanding:
- Real-world instances where work changes energy forms.
**MID-LESSON QUESTIONS:**
1. Dependency of Kinetic Energy:
- The kinetic energy of an object depends on its instantaneous velocity, not its acceleration.
- Formula: KE = (1/2) * m * v^2, where 'm' is mass, and 'v' is velocity.
2. Projectile Motion:
- At the highest point of a projectile’s trajectory, potential energy is maximum (PE = mgh) and
kinetic energy is minimum (KE = (1/2) * m * v^2).
ACTIVITY:**
- If displacement is perpendicular to force, the work done is 0.
This format provides the information without any emphasized or bolded words.

Define Kinetic Energy and Work**

- Kinetic Energy: Power to set objects in motion.

- Work: Effort required to move objects.
- Kinetic Energy: Increases with faster motion.
- Work: Measured in 'joules'; initiates movement.
Equation of Motion**
- Formula: Determines the speed of objects when pushed.
Work Done by a Force**
- Work Done: Measurement of effort in pushing or pulling objects.
Work-Energy Theorem**
- Work-Energy Theorem: Relates work to energy transfer.
Mid-Lesson Questions**
- Question 1: Speed is independent of acceleration.
- Question 2: Relates to energy at the highest point of flight.

- Engine: Utilizes controlled explosions for movement.

- Work: Emphasizes that no movement means no work.

- Work: Transfers power or energy for motion.

- Kinetic Energy: Force behind movement.

- Work: Initiates motion.
- Energy: A special power provided by work.
**POTENTIAL ENERGY**
- Introduction by William Rankine in the 19th century.
- Energy by an object’s position relative to other objects.
- Objects can store energy due to their position.
- Examples with a bow and arrow, and a spring.
- Definition: Energy of a body due to its rest position.
- Formula for gravitational force: P.E = m * g * h
- Where m is mass (kg), g is acceleration due to gravity, and h is height (m).
- Gravitational potential energy has the same units as kinetic energy: kg m²/s².
- Two main types of potential energy: Gravitational and Elastic.
- Gravitational potential energy defined as energy possessed by an object raised against gravity.
- Formulation: Work done = m * g * h.
- Energy gained by the object: Potential Energy = m * g * h.
- Gravitational energy formula: E = m * g * h.

**MID-LESSON QUESTION**

1. The potential energy of an object of constant mass and fixed reference is determined by its
_____
- Answer: Position.
2. The potential energy of an object cannot be increased by internal forces.
- Answer: True.

- Elastic potential energy stored in stretchable or compressible objects.

- Examples include rubber bands, bows, trampolines, and bungee cords.
- Formula: U = ½ kx², where U is elastic potential energy, k is the spring force constant, and x is
the stretch length.
- Objects storing elastic potential energy have a high elastic limit.
- Objects deform beyond the elastic limit do not return to their original shape.

- Gravitational potential energy depends on mass and height.

- Formula: U = m * g * h, where U is gravitational energy, m is mass, g is acceleration due to
gravity, and h is height.
- Gravitational potential energy depends on both mass and height.
- Formula: U = m * g * h, where U is gravitational energy, m is mass, g is acceleration due to
gravity, and h is height.

**ACTIVITY**

- Question: What is the relationship between potential and kinetic energy?

Define Potential Energy**

- Potential Energy: A special power associated with an object's position, introduced by William
Rankine.
- Objects can store potential energy due to their position, illustrated with examples like a bow
and arrow and a spring.

Potential Energy Formula**

- Formula: P.E = m * g * h, where P.E is potential energy, m is mass, g is gravity, and h is height.

Gravitational Potential Energy**

- Potential energy gained when raising an object against gravity.

Elastic Potential Energy**

- Elastic potential energy stored in objects that can be stretched or compressed, with examples.
- Elastic potential energy formula: U = ½ kx², where U is energy, k is the spring constant, and x
is the stretch length.

***Center of Mass Defined:**

- The center of mass is like the point where all the mass of an object seems to be concentrated.
- It's essential for objects, especially for predicting how they move.

**Center of Mass in Different Scenarios:**

- It can be at the central point of an object.
- Sometimes, it doesn't coincide with any material in the object.
- In the case of a system of particles, it's where all the mass appears concentrated.
- When studying the dynamics of a system as a whole, you focus on this unique point.

**Center of Mass in Rigid Bodies:**

- In rigid bodies, it's a fixed position relative to the object.
- It's not necessarily in contact with the object.

**Center of Mass in Extended Objects:**

- For extended objects, it's crucial in predicting their motion.
- If an object can balance on its center of mass, it won't rotate.

**Center of Mass and Symmetry:**

- For symmetric objects, the center of mass often lies on the axis of symmetry.
- The location of the center of mass depends on the positions of parts that can move relative to
each other.

**Calculating Center of Mass:**

- The center of mass is calculated using formulas that consider the mass and position of each
part.
- The formulas are X = Σ(m_i * x_i) / Σm_i, Y = Σ(m_i * y_i) / Σm_i, Z = Σ(m_i * z_i) / Σm_i.

**Example Problem:**
- Four objects with different masses and positions were given.
- The total mass was calculated as 11.5 kg.
- The center of mass coordinates were found to be (1.33, 0.67, 0.67) meters.

**Conclusion:**
- Understanding the center of mass is essential for predicting how objects move.
- Balancing objects at their center of mass prevents rotation.

I hope this breakdown makes the topic clearer for you. If you have any questions or need further
clarification, feel free to ask.

To find the center of mass of two particles with masses 2 kg and 1 kg located at (1,0,1) and
(2,2,0), respectively, you can use the following formula:

Center of Mass (CM) = (Σ(m_i * x_i), Σ(m_i * y_i), Σ(m_i * z_i)) / Σm_i

Where:
- m_i represents the mass of each particle.
- (x_i, y_i, z_i) are the coordinates of each particle.
- Σ denotes the sum over all particles.

Let's calculate it step by step:

For the first particle (2 kg at (1,0,1)):

- m_1 = 2 kg
- x_1 = 1
- y_1 = 0
- z_1 = 1

For the second particle (1 kg at (2,2,0)):

- m_2 = 1 kg
- x_2 = 2
- y_2 = 2
- z_2 = 0

Now, let's calculate the center of mass:

CM_x = (2 * 1 + 1 * 2) / (2 + 1) = (2 + 2) / 3 = 4/3 ≈ 1.33 meters

CM_y = (2 * 0 + 1 * 2) / (2 + 1) = (0 + 2) / 3 = 2/3 ≈ 0.67 meters
CM_z = (2 * 1 + 1 * 0) / (2 + 1) = (2 + 0) / 3 = 2/3 ≈ 0.67 meters
So, the center of mass is located at approximately (1.33, 0.67, 0.67) meters.

Conservation of Angular Momentum:**

- Angular momentum remains constant in spinning systems without external torque.
- No external force implies constant rotational speed.

Angular Momentum Definition:**

- Depends on mass, velocity, and distance from the axis of rotation.
- Closer mass to the axis with higher velocity yields higher momentum.
**Example:**
- Comparison of momentum between a semi-truck and a Mini Cooper illustrates mass and
impact relationship despite equal speed.

Rotational Inertia (Moment of Inertia):**

- Relates to mass distribution and axis of rotation.
- Calculated as l = mr^2, where r is the distance from the axis.

Angular Velocity:**
- Describes rotational or curved path speed.
- Formula: L = Iω, where L is angular momentum, I is rotational inertia, and ω is angular
velocity.

Conservation Principle:**
- Angular momentum remains constant unless external torque is applied.

8. **Real-World Examples:**
- Gyroscopes, spinning tops, Frisbees, and bicycle wheels demonstrate conservation of
angular momentum in various applications.

**Newton's Observation**: Newton observed that objects on Earth's surface experience an

acceleration due to gravity denoted as 'g.' He also noticed that the moon's centripetal
acceleration is much smaller, which he explained by postulating a force between objects based
on their masses and the distance between them.

**Newton's Law of Gravitation**: This law states that the force of gravity between two objects
is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between their centers. This can be mathematically represented as F = (G * m1 *
m2) / r^2, where F is the force, G is the gravitational constant, m1 and m2 are the masses of the
objects, and r is the distance between them.

**Applicability**: While initially formulated for point masses, this law can be extended to objects
of different shapes and sizes by considering the distance between their centers of mass.
**Cavendish Experiments**: The transcript mentions the Cavendish experiments, which were
crucial in determining the value of the gravitational constant 'G,' showing that it applies to
objects of any composition and remains consistent throughout the universe.

**Weakness of Gravity**: The value of 'G' demonstrates the weak nature of the gravitational
force, even between small masses like our bodies. It's responsible for keeping objects bound to
Earth, planets orbiting the sun, and galaxies staying together in clusters.

**Effect on Astronauts**: The transcript briefly discusses the impact of gravity, including the
difference in gravitational acceleration between the Earth and the moon, which affects
astronauts' movements.

In summary, universal gravitation is a fundamental force that governs how objects are attracted
to each other based on their masses and the distance between them. This force is responsible
for various phenomena, from keeping us on Earth to the orbits of celestial bodies. If you have
any specific questions or need further clarification, feel free to ask!

- Discuss Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

- Explain the three Kepler’s laws of planetary motion
- Solve problems using Kepler’s Laws

2. **Bounded Motion**
- Particle has negative total energy (E < 0)
- Has extreme points where total energy equals potential energy (kinetic energy becomes
zero).

3. **Eccentricity & Motion**

- For 0 ≤ e < 1 (circular orbit), E < 0 implies bounded motion.
- For e ≥ 1 (parabolic and hyperbolic paths), E > 0 implies unbounded motion.

4. **Kepler’s First Law**

- Planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus.

5. **Perihelion & Aphelion**

- Perihelion: Closest point to the sun
- Aphelion: Farthest point from the sun

6. **Kepler’s Second Law**

- Radius vector from sun to planet sweeps equal areas in equal times.

7. **Variation in Kinetic Energy**

- Kinetic energy varies in orbit (higher at perihelion, lower at aphelion).
8. **MID-LESSON QUESTION**
- Velocity isn't constant in an elliptical trajectory.
- Explanation: Sweeping unequal areas at different distances causes varying velocities.

9. **Distance Relationship**
- Relationship between distances at perihelion and aphelion.
The distance relationship between a celestial body's perihelion and aphelion points is defined by
Kepler's first law, stating that their sum is constant and twice the length of the major axis of the
elliptical orbit.

10. **Angular Momentum Conservation**

- Angular momentum remains constant, causing planar motion.

11. **Kepler’s Third Law**

- Square of revolution time directly proportional to cube of semi-major axis.

12. **Generalization of Third Law**

- Shorter orbits have shorter revolution times.

13. **Kepler’s Laws Summary**

- Describes planet orbits (elliptical with the sun at one focus, equal area sweep, distance and
revolution time relationship).

1. **Types of Motion**
- Motion is relative.
- Two types based on energy:
- **Bounded Motion:** Particle has negative total energy (E < 0).
- Multiple extreme points where total energy equals potential energy, and kinetic energy
becomes zero.
- **Unbounded Motion:** Particle has positive total energy (E > 0).
- Has a single extreme point where total energy equals potential energy, and kinetic energy
becomes zero.

2. **Bounded Motion (Cont'd)**

- For eccentricity 0 ≤ e < 1, E < 0 implies bounded motion.
- Circular orbit has e = 0, elliptical orbit has e < 1.

3. **Types of Motion (Cont'd)**

- In unbounded motion, particle has positive total energy (E > 0).
- It has a single extreme point where total energy equals potential energy, and kinetic energy
becomes zero.

4. **Unbounded Motion (Cont'd)**

- For eccentricity e ≥ 1, E > 0 implies unbounded motion.
 - Parabolic orbit has e = 1, hyperbolic path has e > 1.

5. **Kepler's First Law**

- All planets revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits with the sun at one of the foci.

6. **Perihelion and Aphelion**

- Perihelion is the point closest to the sun (about 147 million kilometers).
- Aphelion is the point farthest from the sun (152 million kilometers).

7. **Kepler's Second Law**

- The radius vector drawn from the sun to the planet sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals
of time.
- In elliptical orbits, the planet's kinetic energy varies: more near perihelion, less near aphelion,
resulting in varying speeds.

8. **Mid-Lesson Question**
- Statement: The velocity of a planet is constant throughout its elliptical trajectory in an orbit.
- Answer: False; it varies as per Kepler's law of area.

9. **Kepler's Third Law**

- The square of the time period of revolution of a planet in an elliptical orbit is directly
proportional to the cube of its semi-major axis.
- Shorter orbits lead to shorter time to complete one revolution, derived from Newton’s law of
gravitation and laws of motion.

10. **Kepler's Laws Summary**

- Kepler's laws describe orbits with three key principles:
1. Elliptical orbits with the sun at one focus (Law of Ellipses).
2. Equal areas in equal times (Law of Equal Areas).
3. Ratios of periods and distances (Law of Harmonies).

Learning Objectives:
- Discuss types of coordinate systems.
- Apply the knowledge of coordinate systems to real-life problems.

Coordinate Systems:

Coordinate systems help describe the position of objects in space. Three main types are used:
- Cartesian
- Spherical
- Cylindrical

1. **Cartesian Coordinate System:**

- Uses x and y axes to describe positions in 2D space.
 - Origin, axes, and coordinates (x, y) define locations on a plane.

2. **Polar Coordinate System:**

- Utilizes distance (radius) and angle from a reference direction to locate points.
- Replaces x and y with radius (r) and angle (θ) from the reference.

3. **Cylindrical Coordinate System:**

- Extends polar coordinates to three dimensions by adding a z-axis (height).
- Incorporates radius, azimuth angle (φ), and z-coordinate.

4. **Spherical Coordinate System:**

- Describes points using radius (r), inclination angle (θ), and azimuth angle (φ).
- Includes distance from origin, inclination angle from z-axis, and azimuth angle similar to
polar's angle.

Importance of Different Systems:

- Each system serves specific purposes in solving problems.
- Polar for circular motions, Cartesian for 2D planes, spherical for three-dimensional positioning.

Basics:
**Origin:** Starting point of a coordinate system.
- **Axes:** Lines defining directions (x, y, z).
- **Coordinates:** Values specifying a point's position along each axis.

Practical Use:
- Relates the concepts to real-world applications like GPS using latitude and longitude
(polar-like coordinates).

Summary:
- Coordinate systems are tools with strengths and purposes suited to specific problems.
- Mastery helps solve problems across various fields by accurately describing positions in
space.

**Understanding Polar Coordinates:**

Polar coordinates describe a point in a plane using a distance from a reference point (the pole)
and an angle from a reference direction (usually the positive x-axis). It's represented as (r, θ),
where 'r' is the distance and 'θ' is the angle.

**Converting Coordinates:**

- **Polar to Cartesian:** To convert (r, θ) to Cartesian coordinates (x, y):

- x = r * cos(θ)
- y = r * sin(θ)
- **Cartesian to Polar:** To convert (x, y) to polar coordinates (r, θ):
- r = sqrt(x^2 + y^2)
- θ = arctan(y / x)

**Applications:**

- **Plotting in Polar Grids:** Points are marked based on 'r' (distance) and 'θ' (angle), creating
circles from the pole.

- **Real-Life Use:** Navigation systems, circular motions in physics, and engineering

applications often use polar coordinates.

**Problem-Solving:**

- **Problem Scenarios:** Conversion between polar and Cartesian coordinates, navigation

calculations, and describing circular motions in various contexts.

**Conclusion:**

Understanding polar coordinates helps in visualizing positions in a plane and is crucial in many
practical applications, from navigation to engineering and physics.