CODES AND CODING 1

Codes and Coding

Student’s name

Institution

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Predicting Codes

Content analysis is supposed to be as accurate as possible to ensure greater validity and

reliability in qualitative research. Coding and codes are used to analyze qualitative data I a

structured approach that increases the validity of the analysis (Holton, 2007, p. 269). To

minimize the risks of biases, the researchers is supposed to draw from the data when developing

codes. However, there are instances where it may be appropriate for the researcher to violate this

principle and predict codes to get more from the data they have collected (Holton, 2007, p. 269).

Code prediction is often necessary in the deeper levels of coding to help interpret the data more

effectively. There is a level of data analysis whose effective coding requires prediction because

the codes are not as direct as the initial levels of evaluation. The prediction is necessary for the

researchers to effectively predict the themes and ideas presented in the qualitative data.

There are different coding strategies that need to be used to ensure that the researcher has

revealed all the important information from the data. These strategies are usually applied in steps

to ensure all important data is evaluated. Open coding is usually applied as a first step in the

coding process (Holton, 2007, p. 271). Open coding identifies the key ideas and codes within the

textual data. During open coding, the researcher develops discrete codes from the data, which

may include an identification of key ideas, events, places, and other types of information that can

be critical to the data analysis process. In the open coding process, the researcher draws

information that is directly presented in the data (Holton, 2007, p. 271). Therefore, there is a

minimal chance of biases affecting the analysis process in this step. However, this part of the

process can leave out a lot of information. A deeper look into the data is necessary for more

effective analysis of the qualitative data. Usually, one or more coding processes will be applied

to further identify themes in the data.

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Axial coding is often used in the second phase of the coding process. In contrast with

open coding, this part includes more in-depth analysis. The researcher breaks down the data into

discrete parts (Scott & Medaugh, 2017). This process involves the organization of the codes

drawn from the open coding process to develop more connections between codes. This process

does not just include reading over the data; the researcher analyses each code and the underlying

data that led to its development to create other sub-categories of codes (Scott & Medaugh, 2017).

Therefore, this process is less abstract. Axial coding still does not include the researcher’s

predictions. The organization of codes is still based on the data itself (Scott & Medaugh, 2017).

Thus, the data may need to be cleaned up further in another stage of coding. In such a case, the

researcher may perform selective coding.

Selective coding is where it may be logical for the researcher to make predictions rather

than direct representations of the codes in the qualitative data. Selective coding is usually the last

step of grounded theory. This is where the researcher connects all the categories they developed

in the previous analysis, into one core category that represents the final results of the analysis

(Williams & Moser, 2019, p. 46). The initial coding usually includes words and sentences that

explain aspects of the data. Selective coding helps to make connections between these wprds and

sentences. This step allows the formation of a core theory that has been drawn from the

represented data. Here, the researcher can also make predictions of upcoming data based on the

patterns in the previous codes they derived from the data (Holt & Neuhoff, 2002). Therefore,

these predictions are usually not based on the researcher’s perceptions and expectations. They

are based on the data that they have already analyzed. When applied appropriately, these

predictions do not constitute personal biases that affect the research results. They are only

assertions based on the analysis that has already been done.

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In conclusion, qualitative analysis is already prone to biases that affect the quality of the

results. Therefore, a basic principle that is applied in the coding process is to make sure that the

codes are as accurate as possible as representations of the key ideas presented in the qualitative

data. However, there are instances when a researcher may break this principle and use their

predictions to develop codes in the data. These predictions are usually allowable in the high-level

coding process. The predictions can be made based on the themes that have already been

identified in the initial stages of the analysis. The predictions are representations of the main

codes that can be derived from linking the codes identified in the first stages of the coding

process. They help to enhance the quality of data analysis by making sure that the researcher gets

the most from the data that they have.

Strategies to reduce Bias in Data Collection and Coding

Bias is a word that is used to define any form of influence that causes a distortion in the

results of a research study. This is a term that is drawn from the quantitative research paradigm

as it was used to measure statistical rigor. However, the concept of bias is also compatible with

the philosophical foundations of the qualitative research paradigm (Galdas, 2017, p. 1). The

concepts such as trustworthiness and rigor in qualitative research are pertinent to the more

subjective and reflexive nature of qualitative study (Galdas, 2017, p. 1). The biases mainly occur

in the process of data collection and the coding process where the researchers analyze the data

they have collected (Connelly, 2016, p. 435). Nonetheless, there is a host of strategies tat have

been developed to prevent or minimize bias in the qualitative data collection and coding

processes.

The first step to minimizing bias is in the planning phase of the project. Design and

selection strategies significantly affect the level of bias on the study. In the initial stage when the
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researcher is determining the sampling methods and data collection strategies, they must ensure

that they minimize the chances of collecting limited information (Maxwell & Chmiel, 2014., p,

543). One of the considerations of the planning phase is the selection methods. These methods

must be designed in a way that allows the research to be representative of the population being

tested. For example, a sampling procedure that excludes some relevant demographic group may

yield biased data because the information will not be representative of the whole population.

Such results might only be partially accurate (Maxwell & Chmiel, 2014., p, 543). After

designing the sampling method, the researchers must also ensure that the data collection

procedures minimize the risks of bias. The qualitative data collection materials such as surveys

and interviews can also be easily biased. For example, some surveys may ask leading questions

that push the respondents to answer the questions according to the researcher’s expectations.

Thus, researchers must take time to ensure that their data collection strategies are free of bias.

Another strategy that is used to minimize bias in qualitative research is the use of

triangulation. Triangulation is a method used to reduce researcher’s bias and increase the validity

and reliability of a qualitative study (Renz, Carrington, & Badger, 2018, p. 844). Triangulation is

a strategy of using various methods or a variety of data sources to develop a more comprehensive

understanding of the research issue. This method helps to determine the degree to which the

qualitative results converge (Renz, Carrington, & Badger, 2018, p. 844). There are a variety of

methods that can be used for triangulation; the researchers can use various methods, various

investigators, various theoretical approaches, or various data sources. For example, a researcher

can use individual interviews and also hold focus groups to determine if both sets of data will

lead to the same results (Abdalla et al., 2018). The use of a variety of techniques minimizes the

chances that the researcher’s bias will influence the results.

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Researchers can also use triangulation in the coding process to minimize the risks of bias.

Having multiple people code the data can help to reduce the bias in the interpretation of

qualitative data. Different people may not arrive at the same results if they all hold different

biases about the research. Thus, in an event where the researchers have arrived at the same

results after individually coding the data, there is an increased chance of bias being minimized

(Renz, Carrington, & Badger, 2018, p. 846). Some researchers also have the participants review

their results. The participants can tell if the final coding of the results is a representation of their

views; hence, researchers can examine their opinion of whether the results are biased.

Researchers can also examine their biases by asking peers to review their results. Peers

can help to shed light on biases that the researcher may have missed. They held to identify

possible information that could have been left out of the final results or errors in coding that

reflect the biases of the researchers (Renz, Carrington, & Badger, 2018, p. 846). This information

enables the researchers to identify and correct their biases to present results that have an

increased validity and reliability.

In summary, the nature of qualitative research makes it very prone to bias. Quantitative

studies usually have specific statistical methods and formulas to avoid and examine the existence

or biases. Thus, it is easier to manage the impact of bias in such studies. In comparison,

qualitative studies include subjective interpretation of data sets in the coding process. Thus, it is

harder to minimize biases. However, this analysis shows that effective study designs,

triangulation, and peer review can help to minimize the biases that reduce the validity of

qualitative studies.
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References

Abdalla, M. M., Oliveira, L. G. L., Azevedo, C. E. F., & Gonzalez, R. K. (2018). Quality in

qualitative organizational research: Types of triangulation as a methodological

alternative. Administração: ensino e pesquisa, 19(1).

Connelly, L. M. (2016). Trustworthiness in qualitative research. Medsurg Nursing, 25(6), 435.

Galdas, P. (2017). Revisiting bias in qualitative research: Reflections on its relationship with

funding and impact. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1),

1609406917748992.

Holt, K. M., & Neuhoff, D. L. (2002, September). Coding by selective prediction: a new scheme

for predictive vector quantization. In Proceedings. International Conference on Image

Processing (Vol. 2, pp. II-II). IEEE.

Holton, J. A. (2007). The coding process and its challenges. The Sage handbook of grounded

theory, 3, 265-289.

Maxwell, J. A., & Chmiel, M. (2014). Generalization in and from qualitative analysis. The SAGE

handbook of qualitative data analysis, 7(37), 540-553.

Renz, S. M., Carrington, J. M., & Badger, T. A. (2018). Two strategies for qualitative content

analysis: An intramethod approach to triangulation. Qualitative health research, 28(5),

824-831.

Scott, C., & Medaugh, M. (2017). Axial coding. The international encyclopedia of

communication research methods, 10, 9781118901731.

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Williams, M., & Moser, T. (2019). The art of coding and thematic exploration in qualitative

research. International Management Review, 15(1), 45-55.