DRUG ABUSE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KENYA: DEVELOPING A

PROGRAMME FOR PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION

By

REDEMPTA W MAITHYA

A thesis submitted in accordance with the requirements

for the degree of

DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

In the subject

SOCIO – EDUCATION

At the

UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA

UNISA

Promoter: Prof E Prinsloo

November 2009
 ABSTRACT

Drug abuse is becoming an increasing problem in Kenya. A number of studies carried out in
the country show that almost every Kenyan youngster at one time or another experiments with
drugs, especially beer and cigarettes. The major cause of concern is that a significant
proportion of these young people eventually get addicted posing a threat to their own health
and safety, while creating difficulties for their families and the public at large into difficulties.
This study sought to establish the current trend of drug abuse among students in Kenyan
secondary schools, and to analyze the strategies used to address the problem. The ultimate
aim was to propose a programme for prevention and intervention.

The study is a descriptive survey. In view of this, the field survey method was adopted to
collect quantitative and qualitative data, using questionnaires and interviews. Both qualitative
and quantitative approaches were used in data analysis, thus there was a mixed model
research design approach to data analysis. The analysis of structured items was mainly done
using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).

The key findings from the study were that drug abuse among students is common; both boys
and girls have abused drugs with the majority being in boys‟ schools; the greatest ratio of
drug abusers to non-abusers among the sampled schools are aged between 20 and 22 years;
there is a significant relationship between drug abuse and age, use of drugs by other family
members and easy access to drugs. A variety of factors contribute to drug abuse with the
majority of students citing curiosity, acceptance by peers and ignorance as to the dangers of
drug abuse as the main reasons. Both the school administrators and teachers face a number of
challenges in an attempting to curb drug abuse in schools.

The study makes a number of recommendations for policy and further research. A number of
guidelines are proposed for developing a programme for prevention and intervention.

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 KEY TERMS

Drug abuse; Kenya; secondary schools; students; drug-related problems; addressing drug
abuse; prevention measures; need for responsibility; student participation; risk factors;
protective factors; academic performance; youth; Modified Social Stress Model.

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 DECLARATION

I declare that DRUG ABUSE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN KENYA: DEVELOPING

A PROGRAMME FOR PREVENTION AND INTERVENTION is my own work and
that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by
means of complete references.

………………………………….. 30 November 2009

Signature Date
RW Maithya
Student No. 3512/194/7

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 DEDICATION

This work is dedicated to my son, Patrick Kioko who always reminded me that I should
complete my studies on time; my mother, Bernadette Maithya and my late father, John
Maithya who saw the value of education and supported me unconditionally.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere appreciation to various institutions and individuals whose

assistance has facilitated the successful completion of this work. To begin with, I most
sincerely thank the University of South Africa (UNISA) for awarding me a bursary that
covered the final year of my studies. I also wish to thank all the UNISA staff for the
efficiency with which they processed my requests whenever there was need. I take this
opportunity to sincerely thank Kenya Technical Teachers College (KTTC) for the institutional
support without which this work could not have been a success.

Very special thanks to my promoter, Prof. E. Prinsloo for the enthusiasm with which she
provided support, advice and constructive critical comments as well as the unconditional
sacrifices she made towards the success of this work. Her valuable and continuous guidance
towards this work are highly appreciated. I also want to thank Sean Morrow and Barbara
Morrow (South Africa) for editing the final draft, as well as Me Magda Botha (UNISA) for
the final layout of this thesis. Your contribution made this work what it is today, thank you
very much. Many thanks to Mrs. Muller (UNISA) for the comments and suggestions she
provided during the analysis and compilation of data, and the final draft.

I acknowledge with gratitude the support I received from my son, Patrick Kioko, and my
brothers and sisters especially Peter and Ann who tirelessly encouraged me to complete this
work. Thanks for your prayers and encouragement. Many thanks go to Margaret Mulwa of
Kenyatta University Library, for her continuous assistance during my library research. I wish
also to sincerely thank all the informants who provided valuable information for this study, as
well as the head-teachers who allowed me to collect data from their institutions. Thanks also
to the Chief Principal, C. Imbali; the Deputy Principal, S.Murage; Samuel Ngigi and Alex
Baraza all of Kenya Technical Teachers‟ College for helping me in different ways.

Finally, I wish to sincerely thank many other people who contributed in many small but
significant ways, and whose names I may not have mentioned. You all contributed to the
success of this work. God bless you all.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
Declaration ii
Dedication iii
Table of Contents iv
List of Abbreviations viii
List of Tables ix
Acknowledgements xi
Abstract xii
Key Terms xiii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM 1
1.3 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 6
1.4 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 6
1.5 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 7
1.6 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY 7
1.7 SCOPE AND DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 8
1.8 METHOD OF RESEARCH 10
1.9 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS 11
1.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATOINS 14
1.11 RESEARCH PROGRAMME 15
1.12 CONCLUSION 15

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 CHAPTER TWO

OVERVIEW OF THE CAUSE, NATURE, EXTENT AND EFFECTS OF DRUG

ABUSE AMONG SCHOOL LEARNERS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO
THE YOUTH IN KENYA

2.1 INTRODUCTION 16
2.2 A SOCIO EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVEON THE CAUSE
OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG STUDENTS 16
2.3 NATURE AND EXTENT OF DRUGS ABUSED BY LEARNERS 26
2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 32
2.5 CONCLUSION 34

CHAPTER THREE

ADDRESSING DRUG ABUSE IN KENYA: THE PRESENT SCENARIO

3.1 INTRODUCTION 35
3.2 OVERVIEW OF THE PRESENT SCENARIO 35
3.3 CONCLUSION 43

CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION 44
4.2 AIM OF RESEARCH 44
4.3 RESEARCH PARADIGMS 44
4.4 RESEARCH DESIGN 47
4.4.1 Description of the Sample 47
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4.4.2 Sampling Procedure 48
4.4.3 Research Instruments 49
4.4.4 Document Analysis 51
4.4.5 Data Collection Procedures 52
4.4.6 Data Analysis 53

4.5 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE STUDY 54

4.6 DATA PROCESSING 55
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS 55
4.8 CONCLUSION 57

CHAPTER FIVE

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

5.1 INTRODUCTION 58
5.2 THE EXTENT OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG STUDENTS
AS REPORTED BY STUDENTS, TEACHERS, DEPUTY
HEAD TEACHERS AND PARENTS 59
5.3 CAUSES OF DRUG ABUVE AMONG STUDENTS 69
5.4 COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS BY STUDENTS AND THEIR
SOURCES 76
5.5 STRATEGIES USED TO ADDRESS DRUG ABUSE IN
SCHOOLS 84
5.6 PROPOSED SOLUTSION TO DRUG ABUSE IN SCHOOLS 88
5.7 CHALLENGES FACED IN ADDRESSING DRUG ABUSE IN
SCHOOLS 92
5.8 CONCLUSION 94

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 CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION 96
6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION 96
6.3 SUMMARY OF OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL
INVESTIGATION 99

6.3.1 The Extent of Drug Abuse among Students 99

6.3.2 Causes of Drug Abuse among Students 100
6.3.3 Commonly Abused Drugs by Students and their Sources 101
6.3.4 Perceived Effects of Drug Abuse among Students 102
6.3.5 Strategies Used to Address Drug Abuse in Schools 102
6.3.6 Proposed Solutions to Drug Abuse in Schools 103
6.3.7 Challenges Facing Schools in Addressing Drug Abuse 104
6.3.8 Conclusions from the Literature and Empirical Research 105

6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS 107

6.4.1 The Role of the School in Addressing Drug Abuse 107

6.4.2 Parental Responsibility in Addressing Drug Abuse in Schools 112
6.4.3 The Role of the Community 113
6.4.4 Role of the Government 115
6.4.5 Role of the Church 118
6.4.6 Role of Sport in Addressing Drug Abuse 120
6.4.7 Role of the Mass Media 121
6.4.8 Limitations of the Study 123
6.4.9 Recommendations for Further Research 123

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6.5 FINAL CONCLUSION 125

BIBLIOGRAPHY 141

Appendix I: 135
Cover Letter

Appendix II: 136

Questionnaire for class teachers and school Counselors

Appendix III: 149

Questionnaire for students

Appendix IV: 167

Interview guide for deputy-head teachers

Appendix V: 169
Interview guide for parents

Appendix VI: 171

Administrative map of Kenya

Appendix VI:
Research Permit 172

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

AIDS Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome

ACK Anglican Church of Kenya
BBC British Broadcasting Corporation
BOG Board of Governors
CBOs Community Based Organizations
EADIS Eastern Africa Drug Information System
GAP Global Assessment Programme
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
ICPA International Commission on Prevention of Alcoholism
INCB International Narcotics Control Board
MOE Ministry of Education
MOEST Ministry of Science and Technology
MOH Ministry of Health
MSSM Modified Social Stress Model
NACADA National Agency for Campaign against Drugs
NGOs Governmental Organizations
NIDA National Institute on Drug Abuse
NSDUH National Survey on Drug Use and Health
STIs Sexually Transmitted Infections
SPSS Package for Social Sciences
UN United Nations
UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime
UNDCP United Nations Drug Control Programme
WHO World Health Organization

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 5.1 Response rate of sampled respondents in the various subsets of

respondents linked to the target population of student drug abusers 59
Table 5.2 Number of students who have used drugs Table 5.3 Drug abuse by
type of school 60
Table 5.3 Drug abuse by type of school 60
Table 5.4 Relationship between age and drug abuse as reported by students 61
Table 5.5 How many of your friends take drugs? 62
Table 5.6 Is Drug abuse common in your school? 63
Table 5.7 Gender frequency table on those who said drug abuse is common 64
Table 5.8 General situation of drug abuse according to teachers 64
Table 5. 9 Frequency distribution on whether the drug problem is increasing. 65
Table 5.10 Teachers perceptions on classes which abuse drugs 66
Table 5.11 Students perceptions on classes which abuse drugs most 66
Table 5.12 Teachers responses on where drug abusers reside. 67
Table 5.13 Relationship between area of residence and drug abuse 68
Table 5.14 Frequency distribution on multiple–choice response question:
Why do students abuse drugs? 69
Table 5.15 Student Frequency distribution on whether friends encourage others in
school to take drugs. 70
Table 5.16 Relationship between using/not using drugs and having a family
member using drugs 72
Table 5.17 Relationship with parents/guardian with students‟ tendency to abuse
drugs 73
Table 5.18 Responses on whether availability of drugs influences drug abuse 74
Table 5.19 Students‟ responses on commonly abused drugs 77
Table 5.20 Teachers Responses on Commonly Abused Drugs 78
Table 5.21 Students multiple-choice responses on sources of drugs of abuse 80
Table 5.22 Teachers‟ multiple–choice responses on sources of drugs of abuse 81
Table 5.23 If your friends use drugs, do the school authorities know that they do? 82

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Table 5.24 Multiple–choice responses on whether students knew the dangers of
drug abuse 83
Table 5.25 Teachers‟ responses on methods used to address drug abuse 84
Table 5.26 Teachers‟ overall assessment of methods used to address drug abuse` 85
Table 5.27 Have you / your friends ever been exposed to any drug preventive
methods/education? 86
Table 5.28 Students‟ multiple–choice responses on preventive methods used in
their schools 87
Table 5.29 Do you think it‟s necessary to fight drug abuse through prevention
rather than cure? 89
Table 5.30 Students‟ multiple–choice responses on methods of addressing drug
abuse 89
Table 5.31 Proposed measures by teachers for addressing drug abuse 90
Table 5.32 In your own opinion, who should be approached by students for help
on drug related problems? 91
Table 5.33 Challenges faced in addressing drug abuse according to teachers 92

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION AND PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PROBLEM

The history of the human race has also been the history of drug abuse. In itself, the use of drugs
does not constitute an evil. Drugs, properly administered, have been a medical blessing. For
example, herbs, roots, bark leaves and plants have been used to relieve pain and help control
diseases. However, over the past few decades, the use of illegal drugs has spread at an
unprecedented rate and has reached at every part of the world. According to a United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) report (2005), some 200 million people, or 5 percent of the
total world‟s population aged 15 - 64 have used drugs at least once in the last 12 months an
implied 15 million people more than the 2004 estimate. The report goes on to say that, no nation
has been immune to the devastating effects of drug abuse.

According to the World Drug Report (2005), the use of illicit drugs has increased throughout the
world in recent years. The report further states that a major world trend is the increasing
availability of many kinds of drugs to an ever widening socio-economic spectrum of consumers.
The report argues that the main problem drugs at global level continue to be opiates (notably
heroine) followed by cocaine. For example, for most of Europe and Asia, opiates continued to be
the main problem drugs, accounting for 62 percent of all treatment in 2003. Reports from a total
of 95 countries indicated that drug seizures increased four-fold in 2003, and more than half of
these were of cannabis.

A report released by the United Nations Drug Control programme (UNDCP) in 2004 estimated
that 3.3 to 4.1 percent of the global population consumes drugs, but more worrisome is that
according to the UNDCP executive director, those are hooked are younger and younger every
year. In Pakistan for example, it was reported that the share of those who started heroine use at
15 - 20 years has doubled to almost 24 percent of those surveyed. In China it was reported that
drug use is going up while the age of new users is going down. A survey in the Czech Republic
showed that 37 percent of new drug users were teenagers between 15 and 19 years old. Drug use
- in particular heroin - is becoming a serious problem in Egypt, where around 6 percent of a
sample of secondary school students admitted to having experimented with drugs. Cannabis
accounted for 85 percent of use and opium for 10 percent, as reported by UNDCP.

Every country in the world, developed or developing, incurs substantial costs as a result of
damages caused by substance abuse (World Drug Report, 2005). The World Health Organization
(WHO) estimates that 1.1 billion people, representing a third of the world population above the
age of 15 years, use tobacco, principally in the form of the cigarettes. Of these smokers, 800
million, 700 million of them males, live in developing countries (WHO, 2004). While smoking
rates have been declining in the developed world, they have increased in the developing
countries by as much as 50 percent, especially in Asia and in the Pacific region, over the last
decade. Addiction to tobacco is therefore a major problem in the developing countries.
According to the same report, tobacco causes four million deaths annually, not including
prenatal morbidity and mortality. This figure is projected to rise to 1.6 million by the year 2025,
70 percent of which will occur in the developing world if current trends continue (INCB, 2003).

Despite eradication efforts in countries in Africa, the region still remains a major supplier of
some drugs such as cannabis, which is one of the most widely abused drugs. Since the early
nineteen eighties, Africa has been experiencing an escalating problem with drug abuse and
trafficking. Although reliable information is scarce, data collected under the Eastern Africa Drug
Information System/Global Assessment Programme (EADIS/GAP), country mission reports
coupled and small-scaled research activities conducted by governments and non-governmental
organizations all attest to this (Abdool, 2004:79).

According to the African Union Ministerial Conference on Drug Control in Africa report
(2004:104), at least 16 countries in Africa have reported abuse of opiates, with prevalence rates
ranging from 0.01 to 0.8 percent for the population aged 15 and above. Twelve countries reported
cocaine abuse with prevalence ranging from 0.01 to 1.1 percent for this age bracket.
Concurrently, the age of those initiated to drug use is diminishing with large numbers of in-
school and out-of-school youth consuming drugs. This phenomenon is even more acute in

2
conflict and post conflict countries, with populations experiencing high stress levels while child
soldiers are provided with drugs to enable them to fight.

All the while, Africa‟s role in the global drugs supply chain is increasing. Already the continent
is the second largest region for cannabis production, trafficking and consumption, accounting for
26 percent of global seizures of this drug in 2001 (UNODC, 2004). By country, the largest hauls
in this period were in Kenya, Nigeria, and the Republic of South Africa, while Morocco is said to
be one of the main producers of Cannabis resin.

According to a report by the International Narcotics Control Board (INCB, 2006), the East
African region has become the fallback for drug dealers following increased control of traditional
routes through the Netherlands and Spain. The warning followed the discovery of cocaine worth
6.4 billion Kenya shillings in Malindi and Nairobi on December 14, 2004 (Daily Nation, March
2, 2006).

Abuse of drugs not only holds back the economy because control of supply and reduction of
demand are expensive undertakings, but is also a blow to the country as its youth become less
productive. According to the Ministerial Council on Drug Strategy (2005), drug abuse, including
smoking and drinking alcohol, imposes substantial costs on users and their families, taxpayers, on
the national economy and the community as a whole. International studies show that half of the
long-term smokers will die prematurely, half of these in middle age (Doll, 2004:120). The studies
also argue that, smokers are four times more likely than non-smokers to suffer from a heart attack
before age 40 (Mahonen, 2004:39). In addition, the earlier young people start smoking, and the
more they smoke over their lifetime, the more likely they are to suffer from smoking-related
diseases.

The situation described above is true in developed countries that have been experimenting with
such drugs for a long period. However, developing countries are not exempt from the dangers.
All countries, Kenya included, are vulnerable. It has been noted that Kenya is one of the
developing countries in Africa that has lately been experiencing rapid increase in production,
distribution and consumption of multiple drugs of dependence (Acuda and Yambo 1983; World

3
Health Organization, 1995; Daily Nation, March 2, 2006). In the face of this challenge, a broad
spectrum of the world community has demonstrated intense concern about the problem. It is in
the best interests of every nation, including Kenya, to take a firm stand in combating all aspects
of drug abuse.

In 1990, the United Nations General Assembly created the United Nations Drug Control
Programme (UNDCP). The creation of UNDCP was based on the recognition of the need for an
organization that would foster concerted international action against illicit drug production,
trafficking and abuse. Its formation is evidence of the determination of the governments of the
world, working through the United Nations (UN) to put an end to these transnational phenomena.

The Kenya government has ratified two major United UN conventions on narcotic drugs and
psychotropic substances in its quest to protect its citizens from the ravages of the global drug
abuse menace. These include the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) and the
Convention against Illicit Trafficking on Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (1988).
The government is currently working towards the ratification of the Convention on Psychotropic
Substances (1971). In 1994, the government enacted a new anti-drug law, the Narcotics and
Psychotropic Substances Control Act, as well as forming the Kenya Anti-Narcotic Unit.

A number of academic research reports and law enforcement reports however, indicate that in the
last few years, Kenya has had to deal with an increase in the drug abuse problem (Chapter 3). It
has been noted that drug abuse is fast spreading to rural areas especially Central, Western,
Nyanza and Eastern provinces. Drug abuse among the youth in secondary schools has
endangered their lives. This is causing a lot of concern as the vice, indeed, has been identified as
a major cause of some of the problems experienced in secondary schools in Kenya (Gikonyo,
2005: 105).

Kenya, with the other developing African countries, has been caught up with the indiscriminate
use, abuse and dependence on drugs of various types. While speaking at Uhuru Park, Nairobi,
during the International Day against Drug Abuse celebrations, the then Vice President, Hon.
Moody Awori said that Kenya has become a major centre for drug trafficking (The Standard,

4
June 27, 2006). He said that, reports from criminal justice agencies showed that in 2005, the
Probation Service supervised 3,588 offenders convicted of abuse and possession of drugs, of
whom 406 were juveniles. On the same note, the then National Agency for Campaign against
Drug Abuse (NACADA) coordinator, John Langat, said that crime and violence were escalating
as a result of drug and substance abuse. The country is recognized as an important transit point
for the southern African market. Mombasa Port and the Jomo Kenyatta International Airport are
alleged key entry points (Daily Nation, March 2, 2006). In short, the country is increasingly
becoming a transit point for international drug traffickers.

Within Kenya itself, drug abuse is becoming an increasing problem. According to studies carried
out by Population Communication Africa (Masita, 2004:117), almost every Kenyan youngster at
one time or another experiments with drugs, especially with beer and cigarettes. Although the
regular users of hardcore drugs are much fewer than those of cigarette and alcohol, the study
argues that the major cause of concern is that a high proportion of these young people eventually
become addicted threatening their own health and safety, and causing difficulties for their
families and friends.

In an attempt to fight drug abuse in Kenya, there has been a campaign to ban smoking in public
places. For example, in many public offices, “No Smoking” signs are prominently displayed. In
addition, the Ministry of Health has proposed a new bill prohibiting smoking in public.
According to this proposed bill, people who smoke in public would risk up to six months in jail, a
fine or both (Health Minister, Hon. Ngilu, Daily Nation May 12, 2006). However, the bill is yet
to be gazetted. According to the Minister, the most effective way of dealing with drug abuse is to
sensitize people to the dangers posed by drugs to the user, his or her family and society at large.

In response to global warnings on the dangers posed by drug abuse, the National Agency for
Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) is pushing for the establishment of a national drug
control authority to enforce all drug trafficking laws in Kenya (Kaguthi, 2006:10). According to
Kaguthi, although religious education has been instilled strongly in the youth, the majority still
abuse drugs and are likely to destroy their lives before they become adults. He argues that most
secondary school students today are experimenting with drugs.

5
It is against this background that the current study was undertaken. The study seeks to establish
the general trend of the drug problem and critically analyze strategies used to address the
problem. The findings will aid in evaluating whether these strategies have the potential to help
the government in curbing the drug problem among the youth in secondary schools, with a view
to coming up with a more comprehensive programme for addressing the problem in schools.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Drug abuse amongst the youth in Kenya has become a serious problem affecting all the people of
the country. Addiction leads many people, young people prominent amongst them, into
downward spiral of hopelessness that in some cases ends fatally. They range from glue- sniffing
street children and teenage ecstasy users, to hardcore heroin and cocaine addicts (NACADA,
2005). Drug abuse is responsible for lost wages, destruction of property in schools, soaring health
care costs and broken families. It is a problem which affects us all as parents, children, teachers,
government officials, taxpayers and workers.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The overall purpose of this study is to find out the current trend of drug abuse among students in
secondary schools in Kenya and analyze the strategies used to address the problem. The ultimate
aim is to propose a programme to help curb the problem.

The specific objectives of the study are as follows. To:

a) Examine the causes and extent of drug abuse among youth in secondary schools.

b) Identify commonly abused drugs among the youth in secondary schools.

c) Identify and evaluate strategies used in secondary schools to address drug abuse, their
effectiveness and shortcomings.

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d) Propose strategies that could help curb drug abuse in secondary schools.

1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

The study attempted to answer the following questions:

a) What is the extent of drug abuse among youth in secondary schools?

b) What are the main causes of drug abuse among the youth in secondary schools?

c) Which are the drugs commonly abused by the youth in secondary schools?

d) What strategies do schools use to address drug abuse?

e) How effective are the methods used by schools to address drug abuse?

f) What modifications are needed within the current strategies to establish an effective
programme against drug abuse in secondary schools?

1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

The proposed study could help the Ministry of Education (M.O.E.) to better understand the
current situation and accordingly make changes to address the factors that contribute to drug
abuse in secondary schools.

Kenya, like many other developing countries, is faced with the social problem of high rates of
drug abuse. To make matters worse, the percentage of drug abusers in the population increases
yearly despite the efforts to eradicate the problem. Failure to solve this problem not only
threatens the life of individuals, but also the economic and social development of the country as a

7
whole. The current study is useful in contributing to the general body of knowledge in this area.
Beyond that, however, it also explores the potential of schools to curb the drug problem.

The study should help to make policy makers, administrators and teachers aware of the factors
hindering the effectiveness of the approaches which attempt to curb drug abuse and, where
possible, create opportunities to eradicate the problem. The proposed programme would be useful
in educating all Kenyans, youth and adults, on the risks of drug consumption. Thus, this study
would play an important role in reducing, or even preventing high rates of drug use and abuse.

Based on the findings, recommendations are made. If followed, these recommendations would be
useful to administrators and policy makers in curbing drug abuse in schools through improving
existing educational programmes, and striving to develop ones that are even more efficient..

A part from proposing more effective preventive measures in relation to drug abuse, the study
also provides a background for other studies in its prevention. This would help in promoting a
drug-free school environment and better academic performance, thus improving the standards of
education in the country. In the absence of specific policies on substance abuse in schools this
study makes important recommendations on the way forward.

1.6 SCOPE AND DELIMITATION OF THE STUDY

This study focuses on the current trend of drug abuse trends among secondary school students in
Kenya and analyzes the strategies used to address the problem, with a view to developing a
programme to guide in prevention and intervention measures.

Research for study was carried out in secondary schools in the Central Division of Machakos
District. Machakos District was selected because previous reports have shown that the district
has experienced a number of serious drug abuse problems. For example, in March 1998, 20
schools were set ablaze and students sent home. This was associated with drug abuse by students
as well as political interference in the schools (Kenya Times April 27, 1998). As a result, the
District Commissioner threatened to close and deregister two schools because of drug trafficking

8
and for allowing drug use by students. High-profile cases blamed on drug abuse in the District
include the death of 67 students in 2001 at Kyanguli Mixed secondary school when their
dormitories were set ablaze by fellow students. In November, 2003, Kinyui Boys High school
was burnt down by rioting students (Sunday Nation, March 28, 2004).

The study focuses on the secondary school level. Drug abuse has been singled out as one of the
major challenges threatening the future of the Kenyan youth including students (Sunday Nation,
March 15, 2004). Many students in high schools are aged between 12 and 18 years, a stage best
described as adolescence (youth). Adolescence is a time of transitions and experimentation,
sometimes including experimentation with drugs. Pubertal spurt, sexual maturation and bodily
changes characteristic of this unique period of growth and maturation, are associated with
progressive psychological development and various social milestones. Studying young people at
secondary school thus coincides conveniently with studying them during the sometimes turbulent
adolescent period. According to Eisenstein (2005:117), the proximity of adolescence to
biological maturity and adulthood provides optimal opportunity to implement drug preventive
activities designed to decrease long-term adult problems related to drug abuse.

Only public schools in the Central Division of Machakos District were included in the study:
mixed schools, single-gender schools (girls or boys only), day and boarding schools. Central
Division of Machakos District was selected because it has both the urban and rural public schools
that are found throughout the country. Although the researcher would have wished to have
covered privately-owned schools for comparative purposes, time was a limiting factor given that
the issue of drug abuse is sensitive, and that respondents must be given adequate time to give
detailed information.

In spite of the research permit and letters of introduction from relevant government authorities,
suspicion of the area of research was also likely to cause unnecessary delays. Drug abuse is
sensitive and many people may withhold vital information.

9
1.7 METHOD OF RESEARCH

This study focused on gaining insight into the drugs commonly abused drugs by secondary
school students, the main causes of drug abuse amongst them, and strategies used to address the
problem in schools.

To achieve these objectives, an extensive literature research was carried out. This involved a
review of recent and relevant documents, articles in journals and newspapers and research reports
on the issue of drug abuse.

The empirical research used quantitative and qualitative methods of data collection and analysis.
The quantitative method was used to obtain numeric data to provide accurate analysis of the drug
abuse problem among students. The qualitative method was used to get textual data representing
the views of the teachers and parents, the latter often represented in the Board of Governors
(BOG.) on the issue of drug abuse in schools.

Survey and case study research designs were used. According to Gall and Gall (1996:237), the
main purpose of a survey is to use questionnaires and interviews to collect data from the
participants about their characteristics, experiences and opinions, in order to generalize the
findings to a population that the sample is intended to represent. Case study on the other hand is
the in-depth study of instances of a phenomenon in its natural context, and from the perspective
of the participants involved in the phenomenon (Gall and Gall, 1996: 237). The survey and the
case study designs were used to shed some light and produce detailed information on the issue of
drug abuse among students.

The data obtained from primary and secondary sources was interpreted, classified and
categorized according to the research objectives, and later keyed into the projected chapters.
Through the use of descriptive statistics data was analyzed, while conclusions, recommendations
and suggestions for further research were made. Textual data was analyzed using qualitative
analysis techniques.

10
This study forms the basis for developing a model for teachers and policy makers to help curb
and effectively address the drug abuse problem in Kenyan schools. The rationale for this study
was based on the assumption that strategies used to address drug abuse in schools are ineffective,
and that a comprehensive model is required to effectively address the problem among students in
Kenyan schools. This was the basis on which the recommendations with which this thesis
concludes were based.

1.8 OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS

Drug: Any product other than food or water that affects the way people feel, think, see, and
behave. It is a substance that due to its chemical nature affects physical, mental and emotional
functioning. It can enter the body through chewing, inhaling, smoking, drinking, rubbing on the
skin or injection.

Drug abuse: Use of drugs for purposes other than medical reasons. It refers to misuse of any
psychotropic substances resulting in changes in bodily functions, thus affecting the individual in
a negative way socially, cognitively or physically. Social effects may be reflected in an
individual‟s enhanced tendency to engage in conflicts with friends, teachers, and school
authorities. Cognitive effects relate to the individual‟s lack of concentration on academic work
and memory loss such as “blackouts‟‟.

Drug addiction: Addiction to drugs or alcohol means that a person‟s body can no longer
function without these substances. The addictive substances usually have negative effects, for
example, they can alter mental state and behaviour to a point where the individual becomes a
threat to himself and others. Once a person becomes addicted, it is hard to stop using drugs.

According to Bawkin and Bawkin (1972: 105), an addicted person may show a decline in
academic performance, frequently fails to attend classes, loses interest in school work and
displays weakened motor coordination, poor health, and lack of interest in old friendships.
Addiction by its nature distorts thinking processes giving prominence to thoughts which justify

11
continuing addictive behaviour, and minimizing or excluding consideration of reasons for ceasing
it.

Drug related problems: This term is used to describe all negative effects associated with drug
abuse such as violence, conflicts with friends or school authorities, destruction of school property
and academic underperformance.

Drug policy: A brief statement outlining a school‟s stand or position on procedures for dealing
with drug-related issues. It may be reflected in the school rules and guidelines, and is also often a
reflection of the laws of Kenya. In Kenya, drug trafficking and abuse is considered a criminal
offence under the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Control Act of 1994.

Illegal/legal drugs: In this study illegal drugs refer to the substances that the government regards
as harmful to the mental and physical well being of the individual, hence controlling or
discouraging their consumption by law. Legal drugs refer to those such as alcohol and tobacco
that are potentially dangerous but whose consumption the government allows.

Intervention: Attempts to help drug users to positively modify their behaviour and change their
attitude towards misuse of drugs. It also includes activities and programmes put in place to
address drug abuse.

Prevention measures: Prevention is best understood when explained in all three levels i.e.
primary, secondary and tertiary.

 Primary prevention of substance abuse is preventing the initiation of psychoactive

substance use or delaying the age at which use begins (WHO, 2000:12).
 Secondary prevention is the intervention aimed at individuals in the early stages of
psychoactive substance use. The aim is to prevent substance abuse from becoming a
problem thereby limiting the degree of damage to the individual (World Drug Report,
2000:109).

12
 Tertiary prevention aims at ending dependence and minimizing problems resulting from
use/abuse. This type of prevention strives to enable the individual to achieve and
maintain improved levels of functioning and health. Sometimes tertiary prevention is
called rehabilitation and relapse prevention (WHO, 2000:12).

For the purposes of this study, prevention refers to educational activities, programmes or policies
aimed at enabling young people to stay healthy and inhabit an environment free from drug abuse.
It also refers to education of young people about the effects of substance abuse with the intention
of preventing their use/abuse and enabling them to make informed decisions when faced with the
challenge of drug abuse. Prevention also refers to educational programmes which empower
people to live a productive lifestyle, free from drug abuse.

Protective factors/Risk factors: Research has shown that in order to prevent substance use and
abuse, two things must happen (O‟Malley, et. al, 2001):

 Factors that increase the risk of the problem must be identified, and
 Ways to reduce the impact of those factors must be developed.

Factors that help to prevent substance use and abuse are called protective factors, and factors that
contribute to or increase the risk of developing use and abuse problems are called risk factors.
Risk factors are those likely to make the individual abuse drugs, or contribute to the risk of
developing use and abuse problems.

The only way to ensure the health of individuals is to increase protective factors while decreasing
risk factors. Knowledge of these factors will help stakeholders in drug prevention to better
understand them and work out strategies of enhancing the protective while reducing the risk
factors.

Psychoactive Substance: Refers to any substance that when taken by a person can modify
perception, mood, cognition, behaviour, or motor functions (WHO, 2000:3).

13
Strategies: This term refers to the methods or approaches that schools have put in place to
address drug related problems in the institutions. They are also measures that have been put in
place by the Kenyan schools with the aim of curbing drug abuse and controlling its negative
effects

Substance abuse: Refers to the use of all chemicals, drugs and industrial solvents that produce
dependence (psychological and physical) in a percentage of individuals who take them. It can
also be used to refer to repeated non-medical use of potentially additive chemical and organic
substances. According to WHO (2000:11), substance abuse includes the use of chemicals in
excess of normally prescribed treatment dosage and frequency, even with knowledge that they
may cause serious problems and eventually lead to addition.

Youth: Refers to young people between 13 and 25 years or their activities and their
characteristics. The majority of students in Kenyan secondary schools are between 13 and 19
years, a stage referred to as adolescence. The term youth therefore includes this age bracket of
students.

1.9 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Cognizance was taken of the fact that this study was investigating very sensitive issues likely to
elicit hostility, insecurity or concealment of the real data required from the participants.
Confidentiality and privacy was therefore ensured for subjects to safeguard their interests.

Permission to carry out the research was sought from the participants, the school principals, and
relevant authorities, including the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MOEST).
Participation was voluntary. It was clearly explained to participants that the purpose of the
research was to collect data and develop a programme that would be used to help students and the
youth in dealing with the problem of drug abuse, the eventual aim being to benefit the school
youth and the country as a whole. The researcher assured participants of strict confidentiality in
relation to information obtained during the research. Thus willing participants were required to
make informed decisions

14
1.10 RESEARCH PROGRAMME

The study is organized as follows:

Chapter 1: Introduction and background, statement of the problem, aim and objectives,
delimiting parameters, ethical considerations, methodology, operational definition of key terms,
and research programme.

Chapter 2: Overview of the cause, nature and extent of drug abuse.

Chapter 3: Addressing drug abuse in Kenya: the present scenario.

Chapter 4: Research design.

Chapter 5: Analysis and interpretation of data.

Chapter 6: Summary, conclusions and recommendations.

1.11 CONCLUSION

This chapter introduced the theme and area of research. In the next chapter the researcher will
explore holistically the cause, nature, extent and effects of drug abuse.

15
 CHAPTER TWO

OVERVIEW OF THE CAUSE, NATURE, EXTENT AND EFFECTS OF DRUG ABUSE

AMONG SCHOOL LEARNERS WITH SPECIFIC REFERENCE TO THE YOUTH IN
KENYA

2.1 INTRODUCTION

According to Gillis (1996:67), young people are individuals in the process of development and
change. He further goes on to say that during this period they experiment with newly discovered
aspects of their physical and emotional selves.

During this period the youth are likely to experiment with drugs and some will become addicted.

This section will comprise of the following sections:

 Causes of drug abuse amongst learners.

 Nature and extent of drug abuse by learners.
 Theoretical framework
.
2.2 A SOCIO -EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE CAUSES OF DRUG
ABUSE AMONGST STUDENTS

Substance use and abuse by young people, and problems associated with this behaviour have
been part of human history for a long time. What is different today is increased availability of a
wide variety of substances and the declining age at which experimentation with these substances
take place (WHO, 2005:45).

However it is important to note that all drugs are dangerous and that the deliberate ingestion of
drugs is harmful to the individual, the family, the community and society as whole. No
consensus exists about the specific root causes of drug abuse and addiction for particular

16
individuals. The reasons why people turn to narcotics are as varied as the types of people who
abuse them. The factors associated with drug abuse are many and varied, and include individual
predispositions, family characteristics and complex social and environmental determinants.

A number of authors and researchers have shown that there are many contributing factors to drug
abuse among students. Rice (1981:37), states that in a school setting, drug abuse affects the
children of the rich as well as those from poor families. Shoemaker (1984:56) argues that drug
abuse is caused by a combination of environmental, biological, and psychological factors. The
environmental factors; the most influential include the family, peer association, school
performance and social class membership.

According to the United Nations (1992:15), drug users, like other people seek approval for their
behaviour from their peers whom they attempt to convince to join them in their habit as a way of
seeking acceptance. Whether peer pressure has a positive or negative impact depends on the
quality of the peer group. Unfortunately, the same peer pressure that acts to keep a group within
an accepted code of behaviour can also push a susceptible individual down the wrong path. A
study carried out by Kariuki (1988:85) in Nairobi secondary schools indicated that the majority
of drug users had friends who used drugs.

Scholars such as Karugu and Olela (1993:87), Muthigani (1995:95) and Kamonjo (1997:65) who
have conducted studies on the issue of drug use and abuse agree that there is a significant
relationship between the subjects‟ drug using behaviour and the involvement of their friends in
drugs. According to them, if an adolescent associates with other adolescents who use drugs, the
risk of involvement with drugs is further increased. Another survey of youth in southern Nigeria,
also found out that the source of drugs for drug using-students was friends in the same or
neighbouring schools, and students who reported using drugs had more drug using than abstinent
friends (Nevadomsky, 1982:75). Confirming this finding, Kiiru (2004:78) argues that peer
pressure influences youth to use substances under the false impression that some drugs stimulate
appetite for food, increase strength and give wisdom as well as courage to face life.

17
Although it is presumed that there are similarities in the prevalence of psychoactive substance use
between young people in rural and urban areas, it is also generally assumed that, at least for some
drugs, there are clear differences. For example, a Rapid Situation Analysis by Adelekan (1999) in
Obot (2005:105) showed that the prevalence of cocaine and heroin use in rural youth populations
was generally low. This is in large part due to difference in exposure. According to this study,
young people in urban areas have more opportunity to try new drugs and are exposed to more
influences from peers and the media than rural youth. There is no conclusive evidence that for
substances that are easily available in both rural and urban areas (e.g. cannabis and alcohol), there
is any significant difference in the rate of use between young people in the different residential
settings (Obot, 2005:97).

Much has been said and written about the relationship between the home environment and drug
abuse. The family especially the parents are the child‟s basic socializing agents. Muthigani
(1995:102) indicates that a child gains his/her first standards of behaviour from the teaching of
parents and other grown-up persons around. She argues further that if the child observes a
disjuncture between parents‟ teaching and practice, it creates doubt, which is carried into
adolescence giving rise to deviant behaviour. Shoemaker (1984:98) associates delinquency, for
example alcohol and marijuana abuse with lax, inconsistent or abusive parental discipline. The
nature of parent-child interaction and the general atmosphere within the home is consistently
related to delinquency among the youth. Furthermore, having a parent with a drug problem
increases the chances of developing the same problem developing in the offspring.

Some other studies have looked at issues related to the family and use of drugs as related to the
youth. Ndom (1996:105) carried out a Rapid Situation Analysis study in Nigeria and found that
being male in an unstable family was associated with high risk for substance abuse. There is
support for this argument from clinical findings by Asumi (1996:48) also in Nigeria, which have
shown that cannabis abusers tend to be young men, including students, who have been deprived
of parental supervision and warmth when they were young. A survey report released by
NACADA in Kenya in 2004 says that, young people between 10 and 24 years, whose parents use
or sell alcohol and other drugs, are likely to abuse these substances. At times youth, including
students, who sell on behalf of parents, are themselves exposed to substance abuse in due course.

18
Authors like Schaefer (1996:130) and Bezuidenhout (2004:122) assert that there are various
factors that cause young people to abuse drugs and even become addicted. These include family
networks, interaction and home environments. Bezuidenhout (2004:123) says that adolescents
with substance abusing parents experience a higher rate of parental and /or family problems than
do adolescents whose parents do not abuse substances. This may cause poor parent-child
attachment, which may in turn lead to a lack of commitment to conventional activities, thereby at
times leading to adolescent drug taking. Schaefer (1996:133) adds that youths with poor home
support tend to seek support and understanding elsewhere. Many find affection, understanding
and support in the lifestyle of a drug abusing subgroup.

The concepts of family and self-identity are certainly closely related. According to Moore
(http://www.moorefoundation.com), interactions within the family unit will play a major role in
the adolescent‟s personality or self-concept formation. In addition, the exposure to cultural norms
through the family, as well as individual adaptations, lays the foundation for influential modeling
and acceptance of social orientations. The family is often viewed as the basic source of strength,
nurturing and supporting its members, as well as ensuring stability and generational continuity
for the community and its culture (Kendel, 1973: 59). From the traditional point of view, it is the
duty of the family to protect and sustain both strong and weak members, helping them to deal
with stress while nurturing its younger and more vulnerable members, the children.

Families can have a powerful influence on shaping the attitudes, values and behaviour of
children. During socialization, parents and family members direct young people‟s conduct along
desired channels, and enforce conformity to social norms. In traditional African society,
socialization began with the birth of a child and progressed in stages to old age, building on
preceding socially recognized achievements. Socialization involves being taught all the things
one needs to know in a particular context. The child is integrated into the community by being
taught discipline, social roles and skills to help him/her fit well in society. A well-socialized child
has a sense of self-worth, and feels strongly that he/she is part of the family where one is needed,
wanted and depended upon. He/she is the productive, self-directed citizen any community needs.

19
It is important to note that socialization is often not planned; children learn from watching and
imitating what adults say and do. As they grow, they are likely to pick up both positive and
negative habits from their parents. A report in the Sunday Nation (Gitahi and Mwangi in Sunday
Nation April 8, 2007: 10) indicated that the environment in which children grow up plays a great
role in shaping their character. The claim is that children socialized in the bar culture by their
parents during family entertainments will tend towards use of alcohol later in life. The report
argues that this will impact negatively on the development of the children in the long term. It is
difficult for parents to sensitize their children about the dangers of alcohol consumption when
they spend long hours imbibing in the company of the very people whose character they are
expected to mould.

Society is always changing, and being a unit of society, the family has undergone many structural
and role changes. Rapid social, economic and technological changes may, under certain
circumstances, weaken family relationships and reduce the sense of belonging in various social
spheres. African family structure has been and is still changing from the mainly extended to the
smaller nuclear family plus immediate relatives. Unlike in the past, socialization of the young has
been neglected. Many children are left in the care of house helps because the parents have to
work. According to NACADA (Sunday Nation April 12, 2008:10) there is a strong link between
alcohol/drug abuse by young people and the break-down in family values. In the indigenous
society, drunkenness was frowned upon. In today‟s setting, binge drinking is becoming an
acceptable pastime with parents freeing the children from restrictions that once governed alcohol
consumption. According to the same report, children as young as 10 are not only consuming
alcohol, but are suffering the attendant consequences. Stories of children barely in their teens
undergoing rehabilitation due to alcohol problems are a cause of concern (NACADA, 2008). The
problems certainly reflect a bigger problem and they are a direct product of how children are
socialized in relation to alcohol and drug use.

Due to the diverse socialization agents such as the peer group, teachers, mass media, the
Government and the Church and interaction with different people, individuals are acquiring
values that go beyond those of their immediate localized culture. Since the family is less involved
in socialization of the young, very little is communicated to the young in the way of values and

20
customs. As a result the traditional value system has been eroded leading to moral decadence. In
school, children spend most of their time with the peer group. According to Blum (1972:85),
peers have a high degree of influence only when parents have abdicated their traditional
supervisory roles. Hence, active and involved parents may be able to limit the influence of peer
groups on young people‟s attitudes towards drug use, and therefore have a crucial influence on
children‟s behaviour.

Stability of family relationships, environment and expectations are powerful forces in helping
people, especially children and young adults, manage their lives. Strong family relationships are a
source of support for the young members of the family, and may prevent children from engaging
in drug abuse. Lack of household stability, income or employment for a parent may increase
stress on the family and heighten its vulnerability, pushing marginal individuals to find
“solutions” or solace in alcohol or drugs (Antony: 1985: 143).

Prevention of drug problems among the youth should employ knowledge about factors likely to
influence young peoples‟ behaviour. Family factors that may lead to or intensify drug use are
thought to include prolonged or traumatic parental absence, harsh discipline, and failure to
communicate on an emotional level, the influence of disturbed family members and parental use
of drugs. These will provide a negative role model for children (WHO 1993:2). Studies in Ireland
(Corrigan 1986:92) found that disrupted family life appears to be a major risk factor for drug
abuse among some young people; and that as many as 10 percent of the young people between 15
and 20 years of age in north Dublin were addicted to heroin.

The school is the first large-scale socializing organization of which the child becomes a member.
Unlike in the family, its members are mostly unrelated, and in some cases, teachers may not
necessarily belong to the child‟s ethnic community. The element of social heterogeneity, coupled
with its large size, makes the school a secondary social group. Therefore, whereas the family is
essentially an informal socializing agent, the school combines formal (e.g. classroom teaching)
and informal (e.g. peer group influence) processes of socialization. The school uses among other
methods suspension, expulsion, official mention and rewards as modes of behaviour control.

21
Due to rapid technological, social and economic changes, the child spends the major part of
his/her most active hours in school. The implications for teachers are clear. They need to nurture
the emotional and social needs of the children under their care, particularly when the family
environment for certain children is lacking. The teacher thus has to take the role of parent and
counselor, both in academic and social matters. The parents expect the teacher to guide the
children on social norms and values in relation to society‟s expectations. This is based on the
assumption that communication of knowledge, attitudes and skills will guide the child in the right
direction. This is only possible if school discipline is maintained. The disruption of such
discipline may lead to protests, demonstrations, strikes, riots and to some extent drug abuse
(Datta 1987:88). It is important to realize that fostering responsible attitudes among students will
bring about a greater sense of self-actualization and this can also be a check on drug abuse.

The school environment plays a part in deviant behavior including drug abuse. Kenkel (1980: 49)
argues that school activities are a focal point for adolescents‟ behavior. These activities include
poor school performance and conflict between the school system and the values of lower class
youth. Lower-class youth have low performance expectations as compared to high and middle
class youth. Shoemaker (1984:87) says that effects of low expectations on drug abuse cannot be
ignored. Similarly, Karechio (1996:49) asserts that low performance in class may lead to misuse
of drugs such as marijuana, which is believed to improve understanding and insight. This
misconception is based on the belief that people who use or abuse substances will become bold,
confident or courageous.

A report in the Daily Nation (September 14, 2003:15) revealed that in some Nairobi secondary
schools, some students, working in cahoots with watchmen, cooks and cleaners were peddling
drugs in the institutions. In some schools, Matatu (local transport) touts and drivers were the
leading suppliers of drugs to students. The students said that the trade is conducted secretly and
only “trusted clients” get the commodities. At the same time the paper also reported that drug
abuse is widespread in most secondary schools. Investigations by the reporter revealed that many
students were taking drugs in Forms 1 and 2, and he associated this with poor parenting,
economic needs and social pressures which make it difficult for parents to be together with their
children for counseling. He noted that the number of students visiting psychiatrists was

22
increasing. This is journalism, but is in line with the conclusion of the academic researcher
Krivanek (1982:76) that lack of parental guidance influences deviant behaviour including drug
abuse.

Availability and cost of drugs is associated with drug abuse. According to Kaguthi, the
NACADA director in 2004, availability of illegal drugs such as heroin, cocaine and mandrax,
together with availability of legal substances such as cigarettes and alcohol may lead to drug
abuse. This encourages the use and the eventual abuse of substances by the youth. According to
the report, the ready availability of most drugs appears to be the most important cause of the
prevalence of substance use and abuse amongst Kenyan youth. The report also established that
two widely used substances are grown in the country. They are bhang, which is grown in secret
because it is illegal and khat, which is cultivated, used and exported openly because Kenya
legalized it in 1997. Other drugs easily available are heroin, cocaine and mandrax which find
their way into Kenya because the country‟s major international entry points - Nairobi and
Mombasa - are on transit routes for traffic in illegal substances, some of which find their way into
the country, and consequently, to students and youth in general.

Another risk factor associated with academic achievement among secondary school students is
pressure to perform. Parents and other members of the family place high value on success in
school and the competition can often be tough. Young people studying for examinations therefore
report the use of central nervous stimulants to keep them awake and alert and this may lead to
dependence on these substances (Oviasu, 1976:78; Ebie and Pela, 1981:69). Some of the drugs
commonly used for this purpose include amphetamines and cannabis.

Other factors associated with drug abuse among students include school failure. Schools are
supposed to be concerned with the full development of children including their moral and
intellectual welfare (Uba, 1990: 65). According to Hawkins (1988:98), some school-related
factors exacerbate pre-existing problems and dispositions. Principal among these are a negative,
disorderly, unsafe school climate and low teacher expectations of student achievement. In
addition, lack of clear school policies on drug abuse may also contribute to drug abuse among
students. In line with this, Karechio (1996:59) argues that students often buy and take drugs on

23
school property, lending credibility to the myth promoted by drug users that everybody is doing
it.

Social pressure from media and friends is a universal risk factor for substance use and abuse
among adolescents in developed and developing countries (Adelekan, 1996 in Obot, 2005: 109).
This is especially common in urban areas where there is widespread exposure to advertising on
radio, television and billboards. Young people in urban areas are more exposed to images and
messages promoting tobacco and alcohol than their counterparts in rural areas. In addition, it is
also argued that the media has played a role in first time tobacco use. According to the then
Kenyan Health Minister, Hon. Charity Ngilu (Daily Nation, May 22, 2006), when children watch
their “heroes” smoking on television and movies, they also want to copy them without knowing
the dangers and addictive power of tobacco.

Schaefer (1996:130) concurs with this argument asserting that external pressures, especially the
media, have an influence on substance abuse among the youth. According to him, the amount of
time young people spend watching television has a negative influence on their behaviour. He
goes on to say that pressure to use alcohol and tobacco has greatly increased as young people are
continually bombarded with the message that these drugs are the answer to all their problems.

A report by the Global Tobacco Youth Survey - Kenya (Gatonye, Daily Nation, May 22, 2006),
says that about 13 percent (400,000) of all school children in Kenya smoke cigarettes, a habit
which some of them start as early as seven years old. According to the report, 30 percent of the
children (1.5 million) are exposed to tobacco smoke in their homes. The study, conducted by the
ministries of Health and Education, with support from the WHO showed that up to 80 percent of
boys and girls had seen messages promoting the use of tobacco in newspapers and magazines,
and that 50 percent of smokers, and 20 percent of the newer smokers, had objects such as T-
shirts, caps and pens with a cigarette logo. The report also showed that 25 percent of smokers
thought that boys and girls who smoke looked more attractive. From this, it is clear that
advertising links smoking with being “cool”, taking risks and growing up and this impacts
negatively on young people including students.

24
As youngsters grow older, their social networks widen and they are more exposed to expanded
opportunity and increased temptation. According to Johnston (2000:120), social pressures often
reinforce drug-taking as a sign of adult behaviour. In addition, as youngsters grow older, they
become more economically independent and group involved. As a result they are more likely to
indulge in drug abuse. The reasons given for indulging in the vice are, amongst others, to relax,
to show independence, to be part of a group, to relieve stress, to satisfy curiosity, to copy role
models, to be rebellious, to overcome boredom, to cope with problems and to keep up with the
crowd.

A study by Kombo (1997:119) in selected schools in Kenya showed that the type of schooling
has an influence on drug abuse among students. According to him, experimentation with
common drugs was more frequently reported by Kenyan youth who have attended day schools
rather than boarding schools. The reasons given were that, boarding school learners are more
closely monitored, while day school students are often more exposed to drug abuse as they move
to and from school daily.

Imbosa (2002:96) carried out a study in six boys‟ secondary schools in Nairobi with the aim of
finding out the strategies and programmes used in the schools to increase drug awareness and
curb their use and abuse. The study involved both students and teachers. It established that drug
use and abuse occurs in the student population as result of a complex range of factors including
parental engagement in substance abuse, depression, anxiety, learning difficulties and low self-
esteem, all of which are beyond the scope of the programmes put in place by the schools to
address the problem. Based on these findings, the researcher recommended that a comprehensive
study of drug use and abuse should be carried out, after which a detailed drug policy should be
developed encouraging smooth planning, implementation and evaluation of the prevention,
intervention and action strategies. This recommendation formed the basis for the current study,
which attempts to come up with a programme for intervention and prevention of drug abuse
among students in Kenyan schools.

Apart from the above factors, Kiiru (2004:50) argues that there is official ambivalence towards
substance use in Kenya. Alcohol and tobacco are a cause of ill-health, but are legal with the two

25
substances being a source of tax-income; the brewing and use of indigenous alcoholic drinks is
mainly illegal, yet the production and use of alcoholic drinks on an industrial scale is extensive
and legal. Khat is a drug whose abuse results in dependence, yet the government treats it as a
valued export commodity competing with tea and coffee in importance. According to Kiiru, this
is a contributing factor to drug abuse by Kenyan youth.

Paradoxically, affluence is a cause of substance abuse among the youth as well as poverty.
According to Kiiru (2004:55), some youth from rich families abuse substances because they can
afford them, while some from poor families, due to frustrations, abuse cheap drugs such as
alcohol. In addition, frustrations arising from lack of school fees and other basic needs may lead
students to abuse drugs based on the false believe that use or abuse of substances will make one
forget one‟s problems.

The above studies have shown that various factors contribute to drug abuse among school
learners. Knowledge about the factors causing the problem is crucial in the development of
intervention programmes to address it. However, we cannot assume that these are the only factors
responsible for drug abuse among Kenyan youth in secondary schools, especially in Machakos
District where the current study was carried out. It was therefore important to carry out a study
and establish the actual factors which are unique to the district with a view to proposing
intervention measures. In addition, the study attempted to critically analyze the factors that have
hindered the effectiveness of strategies used by schools in addressing this problem, with a view to
developing a programme for intervention and prevention.

2.3 THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF DRUGS ABUSED BY LEARNERS

Drug abuse among young people is a global phenomenon and it affects almost every country.
Although it is difficult to authenticate the actual extent and nature of drug abuse amongst
learners, research indicates that most adolescents experiment with alcohol or other drugs prior at
school. It is estimated that about 25 percent of male adolescents and 10 percent of female
adolescents abuse alcohol at least once a week (Gillis, 1996:107).

26
A study in 1998 conducted by University of Massachusetts researchers on the smoking habits of
681 teenagers between 12 and 13 years revealed that several of them were addicted to cigarette
smoking (BBC News, September 2000). Symptoms that indicated addiction included craving for
more nicotine, withdrawal symptoms and loss of control over tobacco intake. The study
established that 63 percent of the teenagers had one or more symptoms of nicotine addiction,
while some children could smoke up to five cigarettes a day without showing any signs of
addiction. The Forum on Child and Family Statistics (2000:1) report says that, seven percent of
male learners in grade 8 smoke daily while 16 percent of tenth and 24 percent of twelfth-grade
males do so. For females, the rates were 8, 16, and 22 percent for learners in grades 8, 10 and 12,
respectively.

On alcohol abuse, the Institute for Social Research at the University of Michigan (1997) points
out that by the time learners in the US reach grade 12, approximately 8 in 10 will have consumed
alcohol at some time in their lives. Of these, 60 percent will have consumed it to the point of
intoxication. Some of the problems associated with youth drinking include violence, suicidal
behaviour, and high-risk sexual activity (Cookson, 1992:360).

The National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH, 2002:19) revealed that 8.3 percent of
the American population roughly 19.5 million people were current users of an illegal drug, while
countless more individuals used and abused legal drugs. Moreover almost one half of the US
population (46 percent) of 12 years age and older had used an illegal drug at least once at some
point in their lives. This is evidence that the country continues to be deeply affected by substance
abuse. The most commonly abused drugs were found to be marijuana, cocaine, heroin, inhalants,
alcohol and tobacco. The projected economic cost of illicit drug use to US society in 2002 was
estimated at $160.7 billion.

Though federal spending on the drug war increased from 1.65b US dollars in 1982 to 17.7b in
1999, more than half of the students in the U.S in 1999 had tried an illegal drug before they
graduated from high school. Additionally, 65 percent had tried cigarettes by 12 th grade, while 62
percent of 12th grade and 25 percent were reported to have been drunk at least once (Bachman,
2000: 135).

27
In Brazil, it is estimated that 36 million (22%) of the total population of 170 million inhabitants
are adolescents between 10 and 24 years, 70 percent dropping out of school before completing
the basic 8 years of their education. Drugs are an important feature of social imbalance in Brazil
during the adolescent years, and are associated with the high mortality rates attributable to
external causes like homicides, fatal injuries or firearms-related deaths. A study carried out at the
City Emergency Hospital Miguel Couto in the month of May, 1996, found 435 (16%) of all 2737
„external‟ violent cases treated were related to drugs: alcohol in 88 percent of cases, cocaine in 3
percent, marijuana in 2 percent and other drugs in 4.1 percent of the cases. Most of the 32
overdoses occurred among youth victims and 6.4 percent of all patients were adolescents between
15 and 19 years, followed by 19.2 percent of young adults between 20 and 24 years of age
(Minayo and Deslanders, 1998; in Eisenstein, 2005: 121).

The prevalence of alcohol and other drugs among adolescents in Brazil has been increasing for
the last twenty years. Obot (2005:133) highlights that 70 percent of the teenagers have used
alcohol at least once in their lifetime, followed by marijuana at 5 percent, and by cocaine, at 2
percent. He adds that lifetime prevalence for overall illegal drug use varies from 18 to 26 percent
for adolescents throughout Brazil and that a major concern has been not only the widespread use
of illegal drugs but the decreasing mean age for the first-time use of drugs which in 1997 was 12
to 13 years.

The World Drug Report by UNDCP (2001:39) reports that there are about 141 million drug
abusers globally, including 8 million heroine addicts, 30 million amphetamine users and 13
million cocaine users. The report shows that in the United States and Canada there where
360,000 heroin abusers in 1991, and 600,000 in 2000. In the UK, Ireland, Denmark and Italy, 2
percent of 16 and 17 year-olds had used heroin. Six percent of American young people including
students had used cocaine, in the Bahamas 6.4 percent, and 4.5 percent in Kenya. Some 8.3
percent of all young people in the UK and 9 percent in Ireland had used amphetamine drugs
(UNDCP, 2001).

28
A report issued by the White House on educational excellence for Hispanic Americans in 2000
(http://www.yic.gov/drug.free/a/cabuse.html) showed that of all the substances used, alcohol
causes the most problems among students. In addition, the survey revealed that 32.3 percent used
marijuana, 6.5 percent amphetamines, 7.5 percent hallucinogens, 3.7 percent cocaine and 3.6
percent designer drugs such as ecstasy. Such illicit drugs have been factors in many tragedies,
including date rape hospitalizations for overdoses, and deaths.

It is not only those who engage in high-risk drinking or other drug use that are affected. Students,
who do not drink legally and moderately, frequently suffer second hand effects from the
behaviour of other students who drink too much. For example, 60.5 percent of the students
interviewed in the above study said that they had had to take care of a drunken student, 20.1
percent had been insulted or humiliated, 18.6 percent had had a serious argument because of
another‟s drunkenness, 13.6 had had property damaged, while 1.3 percent, all women, had been
victims of sexual assault or date rape.

While the rates of drug use in Africa are low compared to industrialized countries, they are a
cause for concern. According to a UNDCP/WHO report (2000:19), more than 25 percent of
students in Nigeria said it was easy to obtain a wide variety of illegal drugs such as crack cocaine,
which has entered the market in Lagos. In South Africa – the only substantially industrialized
sub-Saharan country - prevalence rates were of similar magnitude, but included the smoking of a
mixture of cannabis and methaqualone. Cannabis was said to be a popular drug among secondary
school students in both countries. For male and female students, it was reported that the age of
first use was between 10 and 17 years. Other drugs of abuse were cigarettes and glue.

The use of psychoactive substances in Nigeria has been seen as a problem of youth living in large
urban areas. What was known about substance use in the country in 2005 can be summarized as
follows: 5 percent of adult males and 22 percent of male youth are cigarette smokers while the
use of cocaine and heroin is common among young people in large urban centres (Mackay and
Erickson, 2002; in Obot, 2005:134). The most commonly abused drug by both adults and youth is
cannabis. One of the studies conducted specifically to address secondary school adolescent drug
use in major urban areas of Nigeria, in 2003 (Obot, Karuri and Ibanga, 2003:107) showed that,

29
overall, lifetime prevalence of cigarette smoking was 19 percent, while 10.7 percent of students
reported smoking at least one cigarette in the past year. Alcohol abuse was reported by 30 percent
of the respondents. Other drugs of abuse included cannabis, 5 percent, and inhalants, most often
glue sniffing 14 percent.

Alcohol and drug abuse among the youth are implicated in a range of social and economic
problems in South Africa. A speech delivered on behalf of the Minister for Health at the launch
of the International Commission on Prevention of Alcoholism (ICPA) South Africa Chapter, in
Pretoria, on 27 June 2006, revealed that there is an increase in demand for treatment for illicit
drugs in substance abuse treatment centres. Also of concern is the reported increase in the
proportion of younger patients coming for treatment. The Minister added that, nationally, almost
one of eight learners has had their first drink before the age of 13. In addition, 31.8 percent of
learners had drunk alcohol on one or more days in the month preceding interviews by the South
African National Youth Risk Behaviour Survey (2002). The results also showed that one in five
learners had smoked cigarettes on one or more days in the preceding month. The most commonly
abused drugs were said to be alcohol, mandrax, marijuana, heroin and tobacco in the form of
cigarettes.

In Kenya, drug abuse has threatened the lives of the youth of 29 years and below. While
addressing the opening of the Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Control Seminar,
Wako (2001) said that 60 percent of drug abusers are youth less than 18 years of age and
recommended that drug users should be made to realize the dangers of drug abuse.

The Office of the National Agency for the Campaign against Drug Abuse (NACADA) in Kenya
was created in March 2001. Between 2001 and 2002, NACADA commissioned the first ever
national baseline survey on the abuse of alcohol and drugs in Kenya. The study targeted Kenyan
youth aged between 10 and 24 years. The summary of the unedited report, which was released in
2002, revealed that substances of abuse, both illicit and licit were forming a sub-culture amongst
Kenyan youth. Contrary to common assumptions, the survey demonstrated that substance abuse
was widespread and that it affected the youth mostly and cut across all social groups. Overall,
most commonly abused drugs were found to be alcohol, tobacco, khat and cannabis. In addition

30
the youth were also abusing imported illegal substances such as heroin, cocaine and mandrax.
Although non-students engaged extensively in substance abuse, most youth use was in secondary
schools and universities. The report concluded that substance abuse often begins at a very young
age: for example, for students and non-students, it starts when they are in primary or secondary
school.

Another country wide survey conducted in 2004 by NACADA among students and school-
leavers found that hard drugs like heroin, ecstasy, cocaine and mandrax were widely abused in
schools by children as young as ten years. The survey revealed that some legal substances such
as alcohol, tobacco and khat were commonly abused leading to high incidence of violence in
schools (East African Standard, May 22, 2004). Forty-three percent of students from Western
Kenya confessed to alcohol abuse 41 percent in Nairobi, 27 percent in Nyanza, 26 percent in
Central Province and 17 percent in Eastern Province. Nairobi students led in cigarette smoking
followed by Central, Coast, Eastern and Rift Valley provinces.

The Ministry of Health estimates that Kenyans smoke about 10 million cigarettes a year. Ministry
statistics also show that smoking prevalence rates among children below 15 years are between 13
and 15 percent. Among young people aged between 18 and 29, the rate is estimated to be 44.8
percent, and 52 percent among college and university students (Gatonye, Daily Nation May 22,
2006). On the same note, the then Minster for Health, Hon. Charity Ngilu warned that the number
of smokers in Kenya is increasing, saying that 1.1m under age Kenyans were addicted to tobacco
(Daily Nation, May 23, 2006).

A study by the Great Lakes University, Kisumu found in 2009 that 58% of the secondary school
students in Kisumu District had consumed alcohol at some point in their lives (Daily Nation, June
2, 2009). The study interviewed 458 students from nine secondary schools in Kisumu and
concluded that use of drugs including alcohol, tobacco, khat, cannabis and cocaine had risen
drastically in the previous decade. By age 15, according to the study, some students were found
to have already started using drugs and by the time they were 19, 33% males and females had
already become drug abusers.

31
From the foregoing, it can be seen that drug abuse is a reality among the youth especially in
Kenya. If the rate at which young people have indulged in drug abuse is anything to go by, then
the future of the society is uncertain and something must be done urgently to address the
problem. There is need for a study to evaluate the effectiveness of drug abuse prevention
initiatives aimed at reducing demand for drugs among students, and how drug abuse prevention
measures can be improved, as well as how ineffective ones can be weeded out. In view of this the
current study was carried out. Knowledge of the nature and extent of drug abuse is important in
the development and implementation of intervention strategies to curb the problem amongst the
youth in schools.

2.4 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

The Modified Social Stress Model (MSSM) for understanding drug use and abuse guides this
study. The model was developed by Rodes and Jason (1988) and modified by World Health
Organization/Progamme on Substance Abuse (WHO/PSA) to include the effects of drugs or
substances, the personal response of the individual to drugs and additional environmental, social
and cultural variables.

Research has shown that in order to prevent substance use and abuse, two things must be taken
into consideration: factors that increase the risk of developing the problem must be identified, and
ways to reduce the impact of these factors must be developed. The theory maintains that there are
factors that encourage drug abuse called risk factors. Factors that make people less likely to abuse
drugs are called protective factors. The key to health and healthy families is increasing the
protective factors while decreasing the risk factors.

According to this model, if many risk factors are present in a person‟s life, that person is more
likely to begin, intensify and continue the use of drugs, which could lead to drug abuse. The
model identifies risk factors as stress (which could be due to the school or home environment,
and adolescent developmental changes) and normalization of substance use which could be seen
in terms of legality and law enforcement; availability and cost of drugs; advertising, sponsorship
and promotion through media, as well as the cultural value attached to various drugs. In addition,

32
there is also the experience derived from the use of drugs, which could be positive or negative.
Drugs which produce positive effects are likely to be abused.

The model also shows that the more protective factors are present, the less likely the person is to
become involved with drugs. Protective factors are identified as: attachments with people such as
family members, peers and institutions such as religion and school. In addition are skills, which
refer to physical and performance capabilities that help people succeed in life and reduce
incidents of drug abuse. Availability of resources, within the person or the environment, which
help people meet their emotional and physical needs, are said to reduce dependence on drugs.
Examples include positive role models, religious faith, anti-drug campaigns plus guidance and
counseling services.

According to this model, it is easy to understand the drug problem better if both risk and
protective factors are considered at the same time. Probability of drug abuse is determined by
these factors. The framework is useful as a way of planning interventions to prevent or treat
problems related to drug abuse. Once the risk factors are identified, work can begin on reducing
the risks and strengthening the protective factors.

Although Rodes and Jason‟s theory could explain why the youth in schools do or do not abuse
drugs, it is not exhaustive. In addition to the above risk and protective factors there could be
others which contribute to the present scenario in families, schools and communities, as
suggested in the literature review. The presence of risk and protective factors is context
dependent and the proportions of their contribution depend on intensity in given situations.
Therefore the actual state of affairs needed exploration for factors unique to Machakos district in
Kenya, where the investigation was carried out. This model therefore guided the study by way of
examining the drug problem in secondary schools in the district and to analyzing the strategies
used to address the problem, but where it proved inadequate other models were taken into
account. The aim was to make recommendations for improvement and propose intervention
measures to address the problem.

33
2.5 CONCLUSION

In this chapter we have tried to analyze the cause, nature, extent and effects of drug abuse
amongst learners with particular reference to the youth in Kenya. The risk factors leading to drug
abuse have been identified as stress from home, school and adolescent changes, availability of
drugs and the experience from usage. The protective factors include attachment to family, groups
and institutions, availability of resources that adequately meet emotional and physical needs and
high levels of success achieved independently of drugs. In the next chapter the researcher will
examine the present scenario in Kenya in relation to drug abuse.

34
 CHAPTER THREE

ADDRESSING DRUG ABUSE IN KENYA: THE PRESENT

SCENARIO

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Excessive indulgence in drugs and crime go hand in hand. In many cases, drug abusers will go to
extreme lengths to obtain enough drugs to satisfy their habit. While obviously not all crimes are
connected with the acquisition of drugs, individuals while under their influence commit many
crimes. A report by the World Health Organization (1992) on metropolitan areas of major
industrialized nations in the world, found that roughly 50 per cent of those arrested on the street
had one or more drugs in their system.

Despite recent successes in some parts of the world in controlling the supply of drugs and
trafficking of illegal drugs has posed a threat to the security and integrity of many nations, Kenya
included. Governments have therefore become concerned with this problem. The aim has been to
come up with a solution to the drug issue, which has threatened individuals the world over and
has also become linked to acts of terrorism.

3.2 OVERVIEW OF THE PRESENT SCENARIO

In 1971, growing concern over the harmful effects of psychotropic substances led to the adoption
of the Convention on Psychotropic Substances. This convention adopted by a plenipotentiary
conference held in Vienna in January and February 1971 under the auspices of the United
Nations, placed these substances under the control of international law. The convention entered
into force on 16 August 1976 (WHO, 1995).

Describing drug trafficking and abuse as “international criminal activity demanding urgent
attention and maximum priority”, on 14 December 1984 the United Nations General Assembly
adopted the Declaration on Drug Trafficking and Drug Abuse. The Assembly declared that the

35
illegal production of, illicit demand for, abuse of and illicit trafficking in drugs impede economic
and social progress, and constitute a grave threat to the security and development of many
countries. Its eradication, according to the Assembly, was the collective responsibility of all
states (Richman, 1991:102).

The General Assembly‟s seventeenth special session was convened in 1990 to consider the
question of international co-operation against illicit production, supply, demand, trafficking and
distribution of narcotics. The Global Programme of Action was adopted in March 1990. In an
effort to strengthen its capacity to counteract drug abuse and illicit trafficking, the United Nations
established the United Nations Drug Control Progamme (UNDCP) in 1991 with a branch in
Nairobi, Kenya. Its main function is to co-ordinate all United Nations drug control activities and
provide effective leadership in international drug control. The programme serves as the focal
point for promoting the implementation of the Global Programme of Action (WHO, 1995).

Kenya, as a member state of the United Nations, is involved in the implementation of the above
programmes. In line with United Nations recommendations, Kenya observes International Drug
Abuse Day, set aside by the United Nations to raise consciousness about the drug abuse problem.
The celebrations, observed on 26 June every year, are organized by the Ministry of Health and
UNDCP in collaboration with Drug Abuse Prevention and Therapeutic Services.

The Kenya Government has ratified two major United Nations conventions on narcotic drugs and
psychotropic substances in its quest to protect its citizens from the global drug abuse
phenomenon. These include the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (1961) and the Convention
against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (1988). Currently the
government is working towards ratification of the 1971convention on psychotropic substances.

At national level, the Kenya Government has put in place some policy measures to address the
drug problem. The government has banned cigarette smoking in public places, while many
government and private offices have been declared smoke free (Ngilu, 2006). The Ministry of
Health demands that all cigarette advertisements be accompanied by a warning that, “Cigarette
Smoking is Harmful to Your Health”. The Government has also banned the brewing of

36
indigenous alcoholic drinks such as “changaa” and “kumi-kumi”, which are considered
hazardous to human health (Ministry of Health, 2006).

The Kenya Wildlife Services has deployed security officials in most of the country‟s national
forest-reserves including Banchoge Forest, Nandi District, and Mount Kenya following the
discovery of large bhang plantations which had existed for many years in these areas (Daily
Nation, April 17, 1996). District Commissioners have been directed to clamp down on drug
trafficking and bhang growing in their districts. The same directive also applies to other districts
in the country, and all Kenya Wildlife officers must enforce it.

According to a Rapid Situation Assessment report by UNODC (Ndetei, 2004:3), Kenya has
developed policies on how to combat HIV/AIDS and drug abuse on various fronts - education,
treatment, rehabilitation, demand reduction and control of availability of drugs. National drug
policy involves drug control legislation and the legal framework under which treatment and
rehabilitation of drug abuse takes place. The National Policy on Drug Abuse in Kenya was
developed on the premise that the Kenya Government had ratified three major UN conventions
on narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, namely the Single Convention on Psychotropic
Substances of 1961; The Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971 and the Convention
against Illicit Trafficking in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988.

The Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances Control Act, 1994, in operation since August
26 1994, is the latest Kenyan legislation against drug trafficking and abuse (Daily Nation,
September 1, 1994). The act specifies a minimum of 10 years and a maximum of 20 years in jail
for possession of drugs. The setting up of the International Drug Control Committee, whose
responsibility was to evaluate drug policies in the country, followed the enactment of the above
law. The greatest achievement of the Inter-ministerial Committee was the production of the Drug
Master Plan in 1998, which was approved in 2001. That same year NACADA was formed to
enhance advocacy against drugs of abuse in the country.

Although the act prescribed heavy punishment for drug traffickers, it has been argued that the
law was drafted in a hurry to please the United States establishment rather than safeguard the

37
interests of Kenyans (Mkangi, 1994:15). According to Mkangi, it protects the interests of the
developed countries in dealing with the drug abuse problem. In addition, Kiungu (1998:17)
argued that in spite of the heavy punishment prescribed by the law, the police force needs to be
strengthened to enable it to crack down on traffickers. He added that all parties including parents,
teachers, law enforcers, religious institutions and the media must fight the drug problem.

The Office of NACADA was established in 2001 as part of the Executive Office of the
President, to help the government accomplish the national goal of reducing drug use and abuse.
According to the NACADA Service Charter (2001), its mission is to coordinate the prevention,
reduction and control of drug and substance abuse through public education, empowerment and
enforcement liaison. NACADA undertakes various activities which include sensitizing, training
and empowering the public on matters of drug and substance abuse; providing resource centre
services for information on drug and substance abuse; creating a forum for stakeholder
participation in questions of drug demand and supply of drugs of abuse in the region, involving
communities in identification of drug abuse problems and development of local solutions. In
addition, the Agency also prepares and distributes pamphlets with various messages on the
effects of drug abuse to schools and to the public at large. The Agency has been involved in
developing a strategic plan to include public awareness campaigns, interventions for special
groups, counseling services, rehabilitation and support services for the vulnerable and the youth.

At the school level, the Ministry of Education (MOE) has integrated drug education components
into the existing school curricula, in Social Studies at the primary level, and in Religious
Education at secondary level (Kenya Institute of Education Syllabus, 2004:39). The MOE has
also emphasized provision of training in drug education to heads of schools, teachers and school
inspectors through in-service courses. The main objective is to create awareness of the dangers of
drug abuse and its consequences, and to mobilize school children to participate and take a leading
role in drug and alcohol issues. In addition, it also aims at encouraging teachers to be
knowledgeable about drug dangers, to increase their capacity to intervene including through
counseling and to prepare materials for drug education (UNDCP, 2002:157). The government,
through the MOE has emphasized provision of guidance and counseling services in schools to

38
help curb drug abuse and other problems that face students. This is in line with the
recommendations of the Ominde Report (1964:102) and the Gachathi Report (1976:117).

Realizing that drug abuse is becoming a problem in Kenya, NACADA has drawn up an action
plan the main areas of focus of which are public awareness, liaison activities and support service.
It targets youth in and out of learning institutions. Developing programmes through the mass
media, passing messages through public ‟‟barazas‟‟ and incorporating drug preventive education
in the education curriculum are some of the modes of fighting drug abuse that have been outlined
in the action plan (NACADA, 2004). The plans some of which are so far only on paper appear
promising and one can only hope that the implementation phase will be successful.

In an attempt to fight drug abuse among students in Kenya, about 4000 head teachers gathered in
Mombasa in June 2005 (Daily Nation, June 20, 2005). They supported the government‟s
proposed ban on billboard and television advertising of alcohol and cigarettes. The Secondary
Schools Principals‟ Association also supported a plan by the government to ban smoking in
public. So far the Association has started a campaign project aimed at fighting drug abuse
amongst student and has made efforts to have programmes on the fight against drug abuse
featured in the electronic media, specifically targeting teachers and students. Also the chairman
of the Kenya Schools Heads Association Mr. Muthaithai has urged the Government to implement
the ban on alcohol and tobacco advertisements, saying they target the youth. He argued that we
must do everything possible to protect the youth, the leaders of tomorrow.

Some churches have also established anti-drug programmes. One such is the Lavington United
Church whose outreach ministry helps in training and teaching about the dangers of drug abuse in
schools, colleges and universities. The youth are taught how to reach others through peer
counseling (The Standard, June 2, 2003). The Anglican Church of Kenya (ACK) has also
launched preventive-drug programmes for the youth and adults in each diocese and has organized
spiritual crusades to fight drug abuse in schools and colleges. In addition, the church has
established treatment and rehabilitation centres to create awareness, and bring about physical and
inner healing for drug users and addicts (Githinji, 2004:40). While addressing a church seminar
on the drug problem in Kenya, Bishop Nzimbi (ACK, 2004) emphasized that the church has a

39
biblical mandate, an obligation and commitment to be involved in the war against drugs and
against the vices affecting society. The Bishop went on to say that the drug problem has shaken
family foundations and the community at large and that although a lot has been done to address
the issue of drug abuse among the youth, the root cause of the problem must be addressed. The
drug problems, he said, reflect a bigger problem and are a direct product of how children are
socialized in relation to social values.

Studies carried out locally and elsewhere (Gitahi and Mwangi, Daily Nation April 2, 2007: 10)
indicate a strong linkage between alcohol/drug abuse by young people and the breakdown in
family values. The cultures of indigenous society restricted the use of alcohol to senior age
groups and special occasions. Even then, alcohol was consumed under strict conditions and
drunkenness was discouraged. That children as young as 10 years are abusing alcohol (Daily
Nation, April 8, 2007:10) spells danger not only to themselves and their families, but also to the
well-being of the nation because children represent the future. The family and society as whole
have the obligation to ensure that children grow up in an environment that promotes moral values
and a more disciplined way of life. Lack of a proper value system in the society is likely to lead
to drug abuse, which in turn would ruin the family life even further.

In an attempt to curb drug abuse, some educational institutions in Kenya including secondary
school, colleges and universities have started the peer education programmes to address the
problem. Institutions have started peer education programmes aimed at reducing irresponsible
sexual behavior, unwanted pregnancies, sexually transmitted infections (STIs) including
HIV/AIDS and drug abuse by improving the quality of counseling and service delivery for
students. The peer outreach programme is the highlight of the project, as it trains students to
promote responsible behavior among their peers. Some activities carried out in peer counseling
include showing videos, follow-up discussions, door-to-door counseling and public lectures.
Although such activities can go a long way in addressing and curbing drug-related problems, they
are secondary to the role of the family in socializing children and the youth in the right direction.
The family is the basic building block of every culture. Children are not only better socialized at
home than in the peer group, but are also best socialized by parental example and the sharing of
social values. Positive sociability is firmly linked with the family in relation to child‟s self-

40
worth. This in turn depends largely on the values and experiences provided by the family, at least
until the child can reason consistently. The basic role of the family is therefore to ensure that
children grow up in a loving and secure environment where they can be taught sound values.

From the foregoing it is clear that reducing drug use and abuse has been a priority of the Kenyan
government at national and local level for many years. However, there is evidence that the
problem is far from over. According to a speech delivered by Hon. Professor Saitoti, then
Minister for Education, to the Third African Convention of the African Principals at the Bomas
of Kenya (August 27, 2004), one of the greatest challenges impacting negatively on the
achievements in the education sector in Africa is drug abuse amongst the youth in schools. Some
African cities have been identified as either destinations or conduits for hard drugs. The minister
went on to say that drug peddlers and barons are known to target the youth in schools as a
lucrative market. As a result, drug abuse has become one of the root causes of school indiscipline.
The minister went on to say Kenya and other countries could not afford to lose the war against
drugs because failure to address this problem will lead to the destruction of the youth and thus the
future of many countries.

However, a report compiled by NACADA indicts the government because of its reluctance to
curb the menace. According to the report, the government is unable to address drug abuse due to
its need to gain tax returns from growers and manufacturers of certain addictive substances. In
the view of the report, this is related to the fact that drug abuse in schools has reached alarming
proportions (Odera, May 11, 2005).

According to a World Bank report (Daily Nation, December 15, 2005), the majority of Kenyan
youth are into theft, violent crime and drug abuse, and many are likely to suffer from HIV/AIDS.
This situation is associated with poverty and joblessness. In spite of measures taken by the
government to curb drug abuse, it is on the increase in schools and threatens to affect learning
programmes and discipline. A fresh and concerted effort by the authorities and the public is
therefore required to curb the menace locally, especially among the youth (UN Secretary, Koffi
Annan, 2006).

41
While addressing a regional meeting on tobacco, organized by the Framework Convention
Alliance, the then minister for health, Hon. Charity Ngilu, reported that more than one million
Kenyan minors could be smoking their way to an early grave. The minister revealed that about 13
percent of primary school pupils smoked cigarettes. In addition, 27 percent of the Kenyan
population is addicted to tobacco (Daily Nation, November 10, 2005). According to the minister,
tobacco addiction must be fought and overcome to bring down tobacco-related deaths and
promote health.

The extent of drug abuse in schools is reflected in media reports as indicated in this section. Siele
(Daily Nation, July 18, 2005) maintains that the problem of drug abuse continues to affect most
institutions of the learning in Kenya. According to his report, six students were hurt in a fight at a
disco, at the Nakuru Agricultural Society of Kenya showground. Some of the students appeared
drunk. In another incident, four students from Rasul Al Karam, Nakuru, were arrested for inciting
others to go on strike after they were denied permission to attend the show. The students
allegedly sneaked out of school and went on a drinking spree. They returned drunk and started
plotting a strike. The students were arrested as they tried to vandalize school property to protest.

In another incident, a fire gutted a dormitory in Nyeri High school as students scampered for
safety. According to Ogutu and Njogu (The Standard, May 17, 2005), some boys who were
smoking in their room were believed to have dropped a cigarette butt suspected of sparking the
blaze. On the same note, while giving an address on the International Day of the Family on 14
May 2005, the then sports minister Ochilo Ayako said that parents needed to play a more active
role in the fight against drug abuse. He noted that many youths in Kenya were exposed to drugs
through advertisements on television. According to him, the mass media were glorifying smoking
and alcohol abuse as indicators of success and stardom (The Standard, May 17, 2005).

Once a top school in Machakos, Eastern Province of Kenya Tala High school is today a shadow
of its former self. The school is now infamous for frequent student riots. In 2005, the school
experienced its worst strike when rampaging students destroyed property worth Kenya Shillings
5 million, leading to the closure of the institution. According to the school principal, Mr. Samuel
Chepkole, the declining academic performance of the school can be attributed to rampant drug

42
abuse among students, laxity among staff and embezzlement of funds set aside to improve
facilities by former school heads (The Standard, January 12, 2006).

While addressing the Third Global Youth Employment Summit 2006, His Excellency Hon. Mwai
Kibaki (13 September, 2006), reported that the youth today are facing many challenges that are
hindering them from the full realization of their aspirations. These include drug and alcohol abuse
and HIV/AIDS. The president argued that experimentation with alcohol and drugs is a serious
problem among the Kenyan youth. He advocated awareness programmes to avoid risky
behaviour that can expose the youth to drug abuse and the HIV/AIDS virus.

According to a study carried out by the Great Lakes University in Kisumu, the use of drugs
among secondary school students has doubled in 10 years (Gathura, Daily Nation June 2, 2009).
A 2001 study by NACADA indicated that about 22% of high school students were using alcohol.
However, the Great Lakes University study found that a staggering 58% of respondents had
consumed alcohol, 34% had used tobacco, 32% khat, 18% cannabis and 5% cocaine. The age
group at most risk was put at between 16 and 18. The Great Lakes University study though not
conclusive, shows a 16% increase of drug abuse among secondary school students since the 2001
report by NACADA.

If the above scenario is anything to go by, then it is clear that drug abuse is a threat to the general
public as well as the youth in Kenyan schools. It is therefore necessary that drug abuse amongst
students and society in general must be fought so as to reduce the criminality and social
dysfunction that tends to accompany drug abuse at all social levels. In view of this, the current
study set out to establish the cause, nature and extent of drug abuse amongst students in
Machakos District with a view to proposing a programme for prevention and intervention.

3.3 CONCLUSION

This chapter has addressed the issue of drug abuse in Kenya as it currently presents itself. In the
next chapter, the research design will be discussed.

43
 CHAPTER FOUR

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 INTRODUCTION

This section describes the research methodology of the study. The aim of the empirical
investigation was to establish the current trend of drug abuse among secondary school students in
Machakos District with the aim of developing a programme for intervention. The chapter consists
of the introduction, aim of the research, research paradigm, research design, validity and
reliability of the study, data processing, ethical considerations and the conclusion.

4.2 AIM OF THE RESEARCH

The overall purpose of this study is to gain insight into the current trend of drug abuse among
students in secondary schools in Machakos District, and to analyze the strategies used to address
the problem. To achieve the objective of the study, the research attempts to answer the following
questions:

What is the extent of drug abuse among secondary school youth in secondary schools?
What are the main causes of drug abuse among the youth in secondary schools?
Which are the commonly abused drugs by the youth in secondary schools?
What are the effects of drug abuse among the youth in schools?
What strategies do the schools use to address drug abuse?
What modifications are needed within the current strategies to establish an effective
programme against drug abuse in secondary schools?

4.3 RESEARCH PARADIGMS

This section elaborates on the reasons for using both qualitative and quantitative methodologies
for this study and justifies the need for both approaches.

44
The term paradigm may broadly be defined as a loose collection of logically related assumptions,
concepts or propositions that orient thinking and research (Bogdan and Biklen, 1998:22) or the
philosophical intent or motivation for undertaking a study (Cohen and Manion, 1994:38). Mac
Naughton, Rolfe and Siraj-Blatchford (2001:32) define a paradigm as consisting of three
elements: a belief about the nature of knowledge, a methodology and criteria for validity.
According to Bogdan and Biklen (1998), the research paradigm influences the way knowledge is
studied and interpreted. It is the choice of paradigm that sets down the intent, motivation and
expectations for the research. Without selecting a paradigm as the first step, there is no basis for
subsequent choice regarding methodology, methods, literature or research design.

Qualitative research is linked to an interpretive paradigm. Interpretive approaches to research

have the intention of understanding “the world of human experience” (Cohen and Manion
1994:36), suggesting that “reality is socially constructed” (Mertens 2005:12). The interpretive
researcher tends to rely upon the participants‟ views of the situation being studied (Cressell
2003:38) and recognizes the impact on the research of their own experiences. According to
Cressell, the interpretive researcher is most likely to rely on qualitative data collection methods
and analysis, or a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods.

Qualitative research, broadly defined, means any kind of research that produces findings not
arrived at by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification (Strauss and Corbin
1990:17). Strauss and Corbin (1990) claim that qualitative methods can be used to better
understand any phenomenon about which little is yet known. Additionally, they can also be used
to gain new perspectives on things about which much is already known, or to gain more in-depth
information that may be difficult to convey quantitatively.

Therefore the use of qualitative methods in this study is considered appropriate in situations
where the researcher feels that quantitative measures cannot adequately describe or interpret a
situation in relation to drug abuse among students. In this study, an interpretive approach was
used since the researcher believed that the reality to be studied in relation to student involvement
in drug abuse, and their experience of the problems surrounding the abuse of drugs consists of the

45
students‟, the teachers‟ and community members‟ especially parents subjective experiences of the
cause and effects of drug abuse.

Open-ended interview questions were used to gather in-depth information concerning drug abuse
among students in secondary schools. Interviews were conducted with a selected number of
deputy-head teachers and parents. Full details on the sample and selection of the sample are given
in sections 4.4.1 and 4.4.2. The ability of qualitative data to more fully describe the current trend
in drug abuse is an important consideration from the researchers‟ perspective. According to Stake
(1978:5) data gathered through qualitative research is rich with detail and insights into
participants‟ experiences of their world, and therefore more meaningful. Qualitative research uses
the natural setting as the source of data. The researcher attempts to observe, describe and interpret
settings as they are, while maintaining what Patton (1990:55) calls an “empathic neutrality”.
Qualitative research has an interpretive character, aimed at discovering the meaning events have
for the individuals who experience them and the interpretation of these meanings by the
researcher (Eisner, 1991:36).

Quantitative research is linked to positivism whereby reality is seen as “stable, observable and
measurable” (Cressel, 2003:39). Quantitative research seeks causal determination, prediction, and
generalization of findings. It focuses on collecting numeric data which is then analyzed
statistically. Some researchers believe that qualitative and quantitative research approaches can
be effectively combined in the same research project (Strauss and Corbin, 1990; Patton, 1990).
Russek and Weinberg (1993:39) claim that using both quantitative and qualitative data can give
insights that neither type of analysis could provide alone. Quantitative data may be utilized in a
way which supports or expands upon qualitative data and effectively deepens understanding. The
purpose of using quantitative methods in this study was to describe, explain and predict the
phenomenon of drug abuse by establishing its causes and its effects on students‟ behaviour.
Quantitative research was based on pre-determined variables and research questions, which the
researcher investigated independently. In this study variables will include drug abuse (dependent
variable) and causes and strategies used to address drug abuse (independent variables). Data
collected through quantitative research is predominantly objective and this was obtained through
structured questionnaires. Objectivity ensured a high degree of reliability of the results.

46
4.4 RESEARCH DESIGN

The research design for this study is a descriptive survey. In view of this, the study adopted the
field survey method to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. The field survey implies the
process of gaining insight into the general picture of a situation, without utilizing the entire
population (Gall, Borg and Gall, 1996: 28).

4.4.1 Description Of The Sample

This research is a case study, carried out in the Central division of Machakos District. The
Division has 28 secondary schools of which three are boys‟ schools and three are girls‟ schools.
The other 22 are mixed schools, private or public.

The target population for this study was Forms 3 and 4 students, deputy-head teachers, school
counselors, class teachers and parents. Forms 3 and 4 students were selected because they have
been in school for some time and are likely to be more familiar with the strategies used to address
drug abuse problems, and better placed to evaluate the effectiveness of these strategies. In
addition, they are mature enough to suggest ways of dealing with the issue from their own
experiences, and make suggestions for improvement.

To survey the opinions of experts and students, nine schools were utilized which included nine
each of deputy-head teachers, school counselors, class teachers and chair persons representing
Parent-Teacher Associations (PTAs) in the selected schools. A total of 360 students were
randomly selected for this study. Therefore, the total number of expected participants in the study
was 406.

47
4.4.2 Sampling Procedure

Only nine of the 28 secondary schools in the Central division of Machakos District were utilized
for this study. This number enabled the researcher to collect detailed data, as she was able to
administer the research instrument personally, with assistance of research assistants. In addition,
a sample of nine schools made it possible for the researcher to conduct interviews with a great
number of the respondents within the duration of the research.

Schools were stratified into single-gender schools and mixed schools. Since there are only three
boys‟ and 3three girls‟ schools in the division, purposive sampling was used so that the six
schools were included in the sample. This is based on the argument put forward by Miller in
Delbert (1976:112):

When practical considerations preclude the use of probability sampling, the researcher
may seek a representative sample by other means. He looks at a sub-group that is
typical of the population as a whole. Observations are then restricted to this sub-group
and conclusions from the data obtained are generalized to the total population.

In selecting a sample from the mixed schools, an equal number with the single -gender schools
was selected. Three schools were therefore selected from the mixed public schools category.
Choosing an equal number of schools in both single- gender and mixed schools facilitated
comparison in the difference in patterns of drug abuse between mixed and single-gender schools.

Schools were stratified into boys only, girls only and mixed mainly because single-gender
schools are likely to have different experiences on the problem of drug abuse compared to mixed
schools. Disciplinary systems are also likely to have an impact on the pattern of drug abuse in
both categories. This is more so because single-gender schools are boarding schools while the
mixed schools are mainly day schools.

48
In each school, the stratified random sampling technique was used to obtain 20 Form Three
students and 20 Form Four students. Stratified random sampling implies the selection of a sample
in such a way that the researcher is assured that certain sub- groups in the population will be
represented in the sample in proportion to their numbers in the population (Borg and Gall, 1983).
From each class, i.e. Forms 3 and 4, the 20 students were selected using simple random sampling.
In cases where there was more than one stream, only one stream randomly selected was utilized.

4.4.3 Research Instruments

The main research instruments used to collect data in a survey are questionnaires and interviews
(Kerlinger, 1973: 175). This study being a field survey used both these research instruments.

4.4.3.1 The Questionnaire

A questionnaire was administered to the students, school counselors and class teachers to collect
demographic and factual data relating to the nature and extent of drug abuse among learners, and
to the strategies used to address the problem in schools. A questionnaire was used as covering a
wider scope than an interview guide, which best serves to supplement information, clarify gaps
and add insight (Mugenda and Mugenda, 1999:59). The questionnaire contained both structured
(closed-ended) and unstructured (open-ended) items.

Two sets of questionnaires were used, one for school counselors and class teachers, and another
for students. The questionnaires consisted of a list of questions relating to the objectives and
research questions of the study. They were administered directly to the respondents and collected
on the same day. Open and closed-ended questions were used to elicit qualitative and quantitative
information respectively from both teachers and students.

The questionnaire for students sought to gather information regarding the following:

Demographic information.
Extent of drug abuse

49
 Causes of drug abuse
Commonly abused drugs and their sources.
Consequences of drug abuse.
Strategies used to curb drug abuse and their perceived effectiveness.
Recommendations to address the problem of drug abuse.

The questionnaire for class teachers and school counselors was used to gather data regarding:

Background information.
Extent of drug abuse
Causes of drug abuse among students
Commonly abused drugs
Consequences of drug abuse
Perceptions of and experience with drug abuse among students and its consequences.
Strategies used to address the problem, and their perceived effectiveness.
Suggestions to improve the situation.

Before the actual research, the questionnaires were piloted in similar schools outside the central
division of Machakos District. The aim was to check on the clarity of the questionnaire items and
instructions and to eliminate ambiguity in wording. The other reason was to check on time taken
to answer questions and complete the questionnaires.

4.4.3.2 Interview Guide

Qualitative interviews may be used either as the primary strategy for data collection or in
conjunction with observation, document analysis or other techniques (Bogdan and Biklen,
1982:47). An interview guide or “schedule” with a list of questions or general topics that the
researcher wants to explore during the interview will ensure good use of limited interview time.
The questions or topics will keep interactions during interviews more focused.

50
In keeping with the flexible nature of qualitative research designs, interview guides can be
modified over time to focus attention on areas of particular importance, or to exclude questions
the researcher has found to be unproductive in relation to the objectives of the research (Lofland
and Lofland, 1984:82).

Interviews are justified on the grounds that they are suited for occasions where the questionnaire
is not satisfactory (Lofland and Lofland, 1984:85). The interview guide was employed to help the
researcher elicit verbal responses from the deputy-head teachers and parents. Use of interviews
helped the researcher to probe the respondents and therefore get more in-depth information.
Interview guides are open and this characteristic was pertinent to this study because unwilling
respondents could more easily and flexibly be convinced to answer all the questions.

Interview guides were used to elicit information concerning:

The general drug problem in the schools.

Problems experienced by the schools and students in relation to the drug abuse problem.
Strategies used by the schools to curb this problem and their perceived strengths and
weaknesses.
Challenges faced in eradication of drug abuse in schools.
Suggestions on how the problem could be addressed.

4.4.4 Document Analysis

In each school, the researcher obtained drug related records from the previous year. The aim was
to gain insight into the extent of drug problems in the schools, and check on the corrective
measures employed by the administrators to curb them.

Documents analyzed included disciplinary records usually kept by the deputy head teachers in
charge of discipline; school policy documents containing school rules and regulations; official
discipline letters to students and other official records in the head teachers‟ office relating to

51
student discipline. Information gained through document analysis was used to supplement data
gained through interviews and questionnaires.

4.4.5 Data Collection Procedures

The first step in data collection was to get approval from the supervisor to proceed for fieldwork.
Thereafter, a research permit was obtained from the Ministry of Education (MOE). This was
followed by the recruitment of three research assistants from the local universities. They were
inducted for two weeks, the aim being to enable them to understand the research problem and
research methodology, and how to administer the research instruments. The research assistants
worked closely with the researcher during the data collection period.

Before the actual data collection, the questionnaires were pre-tested (piloted) on a selected
sample similar to the actual sample that was included in the study. Subjects in the actual sample
were not used in the pre-test. The procedures used in pre-testing the questionnaires were identical
to those used during the actual data collection. This allowed the researcher to make meaningful
modifications to the research instruments.

Three schools were included in the pilot study. The schools were stratified into single-gender
schools for both boys and girls (one of each category) and one mixed gender school. Since the
same categories of schools were used during the actual study, it was important to use schools
with the same characteristics.

Pre-testing was considered important in this study because comments and suggestions by
respondents during pre-testing would help improve the quality of the questionnaire (Mugenda
and Mugenda, 1999:79). Pre-testing was meant to reveal deficiencies in the questionnaire. For
example, unclear instructions, insufficient writing space, vague questions and wrong numbering
were revealed and corrected, thus improving the questionnaire. The responses from the
questionnaires were analyzed to check if the methods of data analysis were appropriate and
suitable.

52
Pre-testing also helped in enhancing the reliability of the research instrument (questionnaire) as a
consistent measure of the concept being measured. In addition, vague questions that the
respondents interpreted differently were revealed. When this happened, the researcher rephrased
them until they conveyed the same meaning to all subjects. This enhanced the validity of the
questionnaire.

On visiting the schools during the actual data collection, the research questionnaires were
administered personally by the researcher with the assistance of the research assistants and class
teachers. The questionnaires were collected the same day on completion.

Whenever the researcher visited a school, she used the opportunity to conduct interviews with the
deputy-head teachers, and if possible the parents. Arrangements were made to conduct interviews
with parents who were not available on the same day. Appointments were booked with the
respective respondents and one to one interviews conducted. After the exercise, all the
instruments were pooled ready for data analysis.

4.4.6 Data Analysis

Data was analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively. Quantitative data was analyzed by frequency
tables and percentages. Frequency tables represent the most commonly used method in presenting
data in descriptive research (Kathuri and Pals, 1993:117). Associations between selected
variables were tested using chi square.

Qualitative data was evaluated, classified into logical thematic categories based on the objectives
and then coded. Analysis of qualitative data collected using interviews and document analysis
was an ongoing process where emerging themes were categorized based on the research
questions. As the research progressed, some of the questions were refined while new ones were
formulated to fill in the research gaps detected. Any questions arising during categorization were
also included.

53
In the early stages of fieldwork data collection, data analysis involved developing simple
categories based on the characteristics of respondents and the events that appeared in the research
context. Field notes pertaining to responses from each group were filed and coded under the
appropriate classification.

As the fieldwork progressed, the researcher used what she had learned to refine, and sometimes
redefine the categories of data. After each refinement, the researcher reviewed and re-filed all
relevant field notes. A running summary was drawn from the field notes on a daily basis.

The analysis of the structured items was done by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences
(SPSS). Unstructured items were analyzed manually along major concepts and themes, and the
results were presented using descriptive statistics. Conclusions were drawn from the analyzed
data, leading to recommendations and suggestions for further improvement of the drug abuse
preventive measures put in place in various schools.

4.5 VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY OF THE STUDY

Content validity of the instruments was determined by expert judgments as supported by

Fraenkel and Warren (2000:70) and Huck (2000:65).The instruments were scrutinized by at least
three university lecturers including the supervisor of the study to judge the items on their
appropriateness of content, and to determine all the possible areas that needed modification so as
achieve the objectives of the study. The experts determined whether the items in the
questionnaires and interview guides adequately represented all the areas that needed to be
investigated. In addition, the researcher also ensured validity of the collected data by
administering the interview guides personally.

On reliability of the research instruments, the questionnaire was also pilot-tested. The Split-half
procedure was used to test the reliability of the students‟ and teachers‟ questionnaires after the
pilot testing. This procedure was chosen over other methods such as Kuder-Richardson
approaches for its simplicity (Fraenkel and Warren, 2000:75; Huck, 2000:66). Sixty pilot
questionnaires were administered for this purpose (20 in each of the three schools).

54
The open-ended and structured questionnaires were scored by giving a mark for relevant
responses and a zero (0) for irrelevant and blank responses. The questionnaires so selected were
divided into two equal halves, taking the odd- numbered against the even-numbered items. After
administration to the pilot group, separate scores were assigned to every respondent on the two
halves. The scores of the halves were analyzed, computed and then correlated using the split-
half measure of reliability. The reliability of the scores as a whole was then estimated using the
Spearman-Brown Prophecy formula and found to be 0.76. This index was greater than 0.5 and
closer to +1. This means that there was a positive correlation between the even numbered
statements and the odd numbered ones. In this case the questionnaire can be said to be reliable

4.6 DATA PROCESSING

Before the actual data analysis, the gathered data was validated, edited and then coded. In the
validation process, the questionnaires were checked to determine whether an accurate number or
acceptable sample was obtained in terms of proportions of the issued questionnaires.
Questionnaires were also checked for completeness. Information from interview guides was
expected to be straight forward since the questions had been validated in relation to content and
also since the researcher ensured relevance during administration and discussion with the
respondents.

During editing, the questionnaires were scrutinized to check whether there were errors and
omissions, adequate information and legibility and whether the responses were relevant. Those
questionnaires not found useful were discarded.

The third step in data processing involved coding. After going through all the collected
questionnaires, uniform categories of responses were identified, classified and fed into
appropriate categories in a computer worksheet using SPSS Version 11.0. According to Rubin
and Luck (1992:65), in any study it is imperative that an appropriate analytical technique should
be adopted so as to bring out the quantitative meaning of the data.

55
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS

Ethical issues arise from the kind of problems that social scientists investigate and the methods
used to obtain valid and reliable data. Ethical considerations were pertinent to this study because
of the nature of the problem, the methods of data collection and the kind of persons serving as
research participants i.e. students possibly involved in drug abuse.

While carrying out this study, cognizance was taken of the fact that this study would be
investigating very sensitive issues that were likely to elicit hostility, insecurity or concealment of
the real data required from the participants. Participants were informed of the nature of the study
and allowed to choose whether to participate or not. There is wide consensus among social
scientists that research involving human participants should be performed with the informed
consent of the participants (Nachmias and Nachmias, 1996:81). The researcher therefore ensured
that participants knew that their involvement was voluntary at all times. A thorough explanation
was given in advance in relation to benefits, rights and dangers involved with their participation.

Right to privacy refers to freedom of the individual to pick and choose for him or herself the time
and circumstances under which to participate in the research. It also involves the extent to which
personal attitudes, beliefs, behaviour and opinions are to be shared with or withheld from others
during and after completion of the study. To safeguard the privacy of the participants,
respondents were kept in a private environment away from passersby or intruders.

Asking participants not to write their names on the questionnaires during the research also helps
ensure anonymity. A participant is considered anonymous when the researcher or other person
cannot identify particular information with a particular participant. While preparing for data
collection and analysis, the researcher maintained anonymity by separating information such as
code numbers from the data itself. During the research, participants were requested not to write
their names on the questionnaires.

Participants were informed and assured that the information they provided would be treated as
confidential. In cases where the researcher was able to identify a particular participant‟s

56
information, she would not reveal it publicly. Statements on confidentiality were written on the
questionnaires, and verbally communicated during interviews and questionnaire administration.
For example, “these interviews/questionnaire results will be summarized in group statistics so
that no one will learn of your individual answers”.

4.8 CONCLUSION

This chapter addressed the aim of the research, research paradigm, research design, validity and
reliability of the study, data processing procedures and ethical considerations applicable to the
study. The next chapter will deal with analysis and interpretation of the collected data.

57
 CHAPTER FIVE

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter presents the findings of the study, their analysis and interpretation. The chapter is
divided into the following sections:

The extent of drug abuse among students

Causes of drug abuse
Commonly abused drugs by students and their sources
Effects of drug abuse among the students
Strategies used to address drug abuse and their perceived effectiveness
Suggested strategies to help curb drug abuse in secondary schools.

The above sections correspond with the research objectives and questions in chapter 1 section
1.3. Both qualitative and quantitative analysis approaches have been used in data analysis, thus
reflecting the mixed model research design approach followed in the analysis. Data for the study
was sampled and collected from three sub-sample groups of respondents, linked to the target
population of student drug abusers in Kenya, namely students, deputy-heads and teachers, and
parents as indicated in the response rate table, Table 5.1. Deputy-heads and teachers were
considered to be one sub-group of respondents.

58
 Table 5.1 Response rate of sampled respondents in the various subsets of respondents
linked to the target population of student drug abusers

Type of Deputy Head Teachers Students Parents

School Teachers
Expected Expected Expected Expected Expected Expected Expected Expected
No No No No No No No No
Day 3 1 6 6 120 120 3 2
mixed (33,3%) (100%) (100%)` (66,7%)
Boarding 3 2 6 6 120 120 3 3
Girls (66.7%) (100%) (100%) (100%)
Boarding 3 1 6 6 120 3
Boys (33,3%) (100%) (100%) (100%)
Total 4 18 360 8
Grand 390
total

5.2 THE EXTENT OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG STUDENTS AS REPORTED BY

STUDENTS, TACHERS, DEPUTY HEAD TEACHERS AND PARENTS

This section sought to establish the magnitude of drug abuse among secondary school students.
The magnitude of the problem was measured by establishing the number of students involved in
drug abuse as shown in Table 5.2

59
 Table 5.2 Number of students who have used drugs

Students’ responses N = 360

Ever used drugs Frequency Per cent Valid Per cent
Yes 106 29.4 29.6
No 252 70.0 70.4
Total 358 99.4 100.0
No response 2 0.6
Total 360 100.0

Table 5.2 shows that 106 (29.6%) of the students reported drug use other than for medicinal
purposes.

A type-of school frequency distribution which also revealed gender distribution frequencies
showed that, of those students who acknowledge drug abuse, 34 (32.1%) attended mixed schools
(Day Mixed), 24 (22.6%) boarding schools for Girls, and 48 (45.3%) boarding schools for Boys,
as shown in Table 5.3.

Table 5.3 Drug abuse by type of school

Students’ responses N = 360

Have you ever used drugs other than for
Type of School medical purposes? Total
Yes No
Day mixed 34 (32,1%) 85 (33.7%) 119 (33,24%)
Boarding girls 24 (22.6%) 96 (38.1%) 120 (33.52%)
Boarding boys 48 (45,3%) 71 (28.2%) 119 (33,24%)
Total 106 (100%) 252 (100%) 358 (100%)
No response - - 2
Total 360

60
Table 5.3 seems to indicate that there were more students who have abused drugs in boys‟
schools than in day mixed and girls‟ schools. This is in contrast to the findings of research done
by Kombo (1997:105) in selected schools in Kenya which concluded that experimentation with
common drugs was more frequently reported by Kenyan youth who have attended day mixed
schools rather than boarding schools.

The relationship between age and drug abuse was next investigated. The results are presented in
Table 5.4

Table 5.4 Relationship between age and drug abuse as reported by students

Have you ever used drugs other

than for medical purposes
Age in years Yes No Total
14-16 15(25%) 46(75%) 61(100%)
17-19 77(29%) 191(71%) 268(100%)
20-22 11(58%) 8(42%) 19(100%)
Total 103 245 348
No response 12
TOTAL 360
Chi – square test results
2
= 8.23. The probability (chi-sq = 8.23) < 0.05, with df = 1 and at the 5% level of significance,
indicates significant dependency between age and drug abuse.

As shown in table 5.4 respondents‟ ages ranged from 15 – 22 years, with the majority being
between 17 and 19 years.

A Chi-square test was also conducted on the frequencies to establish whether a statistically
significant dependency exists between drug abuse and age. The computed Chi square value of
8.23 was greater than the tabulated value of 5.99 at 5% level of significance and with 1 degree of

61
freedom. This implies that drug abuse is significantly dependent on age of respondents, and
therefore a significant relationship exists between the two variables.

The deduction is illustrated in Table 5.4: frequencies indicate that the greatest ratio of drug
abusers to non-abusers is associated with the 20 to 22 years category, namely 11 of 19
respondents which represents a ratio of 11/8 = 1.38 or 58% of the 20 - 22 years age category. The
researcher can only speculate that the finding might be linked to the development phase of
adolescence which is characterized by drug experimentation and peer influence as mentioned by
Paglia (Paglia and Room, 1998:5). The table also shows that there are very few cases of drug
abuse in the 14 to 16 age category, namely 15 (25% of the particular age-category). The table
furthermore reveals that the proportion increased to the 20 - 22 years category. The tendency
suggests that, if students could be made aware of the effects of drug abuse at an early enough
stage, the practice could be reduced among the youth in secondary schools in Kenya.

Students were asked if they knew of friends who abused drugs. The majority, 55.6% indicated
that they have friends who abuse drugs as shown in Table 5.5

Table 5.5 How many of your friends take drugs?

Students’ responses N = 360

No of friends Frequency Cumulative Per cent Valid per Cumulative
who abuse Frequency cent per cent
drugs
All 23 23 6.4 6.7 6.7
5-6 59 82 16.4 17.3 24.0
3-4 46 128 12.8 13.5 37.5
1-2 62 190 17.2 18.1 55.6
None 152 342 42.2 44.4 100.0
Total 342 95.0 100.0
No response 18 5.0
Total 360 100.0

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Table 5.5 shows that the extent to which students indicate that their friends abuse drugs is quite
high with a proportion of 190 of 342 respondents or 55.6% of respondents. This is higher than the
proportion of those who indicated that friends do not abuse drugs, namely 152 of 342
respondents, or 44.4%. These findings suggest that a large proportion of the sampled population
is getting addicted at an early age with the risk consequent on drug abuse. This finding supports
that of NACADA (NACADA, 2004) which report that the majority of drug users were amongst
the youth.

When the students were asked whether drug abuse is common in their schools, the following
responses were recorded (Table 5.6).

Table 5.6 Is Drug abuse common in your school?

Students’ responses N = 360

Common Frequency Cumulative Per cent Valid per Cumulative
Frequency cent per cent
Yes 101 101 28.1 28.8 28.8
No 250 351 69.4 71.2 100.0
Total 351 97.5 100.0
No response 9 2.5
Total 360 100.0

According to Table 5.6, out of 360 students, 101 (28.8%) said that drug abuse is common while
250 (71.2%) said it was not.

A gender-frequency table (5.7) on how common drug abuse is at schools furthermore indicated
that 78 of 101 positive responses to this statement (or 77.2%) were males and 23 of 101 (or
22.8%) were females (Table 5.7).

63
 Table 5.7 Gender frequency table on those
Who said drug abuse is common

Is drug abuse common in your school?

Gender Yes %
Male 78 77.2%
Female 23 22.8%
TOTAL 101 100.0%

Although more boys than girls said drug abuse was common as shown in Table 5.7 above, this
does not necessarily imply that there is no problem in girls‟ schools. It could well be argued that
girls know that society does not take kindly to drug abuse so they are likely to deny that they
engage in it.

On the general situation of drug abuse in their schools, teachers gave the responses shown in
table 5.8

Table 5.8 General situation of drug abuse according to teachers

Teachers’ response N = 18
Is there a drug problem at
your school Frequency Per cent Valid per cent
Yes 9 50.0 50.0
No 9 50.0 50.00
Total 18 100.0 100.0

Nine teachers (50%) said there is a drug problem, and nine (50%) said there was no problem. The
limited sample thus indicated a trend of indecision among teaching staff as to whether drug abuse
was a problem at the schools where they work.

64
A frequency distribution of the responses from the 18 teaching staff as to whether the problem of
drug abuse is increasing indicated that it was perceived as increasing as presented in Table 5.9

Table 5. 9: Frequency distribution on whether the drug problem is increasing.

Teachers’ response N = 18
Responses Frequency Per cent Valid per cent
Yes 6 33.3 40.0
No 9 50.0 60.0
Total 15 83.3 100.0
No response 3 16.7
Total 18 100.0

As shown in the Table, only six (33.3%) said the problem was increasing while nine (50%) said
no and three (16.7%) did not respond.

As part of the qualitative approach to the research design, interviews were conducted with four
deputy-head teachers on the general situation of drug abuse. They perceived that drug abuse
problem does exist. However, when asked whether the problem was extensive, only those who
responded from the boys‟ schools said it was. The two deputy-head teachers from girls‟ schools
interviewed said drug abuse was not a problem although they knew of problems in other schools.
One could argue that their response could be motivated towards protection of names of their
schools, and that they did not want to come across as negative.

One deputy-head teacher at a mixed school indicated that he knew of a few isolated cases. All in
all, the general perception among the four interviewees was that the drug abuse problem was not
extensive. The perception of the single teacher from the mixed day schools that drug abuse is
limited to a few isolated cases does not necessarily imply that drug abuse is not a problem. Mixed
day students spend relatively little time at school and it can be argued that students who abuse
drugs will do so off the school grounds without teachers being aware of the habit (Kombo,
1997:119).

65
Qualitative analysis on the same issue was further enriched with interviews conducted with eight
parents and from the interviews, it became clear that parents perceived the problem of drug abuse
to exist but did not know of particular cases. It can be argued that their lack of knowledge might
be attributed to the fact that they are not directly involved in the day today affairs of the school.

Both teachers and students were asked to comment on which classes abused drugs most and their
responses are contained in Tables 5.10 and 5.11. The relation between abuse and non-abuse per
class is reflected in the percentages provided in each column.

Table 5.10: Frequency distribution on whether the drug problem is increasing.

Teachers’ Responses N = 18
Class Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4
Yes 2 (11%) 10 (56%) 13 (72%) 11 (61%)
No 16 (89%) 8 (44%) 5 (28%) 5 (28%)
Total 18 (100%) 18 (100%) 18 (100%) 18 (100%)

Table 5.11 students’ perceptions on classes which abuse drugs most

Students’ Responses N = 245

Class Form 1 Form 2 Form 3 Form 4
Yes 14 (5.7%) 52 (21.0%) 95 (39%) 84 (61%)
No 231 (94.3%) 193 (79%) 150 (61%) 161 (66%)
Total 245 (100%) 245 (100%) 245 (100%) 245 (100%)

Results recorded in the two tables (5.10 and 5.11) indicate that the perceived worst drug abuse is
present among Form 3 students, followed by Forms 4, 2 and 1.The least involved is perceived as
Form 1 classes. These figures seem to indicate that drug abuse is perceived as becoming a
problem as students advance to higher classes. The researcher can argue that this situation could

66
be attributed to the fact that in Form 2 and Form 3 classes students are experimenting with drugs
out of curiosity and peer pressure as indicated elsewhere in this chapter. In addition the students
may think that they have enough time before sitting for their final examinations in Form 4. The
practice appears to decline in Form 4 as students become more mature and prepare for their final
secondary school examinations. One could argue that students also become more focused in
relation to their future careers as they move to higher levels.

The study also queried where drug abusers resided. Area of residence was considered pertinent to
this study due to the variations in life style which are likely to influence the trend in drug abuse
among the students (Adelekan, 1999 in Obot 2005:105).

The teachers‟ responses are presented in Table 5.12

Table 5.12 Teachers’ responses on where drug abusers reside.

Residence Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Rural areas 2 11.1 15.4
Urban areas 11 61.1 84.6
Total 13 72.2 100.0
No Response 5 27.8
TOTAL 18 100.0

In response to the question as to where drug abusers come from, 13 (72.2%) out of the 18
teachers responded. As shown in Table 5.12, the majority of the teachers, 11(84.6%) said drug
abusers come from urban areas compared to 2 (15.4%), who said they come from rural areas.
This argument was also confirmed by the deputy head-teachers (4) and parents (8). Similar
responses are reflected by students as indicated in Table 5.13.

67
 Table 5.13 Relationship between area of residence and drug abuse

Students’ responses N = 360

Have you ever used drugs
Area other than for medicinal purposes? Total
of Residence Yes No
Count % Count % Count %
Rural 47 26.4% 131 73.6% 178 100.0%
Urban 56 32.2% 118 67.8% 174 100.0%
Total 103 29.3% 249 70.7% 352 100.0%
No response - - - - 8
TOTAL 360

Chi – square test results

2
= 1. 4. The probability (chi-sq = 1.4) > 0.75 (with df = 1; at 5% level of significance). No
significant differences in the ratio of „yes‟ to „no‟ drug abuse responses between rural and urban
dwellers exist.

A Chi square ( 2) test based on the students‟ responses was done to test the null hypothesis that,
“drug abuse is not dependent on area of residence of the students”. The computed 2
value (1.4)
was less than the tabulated value of 3.84 at 5% level of significance and with 1 degree of
freedom (df =1). It can be concluded that drug abuse is not dependent on area of residence, and
therefore there is no significant relationship between drug abuse and area of residence.

The finding that there is no significant relationship between area of residence and drug abuse is
in contrast with the argument put forward by Adelekan (1999) that young people in urban areas
have more opportunity to try a new drug and are exposed to more influences from peers and the
media than the rural youth.

68
5.3 CAUSES OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG STUDENTS

This seeks to establish the reasons for drug abuse among students. Knowledge of reasons for drug
abuse is important in designing strategies to address the problem. The questionnaires asked both
students and teachers responded to questions related to causes of drug abuse. The respondents
were allowed to respond to multiple-choice questions. The students‟ responses are presented in
Table 5.14.

Table 5.14 Frequency distribution on multiple–choice response question:

Why do students abuse drugs?

Students’ responses N = 360

Responses Frequency Percentage (%)

To increase intelligence 94 8.7
Curiosity 210 19.4
Excessive pocket money 101 9.3
Availability of drugs 127 11.7
Teachers/ parents 86 8.0
take drugs
Acceptance by friends 185 17.1
Unaware of dangers 173 16.0
Low cost/cheap drugs 105 9.8
TOTAL 1081 100

69
Table 5.14 shows that the most commonly perceived reason for drug abuse is curiosity 210
(19.4%); acceptance by friends, 185 (17.1%); lack of knowledge of the dangers of drug abuse,
173 (16.0%); availability of drugs, 127 (11.7%); cheapness of drugs, 105 (9.8%); excessive
pocket money, 101 (9.3%); to increase intelligence, 94 (8.7%) and because teachers/parents take
drugs (indicating a lack of role models) 86 (8.0 %). Though not included in the table, a few
responses to the “other” category indicated non-concern of the school administration as a possible
reason for drug abuse (n = 94 or 8.7%). The latter response could be interpreted to mean that
some school administrators are not strict when dealing with drug abuse. Alternatively, it could be
interpreted to mean that school rules are not strictly adhered to if school managers do not act
decisively or are incompetent.

On whether students like to take the same drugs as their friends or not, 288 (80%) of the students
said yes, while 72(20%) said no. A frequency analysis also showed that friends encourage others
in school to take drugs as shown in Table 5.15.

Table 5.15 Student Frequency distribution on whether friends encourage others in school
to take drugs.
Have you ever used drugs other than
Do friends encourage for medicinal purposes?
others in school to take
drugs? Yes No Total
Yes 80(31.7%) 172(69.3%) 252(100%)
No 26(25.2%) 77(75.8%) 103(100.0%)
Total 106(29.8%) 249(70.2%) 355(100.0%)
No response - - 5
TOTAL 360
Chi – square test results
2
= 1.51. The probability (chi-sq = 1.51) > 0.75 (with df = 1 and at 5% level of significance).
No significant differences in the ratio of „yes‟ to „no‟ student drug-abuse responses between
encouragement by friends or not was established.

70
Table 5.15 indicates that out of 360 students, 355 responded to the question. Of those who said
they had abused drugs, 80 (31.7%) also said that friends encouraged others to take drugs
compared to 26 (25.2%) who said they have abused drugs but friends do not encourage others to
take drugs.

It was important to find discover if there is a significant relationship between encouragement by

2
friends and drug abuse. The computed value (1.51) was less than the tabulated value of 3.84 at
5% level of significance and with 1 degree of freedom. This result implies that there is no
significant relationship between drug abuse by students and encouragement by friends to take
drugs. The ratio of drug abuse, under groups encouraged or not encouraged by friends does not
differ significantly. This finding contrasts with the findings of a study by Shauri (2007:118) who
found that there was a significant relationship between peer influence and frequency of drug use
and abuse. Previous studies as documented in Chapter Two of this study, also associated peer
influence with drug abuse.

The researcher also wanted to establish whether having a family member who abuses drugs could
be a cause of drug abuse among students. The variable was considered important because
families are critical agents of socialization. Indeed, they shape individuals attitudes towards
various social phenomena, including positive or negative attitudes towards drug abuse. The
students were therefore asked to respond to this question and the results are presented in Table
5.16.

71
 Table 5.16 Relationship between using/not using drugs and having a family member using
drugs

Have you ever used drugs other than

Do friends encourage for medicinal purposes?
others in school to take
drugs? Yes No Total
Yes 52 (45.8%) 67 (54.2%) 119 (100.0%)
No 51 (23.3%) 175 (76.7%) 226 (100.0%)
Total 103 (28.1%) 242 (71.9%) 345(100.0%)
No response - - 15
TOTAL 360
Chi – square test results
2
= 16.7. The probability (chi-sq = 16.7) < 0.001 which is <0.05. (With df = 1 and at 5% level
of significance). Significant difference in the ratio of student-drug abuse to non-abuse in
families where drugs are abused or not abused was thus established.

Table 5.16 shows that, of the respondents who said they have a family member abusing drugs,
52(45.8%) said they had also used drugs, while 67(54.2%) said they had not although they have
a family member who had. Out of those who said they did not have a family member using drugs,
51 (23.3%) had used drugs while 175 (76.7%) had not.

A Chi-square test was done to find out if there was a significant relationship between drug abuse
2
by students and having a family member abusing drugs. The computed value (16.7) was
greater than the tabulated value of 3.84 on the 5% level of significance and with 1 degree of
freedom. It can therefore be concluded that use of drugs by a family member significantly
influences the students‟ tendency to abuse drugs. This finding concurs with Shoemaker‟s
(1984:98) argument that having a parent or family member with a drug problem increases the
chances of developing the same problem in the offspring. This implies that the presence of a
family member who takes drugs contributes to drug abuse among students.

72
The study also investigated the relationship of solid parental-child relationships towards drug
abuse. This information is presented in Table 5.17.

Table 5.17 Relationship with parents/guardian with students’ tendency to abuse drugs

Students’ responses N = 360

How do you relate with your
Have you ever used parent/guardian?
drugs other than for They like me very Total
medicinal purposes much. They fairly like me.
Yes 92(28.5%) 13 (43.3 %) 105 (30.4%)
No 231(71.5%) 17 (56.7%) 248 (70.5%)
Total 323(100%) 30(100%) 353(100.0%)
No response -- -- 7

TOTAL 360
Chi – square test results
2
= 2.9. The probability (chi-sq = 2.9) >0.001, with df = 1; at 5% level of significance.
No significant differences in the ratios of „yes‟ to „no‟ responses to drug abuse between
students with good or moderate relations with their parents/guardians were established.

The findings contained in Table 5.17 show that out of those who said they are liked very much,
92 (28.5%) have used drugs while 231 (71.5%) have not. Of those who said they are fairly liked,
2
13 (43.3%) have used drugs while 17 (56.7%) have not. A test on whether there is a
significant relationship between how students relate with their parents/guardians and abuse of
drugs by students showed that, drug abuse is not significantly related or dependent on how
2
students relate with their parents/guardians. This is because the computed value of 2.9 is less
2
than the tabulated value of 3.84 at the 5% level of significance with 1 degree of freedom.

73
 This finding implies that the more the child is liked by parents, the less the chances of abusing
drugs. This indicates that the child who feels that he or she is liked by parents is less likely to
abuse drugs. On the other hand, lack of attachment to parents could lead to drug abuse among
children (Schaefer, 1996:133). This points to a tendency for close attachment between a child and
parents to reduce tendencies of drug abuse among the youth in secondary schools.

Table 5.18 Responses on whether availability of drugs influences drug abuse

Are these drugs easy to get at Have you ever used drugs other than
school? for medicinal purposes? Total
Yes No
Yes 71(38%) 117(63%) 188(100%)

No 35(22%) 125(78%) 160(100%

Total 106 242 348
No response -- -- 12
TOTAL 360
Chi – square test results
2
= 12.01. The probability (chi-sq = 12.01) <0.001 which is <0.05; with df = 1; at 5% level of
significance. Significant differences between „yes‟ and „no‟ ratios of drug abuse for drugs
perceived to be easily obtainable and not easily obtainable exists.

Availability of drugs was a variable included in this study to examine the assumption that easy
access to drugs triggers drug abuse. This argument was advanced by Mwenesi (1995) who said
that trafficking of drugs in an area contributes to abuse due to easy accessibility. According to
her, easy availability of drugs determines the probability of high drug use.

74
The current study confirms this argument as shown in Table 5.18. A chi square test done on the
frequencies in the current study established that the relationship between drug abuse and easy
2
accessibility of drugs is statistically significant. The computed value of 12.01 was greater than
the tabulated value of 3.84 on the 5% level of significance and with 1 degree of freedom. Of 360
students, 348 responded. Table 5.18 shows that 71 (38%) of the respondents were drug abusers
who said that drugs are easy to get (63% of this group was non-drug abusers); and of the 160 who
said that drugs were not easily obtainable, 22% (35) indicated that they were drug abusers (78%
of this group were not drug abusers). These ratios of drug abuse to non-drug abuse between the
two groups proved to be significantly different. We can therefore confirm the argument by
Mwenesi (1995) that, drug abuse is highly influenced by easy access to drugs among the abusers
who include students. This conclusion is aptly captured in the study‟s theoretical framework
which also shows that easy availability of drugs is considered a risk factor as far as drug abuse is
concerned (Chapter 2).

Unlike the students, the teachers‟ interviews revealed only two main reasons as to why students
abuse drugs. Eight responses indicated break down of family unity; seven responses indicated
excess pocket money by parents, while three teachers out of 18 did not respond to the question.
This finding suggests that as far as the teachers are concerned, the problem is not caused by the
school environment but by family related factors. Surprisingly, the data collected from the 15
teachers who responded to the question suggests that the blame is placed on either students or
parents. Based on this information, one can easily argue that the teachers do not want to be
blamed for the problem and they thus blame other people. In addition, it is possible that they do
not want to be seen as having failed or contributed to the problem. This is in contrast to the
students‟ responses who gave as a reason for drug abuse among others that teachers and parents
are not good role models and that they also take drugs (Table 5.14).

Responses based on the interviews with the deputy-head teachers (4) appear to support the
students‟ views and suggest that lack of role models including parents, siblings and teachers; easy
availability of drugs; peer pressure and curiosity were among the main contributing factors. Their
responses also seemed to suggest that most drugs (alcohol, tobacco, khat and cannabis) are
locally available and so the students can easily access them. In addition to the above mentioned

75
reasons, deputy-head teachers suggested that the overloaded curriculum (leading to limited time
for leisure), lack of guidance and counseling services in some schools and unqualified teachers
and counselors in others leave the students with no alternative but to abuse drugs when stressed.
For example, one deputy- head teacher reported that students have a lot of homework which takes
most of their free time including weekends. As a result, the teacher said that the students get
stressed and some take drugs for relief.

Other reasons given by all the deputy head-teachers were the influence of mass media
(advertising), poor parenting, and unrealistic expectations within the school and home
environment, poor management by incompetent school managers, and school rules which are
sometimes not implemented to the letter, depending on who is inspecting the students especially
on opening days in boarding schools.

The parents who participated in the research (8) unanimously agreed that easy availability of
drugs especially legal ones such as alcohol and tobacco (cigarettes) is a major cause of drug
abuse among students.

5.4 COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS BY STUDENTS AND THEIR SOURCES

This section presents information based on the most commonly abused drugs by students in
secondary schools. Knowledge of the most frequently used drugs by students was regarded as
important in recommending possible prevention and intervention measures. The assumption was
that cheap drugs are more frequently abused. The variables considered in this section included
types of drugs abused, their sources and availability. Students, teachers and parents responded to
this question but only the responses from students and teachers are presented in Tables 5.19 and
5.20

76
 Table 5.19 Students’ responses on commonly abused drugs

Drug Very Frequently Fairly Never Total (%)

Type frequently Frequently Used
Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) Count (%) Count (%)
Alcohol 127 42.9 63 21. 60 20.3 46 15.5 296 100
3
Tobacco 52 19.8 56 21. 82 31.2 73 27.8 263 100
3
Khat 54 20.8 56 21. 74 28.6 75 29.0 259 100
6
Cannabis 37 14.3 33 12. 88 34.1 100 38.8 258 100
8
Glue 10 4.1 4 1.7 14 5.8 214 88.4 242 100
Sleeping
pills 27 10.7 33 13. 42 16.7 150 59.5 252 100
1

Table 5.19 shows that not all (360) students responded to the various multiple- choice options in
this question. Based on the information above, alcohol is the most frequently abused drug with a
response-frequency of 127 (42.9%), followed by khat, 54 (20.8%), tobacco, 52 (19.8%),
cannabis/ bhang, 37 (14.3%) and sleeping pills, 27 (10.7%). The least abused drug is glue, 10
(4.1%). This could possibly be ascribed to the fact that glue is mostly used by street boys and
therefore most students would not want to be associated with it.

The findings concerning alcohol, khat and tobacco as the most commonly abused drugs possibly
reflect the overall current situation of drug abuse among the youth in the country (NACADA,
2004; 2007). For example in 2004, NACADA reported that the national prevalence of substance
misuse among the youth was 60% alcohol, 58% tobacco, 23% cannabis and 22% khat among
others. The current scenario could be attributed to the fact that Kenya has become a progressively
significant transit point for drugs destined for other countries such as Europe and North America

77
as shown in Chapter 2 of this study. In addition, use of drugs such as alcohol, khat and tobacco is
culturally, socially and legally acceptable in Kenya and these drugs are locally produced. Such
factors have compounded the problem of substance abuse and dependence among the youth
including students.

When students were asked whether these drugs are easy to get in school, out of 360 students, 189
(52.5%) said yes, 160 (44.4%) said no and 11 (3.1%) did not respond. These responses could
suggest that society outside the school is contributing to drug abuse among students by making
drugs easily available, which, as indicated in Table 5.21 of the study proved to be a statistically
significant factor in the drug-abuse chain. This finding is further supported by Nyassy (Sunday
Nation, February 8, 2009:6), who says that the general trend in the country is for drug sellers
target younger people, with children as young as 11 and 13 years are being recruited into drug
use.

Table 5.20 Teachers Responses on Commonly Abused Drugs

Teachers’ responses N =18

What drugs do most students take?
Yes (%) No (%) No response (%) TOTAL
Type of drug (%)
Alcohol 13 (72.2) 3 (16.7) 2 (11.1) 18 (100)
Tobacco 11 (61.1) 5 (27.8) 2 (11.1) 18 (100)
Khat (Miraa) 9 (50.0) 7 (38.9) 2 (11.1) 18 (100)
Cannabis 11 (61.1) 5 (27.8) 2 (11.1) 18 (100)
Glue 0 (0) 16 (88.9) 2 (11.1) 18 (100)
Sleeping Pills 4 (22.2) 12 (66.7) 2 (11.1) 18 (100)

As shown in Table 5.20, the teachers agreed with the students that alcohol is the most commonly
abused drug. Thirteen (72.2%) thought this to be the case, followed by tobacco, 11 (61.1%) and

78
bhang/ cannabis 11 (61.1%), khat, 9 (50%) and lastly sleeping pills 4 (22.2%). None of the
teachers reported use of glue.

Like the teachers and students, deputy-head teachers (4) reported that among the most commonly
abused drugs are alcohol and cannabis. In addition, they also said that “kuber”, an Indian
traditional tobacco is abused by both male and female students. They argued that the drug is
cheap and locally available therefore the students can easily access it from the local community
and shops. All the parents (8) who were interviewed agreed with the students and teachers that
alcohol, cannabis, khat and tobacco were the most commonly abused drugs. They argued that all
these drugs are readily available which contributes in their common use by students. This
argument is in agreement with the proposition in the theoretical framework of this study that easy
availability of drugs contributes to drug abuse (Chapter 2).

The respondents were also asked to comment on the main sources of commonly abused drugs.
Source as a variable in this study was considered relevant in order to provide information to drug
supply reduction agencies on the best ways of targeting the suppliers. Knowing where drugs are
sourced by the users could help supply reduction agencies like the anti-narcotic police in devising
appropriate intervention measures. In addition it can also provide information useful in aiding
formulation of surveillance strategies by the parties involved in reduction of supply and demand.
This is important because cutting down on supply will lead to drug unavailability and hence
reduction in abuse. The responses are presented in Tables 5.21 and 5.22 below.

79
 Table 5.21 Students multiple-choice responses on sources of drugs of abuse

Source Yes Percent (%)

Drivers 48 6.8
Touts 89 12.7
Watchmen 61 8.8
Cooks 40 5.7
Kiosks/small shops 143 20.3
Shoe – cobblers 47 6.7
Slum areas 184 26.0
Hospitals 31 4.4
Family members 60 8.5
TOTAL 703 100

According to the students‟ multiple responses, the sources were as follows: Slums (low economic
areas) around the school, 184 (26%), kiosks/shops, 143 (20.3 %), touts, 89 (12.7%), watchmen,
61 (8.8%), shoe-cobblers, 47 (6.7%) and cooks, 40 (5.7%).

On the same issue, the teachers‟ multiple-choice responses showed the common sources as
slums, 11 (40.7%), cinema halls/video shops, 7 (25.9%), shops, 2 (7.4), shoe-cobblers, 1 (3.7%)
and hospitals, 1(3.7%). This information is presented in Table 5.22

80
 Table 5.22 Teachers’ multiple–choice responses on sources of drugs of abuse

Source Yes Percent (%)

Touts 3 12.0
Shoe – cobblers 1 4.0
Shops 2 8.0
Slums 11 44,0
Cinema halls 7 28,0
Hospitals 1 4.0
TOTAL 25 100,0

From the findings in the two tables, teachers and students agreed that slums/ low economic areas
around the schools are major sources of drugs abused by students.

The students were also asked where they prefer taking these drugs. Out of the 360 students
involved in the research, 341 (94.7%) responded to the question while 19 (5.3%) did not respond.
Of those who did respond 123 (22%) said thickets, 244 (43%) away from school and 202 (36%)
toilets. All these responses suggest that drugs are taken in secretive areas where abusers may
never be found by school authorities and even parents. The choice of secret places for drug abuse
could be necessitated by strict school rules where discovery would lead to serious consequences
as spelt out in copies of school rules made available to the researcher. In addition, the illegal
status of most drugs of abuse in the country could explain why drugs are taken in secrecy or in
hidden places considered “safe”.

The finding concurs with Shauri‟s (2007:180) conclusion that drug consumption is a clandestine
undertaking. The literature review also supports this finding and shows that the sale of drugs is
conducted secretly and that only “trusted clients” get the commodities. This could explain why
most teachers said that there was no drug problem in their schools.

81
In fact, when students were asked if school authorities knew that students abuse drugs, of the 294
(81.7%) who responded to the question, 126 (35%) said yes while 168 (46.7%) said no as shown
in Table 5.23. This indicates that the problem is there to a larger extent than the teachers assume.

Table 5.23. If your friends use drugs, do the school authorities know that they do?

Do school
authorities know? Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Yes 126 35.0 42.9
No 168 46.7 57.1
Total 294 81.7 100.0
No response 66 18.3
Total 360 100.0

The researcher sought to find out whether students knew the dangers of abusing drugs.
Knowledge of dangers related to drug abuse was considered important because ignorance among
students may lead to the ineffectiveness of proposed prevention and intervention measures to help
curb the practice. From the multiple- choice responses provided, the following responses were
given (Table 5.24)

82
Table 5.24 Multiple–choice responses on whether students knew the dangers of drug abuse

Responses on perceived dangers Yes Percent (%)

Lack of concentration 304 17
Missing classes 254 14
Conflicts with teachers 245 14
Physical weakness 241 14
Lack of sleep 217 12
Lack of appetite 209 12
Not doing assignments 201 11
Rejection by friends 107 06
TOTAL 1778 100

As shown in Table 5.24, evidence on knowledge of dangers was presented as: lack of
concentration in class, 304 (17%); missing classes, 254 (14%); conflicts with teachers, 245
(14%); physical weakness, 241 (14%); lack of sleep, 217 (12%); lack of appetite, 209 (12%); not
doing assignments, 201 (11%) and rejection by friends, 107 (6%). The researcher speculates that
the low percentage concerning rejection by friends as a result of drug abuse could suggest that
friends would encourage one to take drugs rather than reject the individual concerned.

The information given above indicates that knowledge of dangers relating to drug abuse does not
necessarily prevent students from abusing them. This scenario could suggest that change of
attitude towards drugs, rather than knowledge about them will decrease drug abuse. Further more,
it may also indicate that students are not aware of the long-term effects of drug abuse and
therefore continue to abuse them.

Interviews with deputy-head teachers and parents also showed the dangers as lack of future
responsible citizens, school indiscipline, poor health, stealing, high rate of dropout rate, poor
academic performance, personal negligence and damage of school property due to strikes and
conflicts with school administration.

83
5.5 STRATEGIES USED TO ADDRESS DRUG ABUSE IN SCHOOLS

This section presents findings on the methods used to address drug abuse in secondary schools.
Information was also sought on whether these methods are effective or not according to the
respondents‟ point of view. Data was collected from teachers (18), deputy head-teachers (4) and
students (360) using questionnaires and interviews.

The teachers (18) were asked to provide information based on the various methods used in their
schools to curb drug related problems. The frequency distribution of the multiple-choice
responses are presented in Table 5.25

Table 5.25 Teachers’ responses on methods used to address drug abuse

Teachers’ responses N=18

Frequency
Methods Very often Often Not often Not at all No Response
(Count, %) (Count, (Count,%) (Count,%) (Count,%)
%)
Expulsion 1 5.6 3 16.7 5 27.8 4 22.2 5 27.8
Suspension 4 22.2 7 38.9 3 16.7 - - 4 22.2
Guidance and 10 55.6 3 16.7 2 11.1 1 5.6 2 11.1
Counseling
Summoning 4 22.2 5 27.8 3 16.7 1 5.6 5 27.8
parents
Heavy 2 11.1 2 11.1 6 33.3 2 11.1 6 33.3
punishment

According to the teachers (Table 5.25), the most commonly used method of responding to drug
abuse is guidance and counseling as indicated by a frequency of 10 responses (55.6%), followed
by summoning of parents to school, 4 (22.2%) and suspension, 4 (22.2%). Other methods include
punishment, 2 (11.1%), and expulsion, 1(5.6%). The fact that expulsion and heavy punishment

84
are the least used methods could be attributed to the fact that, it is only the Board of Governors
who can expel a student while heavy punishment has been banned under the Children‟s Act,
2001.

The teachers were also asked to comment on methods used to curb drug problem in schools.
Table 5.26 presents this information.

Table 5.26 Teachers’ overall assessment of methods used to address drug abuse

Teachers’ responses N=18

Overall Assessment Frequency Percent Valid Percent

They are very effective 2 11.1 11.1
They are effective 6 33.3 33.3
They are moderately
9 50.0 50.0
effective
They are not satisfactory 1 5.6 5.6
Total 18 100.0 100.0

Based on the information in Table 5.26, the general perception of the teachers indicates that the
methods used are wanting. This is because out of the 18 teachers involved, only 2 (11.1%) said
the methods are very effective, 6 (33.3%) said they are effective and 9 (50%) felt that the
methods are moderately effective. The somewhat neutral perceptions expressed by the teachers
suggest that there is need to come up with more effective strategies to minimize drug abuse in
schools as far as the teachers are concerned.

Deputy-head-teachers were also asked to respond on measures taken to address the problem. All
four (100%) deputy-head teachers gave the methods as talks by head-teachers during assembly
and use of guest speakers on the effects of drug abuse. They also said that all students must sign a
copy of the school rules on admission. The rules from the various schools clearly state that

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smoking, consumption of alcohol and any intoxicating drugs is forbidden and that those who
prove to be addicts will face suspension and possible total expulsion.

Other methods used by the schools as reported by the four deputy-head teachers included
impromptu inspections especially in boarding schools, thorough inspections as students come in
from holidays and outings, and close monitoring and vetting of students‟ visitors. All the deputy-
head teachers said that no formal programme has been incorporated into the formal school
curriculum except guidance and counseling. Guidance and counseling is provided voluntarily by
teachers in their spare time.

The students were also asked if they have been exposed to any drug preventive methods or
education. The responses are presented in Table 5.27.

Table 5.27 Have you / your friends ever been exposed to any drug preventive
methods/education?

Students’ responses N =360

Ever been exposed Frequency Percent Valid Percent
Yes 301 83.6 87.5
No 43 11.9 12.5
Total 344 95.6 100.0
No response 16 4.4
Total 360 100.0

Table 5.27 shows that, 344 (95.6%) students responded to this question, while 16(4.4%) did not
respond. Of those that responded, 301 (87.5%) said they had been so exposed while only 43
(12.5%) said they had not.

Furthermore, the students were asked which preventive methods had been used in their schools.
Responses were probed on a multiple–response basis as shown in Table 5.28 below.

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Table 5.28 Students’ multiple–choice responses on preventive methods used in their schools

Preventive Methods Frequency Percentage (%)

(N)
Guidance and counseling 253 35
Invited guests 192 27
Information by teachers 159 22
Use of posters 115 16
TOTAL 719 100

According to the students‟ responses, the methods were given as follows: guidance and
counseling 253 (35%), talks by invited guests 192 (27%), information by teachers during
teaching 159 (22%), and use of posters 115 (16%). When asked which of these methods was the
most effective, 259 (59%) said guidance and counseling, followed by teaching about drug abuse
in class, 146 (33%). The least effective method according to the students was talking to students
in assembly, at 33 (8%).

From the information given so far on methods used to address the vice, it is clear that guidance
and counseling is seen as the most commonly used method by the teachers, deputy-head teachers
and the students and is also regarded as the most effective method in addressing drug abuse
among students. In addition, it is clear that a variety of methods are used but some are perceived
to be more effective than others. It can be speculated that the main reason why guidance and
counseling is perceived as the best method for addressing drug abuse could be attributed to the
fact that there is heavy emphasis on the introduction of guidance and counseling in all schools by
the Government.

The emphasis put on guidance and counseling is not unique to this study. It is also a reflection of
one of the methods highly emphasized in helping drug addicts in rehabilitation centres (Shauri,
2007:182). According to Shauri, counseling in regard to drug abuse is an art in which knowledge
of human relations and skills in relationships are used to help a drug dependent person find

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personal will power and resources in the community so that he or she can adjust, cope and lead a
productive life free from such dependence.

While appreciating that the schools have tried their best to address the issue of drug abuse, it was
important to find out what students thought about the action taken by the schools. They were
required to respond to this question: do you think actions taken against drug abusers are
adequate? A total of 336 students out of 360 responded to the question. Of those who responded,
160 (48%) said yes, while 176 (52%) said no. The responses show very little difference in the
proportions between those who said „yes‟ and „no‟. Teachers probed on the same issue said that
actions taken were not effective. The reaction by teachers is a pointer to the need for more
effective methods to address the drug abuse issues among youth in schools.

5.6 PROPOSED SOLUTSIONS TO DRUG ABUSE IN SCHOOLS

The study attempted to find out measures that respondents wished to see instituted to curb drug
abuse in schools. Suggestions from respondents were considered important because they would
help broaden the researcher‟s understanding of the various prevention and intervention
approaches needed to address drug abuse in schools. Questions related to preferred measures
were directed to students (360), teachers (18), deputy-head teachers (4) and parents (8) as the key
respondents in this study.

The students were required to propose ways of dealing with the drug abuse problem in schools.
When asked whether drug abuse should be fought through prevention rather than cure, they
responded as shown in Table 5.29 below.

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 Table 5.29 Do you think it’s necessary to fight drug abuse through prevention rather than
cure?

Students’ responses N =360

Responses Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Yes 338 93.9 96.8
No 11 3.1 3.2
Total 349 96.9 100.0
No
11 3.1
response
TOTAL 360 100.0

As shown in table 5.23, at 338 (96.8%) the students overwhelmingly responded that prevention is
better than cure. Further, the students were asked which methods should be used to prevent the
practice. The multiple-choice responses are shown in Table 5.30

Table 5.30 Students’ multiple–choice responses on methods of addressing drug abuse

Yes
Method N (%)
Guidance and counseling 292 34
Teaching about drug use and 151 18
abuse as a subject
Conducting seminars and debates 211 24
Inviting medical practitioners/experts 208 24
TOTAL 862 100

Table 5.30 shows that the largest proportion of students preferred guidance and counseling, 292
(34%); followed by conducting seminars and debates, 211 (24%), inviting medical experts, 208
(24%) and lastly teaching about drug use and abuse as a subject, 151 (18%).

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Asked to propose measures for addressing drug abuse, the multiple-choice responses by teachers
were as shown in Table 5.31

Table 5.31 Proposed measures by teachers for addressing drug abuse

Teachers’ responses N =18

Method N %
Guidance and counseling 16 28
Peer counseling 16 28
Drug education into other subjects 10 16
Strict school rules 8 14
Guest speakers 8 14
TOTAL 58 100

As shown in Table 5.25, teachers proposed the methods as guidance and counseling, 16 (28%);
peer counseling, 16 (28%); incorporating drug education as a subject, 10 (16%); strict school
rules and regulations, 8 (14%) and use of guest speakers or invited guests, 8 (14%).

On the same issue, all deputy-head teachers (4) and parents (8) agreed with the students and
teachers that guidance and counseling should be strengthened. They also recommended the use of
guest speakers, peer counseling and incorporation of parents in school counseling sessions
especially those with special expertise in the area of drug use and abuse. All deputy-head teachers
said that parents should make time at home and to talk to their children on general conduct
including the dangers of drug abuse.

Based on the results of the survey and interviews up to this point, it is clear that guidance and
counseling is perceived to be the best method for addressing drug abuse among school youth. It
can be argued that this could most likely be attributed to the general understanding that the
students are assured of privacy in this context which makes it easy for them to open up and share
their problems. It might also suggest that students do not know of other methods which the

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schools can use to curb drug abuse. This could be interpreted as suggesting that there is need to
expose the students to more effective awareness programmes to avoid risky behaviours that can
expose them to drug abuse (His Excellency, Hon. Mwai Kibaki, Daily Nation, September 13,
2006; Shauri, 2007: 174)

Since students spend most of their time within the school, it was necessary to find out who should
be approached when students with drug related problems need support. The students were
expected to choose from among a number of choices. The multiple-choice response perceptions
are presented in Table 5.32

Table 5.32: In your own opinion, who should be approached by students for help on drug
related problems?

Students’ responses N =360

To be approached Frequency Percent Valid Percent

Head teacher 19 5.3 5.8
Class teacher 15 4.2 4.6
School counselor 252 70.0 77.3
School Chaplain 39 10.8 12.0
Other 1 .3 .3
Total 326 90.6 100.0
No response 34 9.4
Total 360 100.0

Table 5.32 shows that, out of 360, 326 responded to this question. Of the 326 students who
responded, 252 (77.3%) said the school counselor, while 39 (12.0%) said the school chaplain. It
is surprising that head-teachers and class teachers were the least preferred support options. This
indicates that there may be a poor relationship and also lack of trust between the students and the
head-teachers or class teachers. It can also be attributed to the fact that the head-teachers are not

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directly involved in counseling of students. This response could explain why some students said
that the school has not done its best to curb drug abuse.

5.7 CHALLENGES FACED IN ADDRESSING DRUG ABUSE IN SCHOOLS

This section highlights some of the challenges facing the school administration and teachers in
their effort to curb drug abuse in schools. All the teachers (18) and deputy-head teachers (4) as
respondents singled out a number of challenges facing the war against drug abuse in schools as
presented in this section. The teachers were allowed to respond to more than one of the various
alternatives given. The multiple-choice responses of the 18 teachers are presented in Table 5.33

Table 5.33 Challenges faced in addressing drug abuse according to teachers

Problems encountered in dealing with drug abuse

Responses Yes No No response
Count (%) Count (%) count (%)
Parents do not support school 9 50 7 38.9 2 11.1
Administration
Some teachers provide 1 5.6 15 83.3 2 11.1
drugs to students
Some teachers take drugs 4 22.2 12 66.7 2 11.1
Teachers do not discourage 1 5.6 15 83.3 2 11.1
drug taking
Lack of adequate knowledge to 13 72.2 3 16.7 2 11.1
address drug issues
Time schedules are 3 16.7 13 72.2 2 11.1
not flexible

Responses captured in Table 5.33 indicate that teachers‟ perception of the biggest challenge faced
in addressing drug abuse is lack of adequate knowledge on how to deal with it (72.2%). This

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indicates that teachers feel inadequate when asked to help drug abusers in their schools. This
could be attributed to the fact that the majority of school counselors are not trained in
approaches to addressing drug abuse in their schools.

Teachers furthermore indicated that they perceived the lack of support to school administration
by parents, 9 (50%) as a challenge. The lack of teacher role models for students was also
regarded as a challenge because some indicated that teachers take drugs, 4 (22%), and are
therefore not good examples. Some teachers furthermore said that time schedules are not flexible,
3 (16.7%). It can be argued that inflexible time schedules could be linked to lack of adequate time
for teachers who only counsel students during their free time. As a result, they perceived heavy
workloads and the crowded curriculum to be a challenge.

Results which raise concern is the teacher (as indicated in Table 5.33), who responded that some
teachers provide drugs to students, while another teacher response indicated that teachers do not
discourage drug abuse amongst students.

When interviewed about the challenges faced by the schools, all the deputy-head teachers like the
teachers cited a number of challenges. According to their perceptions, parents are not supportive
while some are not good role models. They felt that the majority of parents stand by their
children and defend them while blaming the teachers. As for the day schools, the biggest
challenge was how to monitor the behaviour of the students since it is hard to follow them up
after school. Their responses also indicated that most day schools are located near market centres
which supply drugs to students.

Although deputy-head teachers are in charge of discipline at the schools, they noted the lack of
clear guidelines on what punishment to administer or actions to take in relation to student drug
abusers. The deputy-head teachers indicated that making such decisions is perceived as very
taxing because the Children‟s Act of 2001 prohibits corporal punishment and child harassment.
The perception of the deputy head- teachers was that the students take advantage of this loop hole
and abuse drugs with impunity.

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In addition, the responses indicated that deputy-head teachers felt ill-equipped to identify drug
abusers because they were not trained. All deputy-head teachers felt that it was hard to fathom the
extent of drug abuse in schools because of the secrecy surrounding it. Since the extent of the
problem cannot be established with certainty, the capacity of the school to deal with drug abuse
becomes problematic. The media was also quoted as a stumbling block in the war against drug
abuse in schools. According to the deputy-head teachers, alcohol and cigarettes are legally
advertised which influences the youth to take the drugs. In addition, the warnings attached to
these advertisements are too small to discourage many from indulging in these substances.

5.8 CONCLUSION

This chapter has discussed the data analysis and interpretation. In particular, the chapter looked at
the extent of drug abuse among students, causes of drug abuse, commonly abused drugs and their
sources; effects of drug abuse among students as perceived by the respondents; strategies used to
address drug abuse and their perceived effectiveness; challenges facing schools in addressing
drug abuse and suggested strategies to help curb drug abuse in secondary schools.

Quantitative data from respondents was analyzed using frequencies and percentages. Association
between selected variables was evaluated with chi- square tests. Qualitative data was evaluated,
classified into logical thematic categories based on the objectives, and coded. The analysis of the
structured items was done by using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Unstructured items were analyzed manually along major concepts and themes, and the results
were presented using descriptive statistics (frequencies and percentages).

Some of the key deductions are that:

Of the sampled students, 30% indicated that they abuse drugs and 56% indicated that their
friends abuse drugs; but interviews with teachers indicated indecision regarding drug
problems in their schools.
Both boys and girls abused drugs with the majority being in boys‟ schools.

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 The greatest ratio of drug abusers to non-abusers among the sampled schools, are aged
between 20 and 22 years.
There is a significant relationship between drug abuse and age, use of drugs by family
members and easy access to drugs.
Significant relationships between drug abuse and area of residence, peer pressure, and
relationship with parents could not be established.
A variety of factors contribute to drug abuse with the majority of students citing curiosity,
acceptance by peers and ignorance as to the dangers of drug abuse as the main reasons.
Both the school administration and teachers face a number of challenges in the attempt to
curb drug abuse in schools.
A variety of methods are used to address drug abuse in schools, but the teachers were
undecided on whether these measures were truly effective (Table 5.26).
Quite a number of findings in the current study agree with the findings of other research
and were indicated in the chapter as doing so. However, possible explanation of other
contrasting tendencies observed in the current study could only be speculated about.

The next Chapter is a presentation of the summary, conclusions and recommendations for a
proposed programme for prevention and intervention of drug abuse problem in secondary schools
in Kenya, based on the research findings in Chapter 5 of this study.

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 CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

The focus of this study was to propose a programme for prevention of and intervention in drug
abuse among the youth in secondary schools in Kenya. The findings of this empirical study will,
among other things, contribute to knowledge in this area and help both administrators and policy
makers to develop more efficient educational programmes to address drug abuse in schools.

The previous chapter presented and analyzed the findings of the empirical study. This chapter
presents a summary of the study and the research findings. Conclusions are drawn and
recommendations made on possible ways of improving approaches to drug abuse among the
youth in schools. Possible areas for further research are also proposed.

6.2 OVERVIEW OF THE INVESTIGATION

The overall purpose of this study is to find out current trends in drug abuse among students in
secondary schools in Kenya and to analyze the strategies used to address the problem. The
ultimate aim is to propose a programme for prevention and intervention (1.3).The specific
objectives of the study are to:

Examine the causes and extent of drug abuse among secondary school youth,

Identify commonly abused drugs amongst the youth in secondary schools,

Identify and evaluate the effectiveness and shortcomings of strategies used in secondary
schools to address drug abuse,

Propose strategies that could help curb drug abuse in secondary schools.

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The research attempted to answer the questions outlined in section 1.4 as follows:

a) What is the extent of drug abuse among secondary school youth?

b) What are the main causes of drug abuse among the youth in secondary schools?

c) Which are the commonly abused drugs by the youth in secondary schools?

d) What strategies do the schools use to address drug abuse?

e) How effective are the methods used by schools to address drug abuse?

f) What modifications are needed within the current strategies to establish an effective
programme for intervention against drug abuse in secondary schools?

The literature review (Chapter 2) shows that all drugs are dangerous, and deliberate ingestion of
drugs is harmful to the individual, the family, the community and society as a whole. The factors
associated with drug use and abuse are many and varied, and include individual predispositions,
family characteristics, and complex social and environmental determinants. The environmental
factors which are the most influential include the family, peer association, poor school
performance and social class membership. Other factors include conflict between the school
system and family values of lower class youth who have low performance expectations; easy
availability of drugs, poor parenting, lack of role models and parental guidance; pressure from
home or school to perform, social pressure from media especially in urban areas, as well as low
self-esteem; legalization of alcohol and tobacco and lack of clear school policies on drug abuse;
lack of concern with drug abuse in and out of school by some teachers; curiosity and perceived
inability to cope with problems. Overall, the most commonly abused drugs are alcohol, tobacco,
khat and cannabis.

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The current study is based on the Modified Social Stress Model (MSSM) for understanding drug
use and abuse. This theory maintains that probability of drug abuse is determined by the
existence of risk and protective factors.

Chapter 3 is an overview of the Kenyan scenario and shows that there is a growing concern over
the harmful effects of drug abuse among the youth in secondary schools in Kenya. Drug abuse
among students is an activity which demands urgent attention and maximum priority.

In Kenya, efforts to address the issue of drug abuse include:

The National Policy on Drug Abuse which is in line with the Narcotics Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances Control Act, 1994.

Establishment of the NACADA office in 2001 in the Executive Office of the President to
help the government strategize on how to reduce drug abuse. Activities include
sensitizing, training and empowering the public on matters of drug and substance abuse.

Integration at school level by the MOE has integrated drug education components into
existing school curricula, in Social Studies at primary level and Religious Education at
secondary school level.

Other methods used to address drug abuse such as media campaigns and passing
messages through public gatherings or “barazas”.

Establishment by some churches of anti-drug programmes through school talks.

Within the schools, methods such as guest speakers, peer education programmes,
guidance and counseling, suspension and expulsion.

However, despite all these efforts, the problem is still far from over. Drug abuse is still a threat to
the general public as well as to the youth in Kenyan schools.

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The research design and methodology is discussed in Chapter 4 of the study. Both qualitative and
quantitative approaches have been used in data analysis which results in the mixed model
research design approach followed in the analysis. Chapter 5 presents data analysis, interpretation
and presentation.

6.3 SUMMARY AND OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL INVESTIGATION

6.3.1 The Extent of Drug Abuse among Students

The empirical study showed that drug abuse is widespread among students, with 29.6% of
students saying they have abused drugs other than for medicinal purposes (Table 5.2). Students
from all types of schools abuse drugs but the findings reveal that more students abuse drugs in
boys‟ schools (45.3%) than in day mixed (32.1%) and girls‟ schools (22.6%). The greatest
proportion of drug abusers were aged between 20 and 22 years (58%) and there were relatively
few cases between 14 and 16 years (25%) as shown in Table 5.4. It was also established that the
proportion of drug abusers increases with age from 20 years and above. A chi-square test at 5%
level of significance further showed that drug abuse was strongly dependent on age of
respondents and thus a significant relationship exists between the two variables.

Asked whether they knew of friends who abused drugs, 55.6% of the students said they had
friends who also abused drugs (Table 5.5). This shows that the extent to which students‟ abuse
drugs is quite high. This is in agreement with NACADA‟s findings in 2004 that the majority of
drug users were amongst the youth. Only 28.8% of the students said that drug abuse is common
among students, while the teachers were indecisive as to whether drug abuse was a problem at
their schools (Table 5.8). Qualitative data obtained through interviews from deputy-head teachers
and parents on the general situation of drug abuse showed that the problem existed especially in
boys‟ schools.

Teachers and students agreed that students in Form 3 abused drugs most (Tables 5.10 and 5.11),
followed by Form 4 and Form 2. Those least involved in drug abuse were perceived to be Form 1

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classes who are new in secondary school. The findings seemed to indicate that drug abuse
becomes a problem as students advance to higher classes.

All respondents (teachers and students) agreed that the majority of drug abusers live in urban
rather than rural areas. However, a chi-square test on the relationship between area of residence
and drug abuse at 5% level of significance showed that drug abuse is not dependent on area of
residence of the students, and no significant relationship existed between the two variables.

6.3.2 Causes of Drug Abuse among Students

This study sought to establish the reasons for drug abuse among students. Students and teachers
responded to questions related to causes of drug abuse.

The most commonly perceived reason for drug abuse by students was curiosity (Table 5.14)
followed by need for acceptance by friends, lack of knowledge about the dangers of drug abuse,
easy availability of drugs, low cost of drugs, excessive pocket money, the wish to increase
intelligence and lack of good role models in teachers and parents. Lack of concern by school
administrators was also considered a possible reason for drug abuse. A frequency analysis
showed that 75.5% of friends encourage others to take drugs (Table 5.15). A chi-square test
regarding the relationship between encouragement by friends and drug abuse however revealed
no significant relationship between drug abuse by students and encouragement by friends to take
drugs.

Unlike the students, the teachers only cited two main reasons for drug abuse among students.
These were breakdown of family units (44.4%) and excessive pocket money (38.9%). These are
problems beyond the schools‟ control as perceived by the teachers. However, qualitative data
from interviews with deputy- head teachers and parents revealed the causes as lack of role
models, easy availability of drugs, peer pressure, curiosity, legalization of drugs, no leisure time
because of the over loaded curriculum, lack of adequate guidance and counseling services and
unqualified school counselors. They also cited negative influence from the mass media, poor

100
parenting, unrealistic expectations within the home and school environment especially for weak
students, relaxed school rules and incompetent school heads or managers.

Amongst the factors considered for chi-square analysis at 5% level of significance, use of drugs
by a family member and easy availability of drugs were found to be not only important factors,
but also had a significant influence on the frequency of drug abuse among students.

6.3.3 Commonly Abused Drugs by Students and their Sources

The study sought information on commonly abused drugs by students. Students, teachers and
parents responded to the relevant questions through questionnaires and interviews.

Based on multiple-choice responses from students (Table 5.19), the commonly abused drugs are
alcohol, khat, tobacco, cannabis and sleeping pills. The least abused drug is glue. Asked whether
drugs are easy to get, 52.5% of students said that they are. Teachers agreed with students that
alcohol is the most commonly abused drug (72.2%). Others are tobacco, cannabis, khat and
sleeping pills as shown in Table 5.20. Deputy-head teachers and parents concurred with the
students and teachers in regard to alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and khat as the most commonly
abused drugs.

On the sources of drugs, the respondents, students and teachers cited slum areas (low economic
areas) as the most common source. Other sources were kiosks or small shops near schools, touts,
watchmen, family members, drivers, shoe-cobblers and cooks, cinema halls and hospitals. The
least common source is the hospital as shown in Table 5.21.

All students who responded to the questionnaires revealed that these drugs are taken in secret
“safe” places where the abusers cannot be found.

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6.3.4 Perceived Effects of Drug Abuse among Students

The researcher tried to find out whether students knew the dangers of abusing drugs. Knowledge
of dangers related to drug abuse was considered important because ignorance among students
may lead to ineffectiveness of proposed prevention and intervention measures to help curb the
practice

From the students‟ responses, it was evident that they were aware of the effects of drug abuse.
They gave these as lack of concentration on studies, missing classes, conflicts with teachers,
physical weakness, lack of sleep, lack of appetite, failure to do assignments and rejection by
friends. The findings indicate that students are only concerned with short-term and not long- term
effects of drug abuse.

The parents and deputy-head teachers interviewed also gave the effects as lack of responsible
citizens, school indiscipline, poor health, stealing, high rate of school dropout, incompetent
national workforce, poor academic performance, personal negligence, damage of school property
during strikes and conflicts with school administration.

6.3.5 Strategies Used to Address Drug Abuse in Schools

Information was sought on the methods used by schools to address drug abuse and their
perceived effectiveness. Data from respondents was collected using questionnaires and
interviews.

Based on the teachers‟ responses (Table 5.25), the commonly used methods are guidance and
counseling, summoning of parents or guardians to school, suspension, heavy punishment, and
expulsion. On the overall assessment of these methods (Table 5.26), the general perception of the
teachers indicates that the methods are found wanting. Fifty percent of the teachers felt that the
methods were moderately effective, 11.1% said they were very effective, and only 33.3% said
they were unambiguously effective.

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Other methods cited by deputy-head teachers were talks by head teachers during assembly, use of
guest speakers, strict school rules signed on admission by all students, impromptu inspections
especially in boarding schools, thorough inspections at entry points on opening days and close
monitoring and vetting of students‟ visitors. According to the deputy-head teachers, no formal
programme had been incorporated into the school curriculum except guidance and counseling
which is provided by teachers during their spare time.

On whether they had been exposed to any drug preventive methods, 83.6% of the students said
they had. Asked which methods had been used in their schools to address drug abuse (Table
5.28), students said guidance and counseling, invited guests, information by teachers and use of
posters. The most effective methods as perceived by students were guidance and counseling
(59%) and teaching about drug use and abuse in class (33%). The least effective method was
cited as talking to students at assembly (8%). Keeping in mind that the schools have tried their
best to address the issue of drug abuse, students were asked to respond to the question: do you
think action taken against drug abusers is adequate? Of those who responded, 52% said no and
48% said yes.

6.3.6 Proposed Solutions to Drug Abuse in Schools

The current study attempted to find out measures that respondents wished to see instituted to curb
drug abuse in schools. Questions related to preferred measures were addressed to students,
teachers, deputy-head teachers and parents. The following were proposed:

Strengthening guidance and counseling.

Teaching about drug use and abuse as a subject.
Organizing seminars and debates.
Inviting medical practitioners or other experts as guest speakers.
Enhancing communication between administration and students by encouraging a free
atmosphere.
Tightening school rules and regulations to avoid loopholes.

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 Training and creating awareness among parents to equip them with skills to address drug
abuse among their children.
Close monitoring of students by teachers, parents and the community at large.
Peer counseling.
Incorporation of drug education into other subjects.
Incorporation of parents in school counseling sessions especially those with special
expertise.
Forums for parents on open days.
Parental guidance at home.
Teamwork between parents and the school.

Overall, the most preferred method by both students (34%) and teachers (28%) was guidance and
counseling.

6.3.7 Challenges Facing Schools in Addressing Drug Abuse

In their war against drug abuse, the school administrators, that is the deputy-head teachers and
teachers, cited a number of challenges. These include lack of support from parents who side with
their children, some teachers providing drugs to students, lack of role models, inadequate
knowledge on how to deal with the drug abuse and even to detect drug abusers, inflexible time
schedules for school counselors who are also teachers, location of schools near market centres
which make it easy for students to access drugs, inability to monitor students out of school
especially in day schools, lack of clear guidelines on what action to take against drug abusers and
lack of training on issues related to drug use and abuse. In addition, most teachers felt ill-
equipped to handle issues related to drug abuse.

The media was also perceived to be a stumbling block to the war against youth drug abuse. The
teachers felt that the mass media is responsible for indirectly promoting liberal and permissive
social values combined with promotion of a sensation-seeking culture, all of which is
instrumental in increasing drug abuse among the youth, especially students. This is perceived to
be in contrast to the moral values emphasized by the community and society in general. In

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addition, alcohol and cigarettes are legally advertised through the media while attached warning
labels are too small to be read by many people.

6.3.8 Conclusions from the Literature and Empirical Research

The following conclusions can be drawn from the literature findings and the findings of the
empirical research:

Drug abuse among students is common and spells danger not only to the youth who abuse
the drugs but also to the well being of the nation, because the youth represent the future of
its people.

Drug abuse is determined by the existence of risk and protective factors. The risk factors
associated with drug abuse are many and include lack of family and school role models,
peer pressure, poor school performance, conflict between the school system and family
values, easy availability of drugs, poor parenting, pressure to perform, the media, low
self-esteem, stress, legalization of some drugs, lack of clear school policies on drug use
and abuse and relaxed school rules. Protective factors that make people less likely to
abuse drugs include attachments with the family, peers and institutions, skills and
performance capabilities that help people succeed in life, and availability of resources that
help people meet their emotional and physical needs.

Regardless of the school type, students abuse drugs. However, the tendency to abuse
drugs is higher in boys‟ schools than in day mixed and girls‟ schools.

The greatest proportion of drug abusers is aged between 20 and 22 years, and the least
between 14 and 16 years. Forms 3 and 4 students are most involved in drug abuse.

Drug abuse is strongly dependent on age of respondents, easy availability of drugs and
having a family member who abuses drugs.

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Overall, commonly abused drugs are alcohol, tobacco, cannabis and khat. The reason for
using these drugs is that they are easy to access and also locally produced.

Sources of drugs are mostly the low economic areas around the schools (slums), small
shops, school workers and public transport (touts and drivers).

The drugs are usually taken in secret and “safe” places away from authority.

Students expressed knowledge of dangers of drug abuse although they still abused drugs.

Strategies used to address drug abuse are mainly guidance and counseling, summoning of
parents to school, suspension, heavy punishment and expulsion. Generally these methods
were perceived to be ineffective by the teachers, an indication that there is still need for
more effective strategies to address the problem. The least preferred method was talking
to students at assembly.

It was apparent from students‟ responses to actions taken by the school administration to
curb drug abuse that they were not decided on their effectiveness; unlike the teachers who
felt that the measures were ineffective.

On measures which should be taken to address drug abuse in schools, all those involved
in the study proposed a number of solutions (6.3.6). It is evident from these proposals that
the strategies used by schools are not adequate, and that there is need to come up with
better solutions to address drug abuse amongst students. The proposed methods also
imply that there is need for team work by all stakeholders in addressing the problem.

There are many challenges facing the school administrators and teachers in dealing with
drug abuse issues in schools (6.3.7). This is an indication that there is an urgent need to
address these challenges and find a solution to the drug abuse problem before it is too
late, so as to save our youth from self-destruction.

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6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

Based upon the literature review and the empirical investigation various recommendations for a
prevention and intervention programme are proposed to help address drug abuse among students
in Kenyan schools. The following are recommendations for effective programming to prevent
and reduce substance use and abuse among school youth.

6.4.1 The Role of the School in Addressing Drug Abuse

It is evident from the research that abuse of drugs is determined by both the existence of risk
factors (e.g. availability of drugs, stress, peer pressure media advertisements and lack of role
models) and protective factors within the individual‟s social and physical environment (e.g.
attachment with people like family members and peers, life skills, performance capabilities that
help people to succeed and availability of resources). Any education programme aimed at
addressing drug abuse among students should therefore be holistic and address both the risk and
protective factors. The aim should be to strengthen the protective factors where potential buffers
include strong family bonding, school commitment, positive role models and a strong belief in
one‟s own efficacy.

The proposed programme should use the protective and risk factors approach to help the youth
understand how to cope with the problem of drug abuse, and the factors that lead to it. While
addressing the risk factors, the school administration and teachers should start by identifying risk
factors within the school environment and cooperatively look for ways of reducing or eliminating
these factors. Risk factors may include poor academic performance, stress, lack of basic needs for
some learners, lack of leisure facilities, poor communication channels and poor relationships
between teachers and students. The aim would be to reduce risk factors and increase protective
factors. Any risk factors beyond the teachers‟ control such as poverty and lack of basic needs
should be referred to the relevant authorities such as parents, government officials and even
donors who will help the needy children. Where possible, teachers need to isolate needy cases
and give them individualized counseling.

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The research findings have clearly shown that most of the messages passed to students are aimed
at creating awareness on the dangers of drug abuse among all students. The emphasis is put on a
universal approach which targets users and non-users, some of whom may not be subjected to
individual risk factors which encourage them to abuse drugs. Apart from universal prevention
programmes, the schools can also be used to deliver selective prevention programmes targeting
youth considered to be at higher risk for substance use and abuse. Such groups include students
from lower income families and also those with poor academic records, even when they do not
show signs of involvement. In addition intervention programmes should be designed to halt abuse
among those who already abuse drugs and also amongst those who show early signs of behaviour
that could lead to abuse such as depression and defiance.

Any educational programme used within the school should aim not only at increasing knowledge
and awareness about effects of drug abuse, but should also aim at changing values, attitudes and
beliefs which are assumed to ultimately influence behaviour, as well as building social and
personal skills. The information presented should be straightforward. Presenting such information
may lead to increased perceived risk and in turn, to a decrease in use (Bauchman, Johnston and
O‟Malley, 1991:76). Conversely low perceptions of risk are found to be associated with increase
in drug abuse. The empirical research has shown that students abuse drugs even when they are
aware of the dangers. In addition, it is also clear that students are concerned with short-term
effects of drug abuse. Changing personal beliefs about risks through credible factual information
can therefore lead to demand reduction among the youth in schools.

With an information component on the consequences of drug abuse, the programme should also
seek to teach how to counter pressures leading to drug abuse, and more importantly, attempt to
motivate students to resist them. This can be done through normative education which seeks to
undermine popular beliefs that drug use is acceptable in many Kenyan societies. There should be
emphasis on anti-drug social norms and attempts to form non-use norms by involving students in
looking for alternative ways to achieve the perceived benefits of drug abuse. Discussion with
students can involve interactive sessions where methods such as brainstorming, role plays, peer
discussion and cooperative learning are used.

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A variety of causes of drug abuse were identified from both literature and current research,
ranging from curiosity to stress. In order to be credible with programme participants, schools as
programme developers should take into account the way young people view the benefits and risks
associated with drug abuse. This implies that students should be involved in coming up with
solutions. Such an approach would enable the students to see themselves, and to be seen by
others, as their own best resource for minimizing any harm associated with drug abuse. In fact,
students in this study unanimously agreed that the best solution to drug abuse is prevention not
cure. It is therefore good to seek their opinions on which preventive methods can be used to
address the practice.

The current study established that some teachers are not concerned about drug abuse in their
schools. In fact, some students felt that teachers are not good role models. Any successful drug
abuse prevention programme should therefore include all parties with a stake in the development
and welfare of the youth in this country. At the school level, once a problem has been identified,
there should be commitment from the highest level of the school organization. This is because
any programme without administrative support is likely to fail. In addition all members of staff
should be committed to the success of the programme together with the administration. Emphasis
should be on inclusion of all concerned parties in planning and implementation of all prevention
programmes.

Given that schools are a strong setting for drug abuse as indicated in this study, they should
provide appropriate programming at all levels of the education system. The current study
established that abuse of drugs cuts across Form 1 to Form 4, but that it increases with age where
the least involved were between 14 -16 years (mostly in Forms 1 and 2); and the majority
between 20 - 22 years ( Forms 3, 4 and above). This is an indication that a significant number of
students have initiated use of drugs by age 14. Consequently, this study proposes that
preventative activities addressing drug abuse should begin long before children join secondary
school, especially between 10 and 13 years when in the last years of primary school. This is
because at this age, a majority of children are generally not using or considering use of illegal
drugs. In addition ages 12 and 13, when about to go to secondary schools are important years for
drug abuse prevention. Drug abuse increases significantly after 14 years due to changes in school

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status, influence from friends and environmental factors such as increased accessibility of various
drugs and other reasons (Adlaf and Ivis 1996:57). Intervention activities after 15 years should
aim at reducing the risk of harm arising from potentially damaging drug abuse patterns for those
already using drugs, and preventing those who are not involved with drugs from going down the
same road.

Any school programme on prevention and intervention should be on-going, from Form 1 to Form
4 for students, and for the teachers. This is because most of the programmes like in-service for
guidance and counseling teachers as well as peer counselors are short-term and inconsistent.
Although short-term programmes may produce results; they may be short-lived. Within the
school setting, substance abuse prevention programmes must fit within the formal curriculum and
structure of the school, for example, not after school especially in day schools where most
students would not be available. It is also important that drug related issues should be taught
separately and not only integrated in other subjects. The current school curriculum should
therefore be reviewed to include drug use and abuse as a subject, and also to give teachers
adequate time for counseling students.

Skills development needs to be a central element in programmes addressing drug abuse. This is
because teachers and school counselors feel ill-equipped to handle drug abuse issues in schools,
and even the students lack the skills to deal with them. To ensure sustainability of the
programme, there is need to ensure availability of continued staff training, provision of
programme materials, adequate time for counseling and space for all involved. Training of staff
should be on-going to ensure that expertise lies within the school and is not confined to external
experts. On-going training would include new staff and refresher courses for old teachers, and it
would also be integrated into pre-service curricula in teacher training institutions in Kenya

Many schools revealed that they involve peer counselors in addressing drug abuse among
students. Compared to teachers, peers can be very helpful to reaching other students in an
outreach capacity. This is because they are more likely to be viewed as credible advocates for
responsible living compared to teachers who are seen as representing authority. Teachers can be
effective leaders with assistance from peer leaders. However, care should be taken when using

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peer counselors to ensure effectiveness. Peer leaders should be people trusted by the students,
who will present facts accurately and in an unbiased manner. This is possible only if they are
trained for a given period of time. Most peer leaders have only attended one or more workshops.
When choosing peer leaders, care should also be taken as rigid social groups already exist among
students and some students may be alienated “turned-off” by peers.

Since the school is part of the wider community in bringing up children, anything taught in the
school in relation to drug use and abuse must be reinforced in the community by parents and
family members. For example, the schools can combine class room instruction with parent
education forums to address drug abuse among students. In addition, schools can closely work
with parents and families by organizing awareness campaigns and school drug education days.
To encourage parents to participate in counseling students, schools should have an open door
policy which will make parents feel free to interact with the school in addressing problems
affecting their children, including drug abuse.

Regular meetings between schools and parents should be encouraged. This will make it possible
for the school administration to update parents on school efforts and activities to address drug
abuse and other discipline issues.

Given that there is a lot of emphasis on guidance and counseling within the school setting,
schools should provide a tolerant atmosphere, free of moralizing and tactics based on fear. There
should be an open and non-evaluative dialogue between school counselors and students. This will
encourage students to share their problems fully with the counselors and also school
administrators.

It is evident from the research findings that schools tend to adopt disciplinary approaches which
are silent on anything that occurs off school grounds. On the other hand, they take a hard-line
approach against drug use or abuse on school grounds and readily expel users from school if need
be. The most common consequences for violating substance use policy or rules are heavy
punishment, suspension from school, a meeting between school administration, the student and
parents or guardians; and expulsion if the case is serious. Expulsion is not a solution. The

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tendency of schools to expel students involved in drug related incidents is likely to contribute to
social isolation and increase the risk of more severe drug problems among the youth. Instead, the
school should find out why students abuse drugs and look for alternative ways of dealing with the
problem. This is because drug abusers may be driven by the need to support drug their habit
(Anderson, 1993:45).

The study found that most schools had rules which must be signed by students on admission.
However, copies available to the researcher showed that these rules do not specify the
consequences of violation of drug rules in detail. School policies should be comprehensive
enough to reflect community norms and expectations about substance use; and explicitly specify
the punishment for norm violation. They should also reinforce those who comply while
compelling those who would not otherwise observe the rules to do so. Additionally, the policies
have high chances of being effective if they are accepted as reflecting the norms of the society,
and if the penalties for violation are considered certain and serious to students (Goodsdalt,
1989:36).

6.4.2 Parental Responsibility in Addressing Drug Abuse in Schools

While parents should be encouraged to become involved in broad preventive efforts, they of
course, have a crucial role to play in preventing drug abuse among students through their role as
parents. It has been seen in the current research that most parents have limited time to spend with
their children, especially in urban areas where most of them are employed. In addition, the
research findings revealed that parents are often not good role models for their children, and are
also not supportive when teachers are disciplining students. Parental monitoring of children‟s
behaviour and strong parent-child relationships are positively correlated with decreased drug use
and abuse among students (Adlaf and Ivis, 1996:19). It is therefore the duty of parents to work
with the school in addressing drug problems affecting their children.

That fact that teachers felt parents are not supportive is a pointer that the parents do not really
work with the school in fighting drug abuse in schools. Parents can support the school by
clarifying and explaining positive values to their children, modelling healthy behaviour, taking

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time to understand their children‟s needs and self-concept, communicating effectively with their
children, developing problem solving skills, providing appropriate reinforcement and clear
consequences for unacceptable behaviour and fostering a democratic environment in the family
where children will feel free to express themselves and their problems. They also need to acquire
accurate information on the various substances of abuse and their effects, so they can discuss
them knowledgeably with their children.

The current study involved both boarding and day-mixed schools. It was established that
regardless of school type, all students are affected by the drug abuse problem. One of the
challenges reported by teachers in dealing with drug abuse was how to monitor children out of
school especially in day schools. For these students, intensive counseling which may not be
available in the school is important. Intervention measures by the schools may include organizing
family meetings and counseling sessions on issues related to interpersonal skills, and improving
communication and interpersonal behaviour. Family counseling can also help to enhance strong
family bonding and thus reduce the risk of drug abuse.

6.4.3 The Role of the Community

This study determined that one of the major reasons for drug abuse among students is easy
availability of drugs from the community around the school especially low economic areas slums.
Lack of community support for the war against drug abuse is likely to curtail government support
initiatives in preventing drug abuse among the youth in and out of school. Given that the fight
against drug abuse is a serious and complex community problem which requires community
responses, the government can no longer be the sole agency responsible for solving the problem.
It is the role of community members, starting with the family to instill moral values among the
youth to help them become useful members of society. This is based on the fact that, in
traditional African society, upbringing of children is a communal role and not only that of the
immediate family. By equipping young people with the right values, it will make it easy for them
to resist the temptation to engage in drug abuse. To help the youth acquire social moral values,
the community and the schools should work together for example, by inviting respected
community leaders as guest speakers to talk to students in the school.

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Community prevention and intervention measures also require sharing resources and developing
partnerships with Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), and Community-Based
Organizations (CBOs). Through such groups, it is essential that all levels of society, including
students, be educated on the dangers of drug abuse and the preventive role that each can play in
addressing the problem. Community members need empowerment to help them intervene against
the debilitating influence of drug addiction among its members including the youth. Hence the
support and involvement of NGOs and CBOs in drug abuse prevention is indisputable. These
organizations can help in identifying groups at risk especially in low economic areas and also
help families of students and other drug dependents. Keeping in mind that schools tend to expel
students who abuse drugs on school property, NGOs and CBOs can also educate teachers on
alternative ways of dealing with drug abusers so as to make young people useful members of
society.

NGOs and CBOs provide avenues for the participation of concerned citizens in achieving certain
set objectives. In the area of drug abuse prevention and intervention, these organizations should
compliment Government efforts in enhancing community awareness on the pernicious effects of
drugs and related prevention activities. Some of the activities would include assisting in the
aftercare and reintegration of rehabilitated drug dependents, especially the youth, into mainstream
of society.

NGOs and CBOs, in partnership with the community and Government, can initiate a variety of
community-based drug abuse prevention programmes. The main objectives should be to equip
youth and community members with the knowledge, decision-making skills and values that will
persuade them to stay away from drugs. The programmes can include clubs for youth in schools;
seminars and workshops especially during school holidays; writing and distribution of reading
materials for students; giving talks to students during national drama and music festivals, and
working with peer educators to equip them with skills to interact effectively with other students.
In addition, the organizations can mobilize community members and increase public awareness
of current trends in drug abuse related issues.

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At the national level, the church and religious leaders as well as NGOs can organize workshops
for teachers and curriculum designers. They can also carry out research on drug preventive
education and trends and share the results with relevant parties such as government leaders, law
enforcers and educationists. The organizations can also fund construction and equipping of
training centres for teachers, students and community members on drug related issues. Such
centres can be used for Training of Trainers (TOT) in interpersonal skills and peer-support
counseling in drug education. They can also be used to promote drug abuse control activities
among the youth, TO train parents on how to control drug abuse among their children and the
youth in and out of school; and to offer seminars for school counselors.

6.4.4 Role of the Government

Schools appear to have inherited the drug abuse problem, but in reality, they cannot solve it
alone. This is because schools cannot assume the role of parents, the police, medical experts or
the church to mention a few. The findings of the research have revealed that most teachers and
school counselors feel ill-equipped to address drug abuse issues in schools due to lack of training.
In addition, the few teachers involved in counseling students complained of a heavy work load,
an indication that they cannot do the work effectively. In the light of these problems, MOE
should mount intensive training for all those directly involved in counseling students to give them
confidence in service delivery. Apart from training, all stakeholders should co-operate with the
teachers in addressing the issue of drug abuse in schools.

The study findings revealed that drug abuse is common among the youth in schools, and that
there is no legal policy on how to handle students who abuse drugs on school property. Lack of a
policy makes it difficult for school administrators and teachers to address the problem effectively.
In this regard, a uniform policy for all schools is not only necessary but also urgent to guard
against disparities in addressing drug abuse in schools, and to arrest increasing cases of drug
abuse among students. It is therefore recommended that a comprehensive and uniform policy for
handling students who abuse drugs be put in place by the MOE as a measure to guard against
drug abuse among students. This policy would be an important component of a comprehensive
drug preventive strategy for youth in schools.

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Parents play an important role in bringing up and supporting children. The Government, through
the MOE should therefore come up with programmes targeting parents. Some of these
programmes can be organized by the schools. Since some parents may lack exposure on issues
related to drug abuse, the MOE and Ministry of Youth and Sports should take the lead in
organizing parenting programmes, and making information available on how to address drug
abuse among their children. Parenting programmes should involve making information widely
available through the media, information networks, NACADA, at the work place and school
meetings. These programmes should be continuous for a number of years.

The parent-based programmes should focus on the role of parents and parenting in preventing
drug use and abuse. In addition, the programmes should focus on strengthening parent-child
communication about these issues enforcing prevention in the home, having parents as role
models and strengthening general parenting skills which can also serve to prevent or reduce
youthful use and abuse of drugs.

Components of parent-based programmes should include parent training designed to improve

parenting skills; student skill training designed to decrease problematic and increase socially
acceptable behaviour; family interaction and management competencies such as problem and
conflict solving skills. Such a combination can reduce the child‟s problematic behaviour from the
early years, as well as the intention to abuse drugs. It could also improve parenting skills, reduce
family conflicts and improve communication all of which are protective factors in addressing
drug abuse among the youth in schools (Demarsh and Kumpfer, 1986:117).

Government interventions should target both low and high-risk families. As many parents as
possible should be included in these programmes and not only those involved in school
management affairs such as those in the Board of Governors (BOG) or Parent-Teacher
Associations (PTA).

This research established that drug abuse is highly dependent on availability of drugs. This is an
indication that the laws governing peddling of drugs to schools and sale of drugs to the youth are

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not effective. If well administered, legislative and regulatory approaches can be effective on
preventing and reducing youthful substance abuse, as well as in reducing the harm caused. One
way of doing this is to increase taxes on legal drugs (alcohol and tobacco), and enforce sales-to-
minors laws. Adolescents tend to be particularly price-sensitive because they depend on money
from parents and guardians. For this reason, increasing the price of legal drugs by tax hikes can
reduce consumption, and delay or perhaps prevent the initiation of the youth into drugs and its
attendant harms.

In Kenya, merchant sales of tobacco and alcohol to minors, is a significant public health concern.
According to this study, some of the main sources for cigarettes among students are the nearest
shopping centres or “kiosks”. No attempts are made to ask for age identification for under age
youth attempting to purchase cigarettes. Generally, enforcing laws restricting sales to minors and
/or providing awareness is likely to reduce the number of over-the counter sales, thus leading to
reduced tobacco use among students. Anybody found selling drugs to minors should lose their
licenses for legal drugs and legal action should also be taken against them. In addition, the
government should ask manufacturers to enforce minimum purchase age laws while discouraging
sale to under age children even if they are required to do so by parents or relatives.

Risk factors leading to drug abuse may also be linked to other problem behaviours. For example,
in some communities, poverty, particularly if associated with dysfunctional lifestyle, has been
shown to be a risk factor for substance abuse (Brounstein and Zweig, 1999:59; Eggest and
Herting, 1993:87). In fact, the current study found that low economic areas are the main sources
of drugs abused by students. It is therefore the role of the Government to improve the lives of
people and communities who are directly linked with the youth in schools thereby reducing risk
factors.

The issue of drug abuse among the youth and its effects should remain on the agendas of the
public and key decision-makers in the country, especially Members of Parliament (MPs), so as to
maintain long-term commitment of community partners. This could include advocacy, creating
awareness, and meet-the-people campaigns. Such forums can be used to educate the public with
accurate data on drug abuse trends and issues. If the situation is portrayed as what it is, a crisis,

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the public response may be strong (Damon, 1983: 65). These campaigns should be accompanied
by messages emphasizing that substance problems are not a one-time crisis, but rather an integral
part of society.
.
6.4.5 Role of the Church

Although the Government, NGOs and the community can go along way in addressing the drug
abuse crisis amongst school youth they cannot succeed without the church playing its role. The
church is the care-giving, helping institution that has access to the greatest number of families
including the youth each weekend and on other days of worship. In addition, the public ranks the
clergy highest in terms of honesty and observation of ethical standards. This puts the church in
the forefront of addressing the problems of drug abuse among the youth in and out of school. The
society therefore expects church ministers to lead the way in addressing the problem.

In an effort to address drug abuse among the youth, the church should embrace the youth
including those who have been drug abusers and respond to their problems in a positive, helpful
and loving way. Although some church ministers may not be trained to deal with the care and
counseling of drug abusers, they can be most effective in assessing the extent of the drug
dependency problem among the youth and then acting as referral agents. Judgmental attitudes
should be avoided at all times when dealing with drug abusers.

Any progress in addressing drug abuse among students and the youth in general lies in changing
their value system. Most students come from very poor homes in low economic areas where
parents do little to discourage their children from abusing drugs. In fact, drugs are seen as a
source of income and at times some children are required to market them to assist their parents.
Many of these children have never received biblical teaching at home or even been instructed in
humanity‟s dependence on God. The church therefore needs to introduce children to a value
system through religious principles. Such a move would help the young people cope with the
challenges which lead to drug abuse while giving them some hope in life.

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In order to deal with the problem effectively, church ministers should be equipped with skills in
counseling, handling drug-related violence and trauma. They should also be trained on how to
come up with prevention programmes aimed at helping young people including students. Some
of these activities could include distribution of free Bibles to schools and homes. Church
ministers can set up and promote drug health education programmes with the aim of creating an
environment of hope among desperate and vulnerable groups especially the youth. The church
can also organize youth camps especially during school holidays using church facilitators. The
aim of the programmes should be to stimulate participants to develop stronger life skills
including decision-making, problem solving, goal setting, communication, leadership and
character development. Emphasis should be on spiritual awakening and an understanding of
responsible risk taking, to promote opportunities for deeper understanding of self and God
through self-reflection.

When the church looks at substance abuse among the youth and starts to address it, it has a
bearing on many other challenges. Kenya is faced by breakdown of culture, unplanned
urbanization, an increasing use of the country as a transit point in international drug trafficking
and the power of drug barons all of which compound the problem of drug dependency among the
youth (Chapters 1, 2 and 3). The church therefore has no alternative but to embrace its ministry to
persons and communities burdened by the ill-effects of drug abuse.

Churches can work with the youth in schools by providing them with facts about the harmful
effects of drugs through distribution of drug education booklets and other educational materials.
In addition, church ministers should include the youth in deciding on priorities and other
functions of the congregation. This would make young people identify with the church without
feeling that they have been left out in decision making especially in matters which affect their
lives.

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6.4.6 Role of Sport in Addressing Drug Abuse

As noted, stress can be a contributing factor to students‟ abuse of drugs (Chapter 5). It is also
evident from the current study that the school curriculum is overcrowded leaving students with
inadequate time for leisure activities.

The power of sport is far more than symbolic. In 2002, at the Olympic Aid Roundtable Forum in
Salt Lake City, Koffi Annan, then Secretary General of the UN, stated that “Sport can play a role
in improving the lives of individuals, not only individuals, but the whole communities.”
(http://www.google.co.ke/books?).He called on governments, development agencies and
communities to think of how sport can be included more systematically in plans to help children,
particularly those living in the midst of poverty, disease and conflict.

A variety of sports is available for Kenyan youth, both at school and community levels; for
example, informally and formally organized individual and team sports. These different types of
sports can have a positive effect on individuals and societies in many different ways.

In the current study, some of the issues that have been cited by students as reasons for abusing
drugs include poor academic performance, stress, a sense of adventure and curiosity and the
desire to be appreciated by friends. All these issues can be addressed through participation in
sports. Research (Brettschneider, 1999 in UNODCP, 2002:8) has shown that sport for young
people can lead to:

Improved self-esteem
Being better able to handle stress
Increased academic performance and
Better relationships with family members

In the area of prevention and intervention, of drug abuse, these are known to be “protective
factors” or personal assets that can help young people to avoid a range of problems, including
drug abuse (Chapter 2).

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Involvement in sports has many other benefits. For example, sports can relieve boredom by
giving structure to free time, promote socialization by introducing rules to be followed, help one
to set goals and cooperate with others to achieve these goals, make friends and strengthen
relationships with others, and enable a person to realize and express his or her talents.

All those concerned with the welfare of the youth, especially students, for example schools, the
community, the media, the church and the Government should advocate and present sport as an
option to prevent substance abuse and related problems. Emphasis should be on developing
strengths and skills among the youth who have decided not to use or abuse drugs. During sports,
key stakeholders such as educationists, the media, the church, team leaders, community leaders
and government officials can take the opportunity to provide the youth in and out of school with
structured opportunities to acquire factual information about drugs. They can also facilitate
development of life skills such as communication, decision-making, assertiveness, anger and
stress management all of which can enhance the tendency of a sports programme to prevent
substance abuse.

In relation to sport, drug education in schools should focus on the immediate performance related
effects of drug abuse. Facilitators for these programmes such as coaches and team leaders should
be people who are good role models and able to establish credible relationships with the players.
For maximum success, it is important to give drug issues some attention throughout the playing
session. This is because one-shot efforts may not work. In addition to structured sessions,
coaches and others involved with teams should look for opportunities to bring the topic into
regular conversations with players without preaching. Any information introduced in the course
of learning experiences during sport should be relevant to the students‟ lives and experiences, and
based on a two-way communication that respects their feelings and attitudes.

6.4.7 Role of the Mass Media

For several decades, mass media campaigns have been utilized in attempts to address youth
substance abuse. However, the current study found that teachers view the media as a stumbling

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block in the war against drug abuse among the youth. Certainly, media campaigns have the
potential to be effective communication and educational tools, given the finding that youth obtain
most drug information from television and print media (Mirzaee, Kingery, et al., 1991:89).
Reasons for lack of success may be associated with factors such as failure to reach the audience,
directing messages to unidentifiable audience segments, too much reliance on messages that
arouse fear and likely avoidance of the messages by drug users or those at risk. Fear arousing
messages, accompanied by incorrect or exaggerated information, such as “drug abuse kills”, are
likely to be ineffective and thus generate resistance towards any advice on drug abuse or other
risk behavior.

Mass media campaigns are a critical component of the nation‟s long-term effort to combat drug
abuse among the youth in schools. It is therefore important that such campaigns should be
directed to a variety of target audiences, including adults and youth. At school level, prevention
campaigns should be directed to those who are about to join secondary schools (from class 6 to
8), and just below 14 years, and continue immediately after they enroll at secondary schools. This
is because, as found out in this study, this is the age when the youth begin to make decisions
about their own experimentation with and use of drugs, especially alcohol and tobacco which are
legally available for adults. School-based programmes in partnership with the media should take
this opportunity to reinforce students‟ intentions not to use drugs and to teach specific skills for
coping with social pressures to do so. For this age, emphasis should be on “gateway” substances
whose use comes earlier in the typical sequence of substance use: specifically tobacco, alcohol
and only later hard drugs (Yamaguchi & Kendel, 1984:678).

In school-based programmes, the mass media can be used for agenda-setting to stimulate
discussions on drug related issues among students. The messages should present information in
an honest and factual manner, emphasizing short-term negative consequences such as poor
performance, rejection by friends and poor health, rather than long-term effects. Emphasis on
short-term consequences is based on the fact that youth audiences are likely to be more open to
prevention messages about immediate problems in their lives, than to messages about how to
prevent problems which may or may not occur when they are elderly (USDHHS,
1994).Whenever possible, positive effects of use should be acknowledged, with provision of

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alternative ways to achieve those benefits. The messages should also equip the youth with skills
in decision-making, assertiveness and communication to give them confidence in dealing with
risk factors.

At the community level, mass media campaign organizers should link up with local advocacy
groups and community-based programmes, with a common strategy of preventing or reducing
drug abuse among the youth. Emphasis should be on clearing away misconceptions among the
youth, including students, about the dangers of particular drugs, and providing more accurate
factual information about drugs in general. To meet the needs of high-risk youth in and out of
school, mass media campaigns should increase public awareness of the broader social context in
which chronic substance abuse occurs and promote debate on the cost, availability and promotion
of drugs such as alcohol and tobacco. The campaigns should also create awareness on policy
changes that might discourage drug abuse among adolescents; and on the development and
funding of school and community-based programmes that provide direct interventions.

6.4.8 Limitations of the Study

The small size of the sample in this study is the most obvious limitation. The research was
limited to a few schools in Machakos district. The results thus cannot be generalized to all
schools in the country. This is because different schools may have different ways of addressing
drug abuse among students. Risk factors in the communities of other schools may also the way in
which such schools will handle the problem of drug abuse

6.4.9 Recommendations for Further Research

Drawing from the findings of the study, and building on existing research, it is suggested that
more studies be carried out to address the following:

More investigations are needed on the methods used to address drug abuse in schools in
various parts of Kenya. This is because the methods used to address the problem may
differ according to different circumstances.

123
Apart from the commonly abused drugs noted in this study, others such as cocaine,
heroin and hashish to mention a few should be investigated to determine the extent and
frequency of their use among students.

Future research should replicate this study, but emphasize qualitative data gathering
techniques such as interviews and observations, given that the current study mainly used
questionnaires. Using such an approach would help come up with a more comprehensive
programme for prevention of and intervention in drug abuse.

More studies are needed with respect to background, socio-economic and environmental
factors with regard to drug abuse among students. This is because the current study did
not determine the association of most of these factors and drug abuse.

Given that in this study guidance and counseling is emphasized as a method of addressing
drug abuse in schools its effectiveness in addressing the problem should be investigated.
Such studies would contribute towards strengthening guidance and counseling in schools.

Although the study has recommended a uniform policy for schools to address drug abuse
information is needed on what components should constitute a school policy to make it
effective. In addition research is needed to ascertain the relationship between school
policy and drug abuse among students.

There is a substantial need for well-evaluated trials of the proposed approaches in this
study to address drug abuse among students. There is also need for accompanying
campaigns to create public awareness of the rationale for the drug abuse prevention and
intervention initiatives proposed by the current study. This would make it easy to plan
and implement them.

124
6.5 FINAL CONCLUSION

The current study has shown that drug abuse is a threat to the general public as well as to the
youth in Kenyan schools. It is therefore evident that drug abuse amongst students and society in
general must be fought in all ways so as to bring down substance abuse and related problems at
all levels in the society.

In Kenya, drug abuse has threatened the lives of the youth of 29 years and below. Among young
people aged between 18 and 29 years, the rate is estimated to be between 44.8% and 52% among
students including those in the universities (Gatonye, Daily Nation May 22, 2009). This shows
that drug abuse is a reality among the youth especially in Kenya. The implication is that with this
threat hanging over it the future of the society is uncertain and therefore something must be done
urgently to address the problem. Change can only be attained if all the parties concerned have
seen its need and have made an informed decision to effect it. Eradication of drug abuse is
therefore the collective responsibility of all the stakeholders.

125
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134
 APPENDIX 1

COVER LETTER TO BE DISTRIBUTED WITH RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

Dear Participant,

You have been selected to participate in this study. The main purpose of the study is to establish
the current trend of drug abuse and strategies used to address the problem amongst students in
secondary schools in Kenya. The researcher will use the results to develop a programme for
intervention and prevention of the vice among the youth in Kenya. The findings of the study will
be used to help all the parties concerned to address the issue of drug abuse among the youth in
schools so as to make them more productive as well as the country as a whole.

To accomplish this objective, you are kindly requested to complete the questionnaire provided so
as to provide the necessary data. If you are interested in the results and recommendations of this
study, please advice the researcher to avail them as soon as the study is completed.

Your contribution is highly appreciated.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR CO-OPERATION

135
 APPENDIX 11

QUESTIONNAIRE FOR CLASS TEACHERS AND SCHOOL COUNSELORS ON DRUG

ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN KENYA

Questionnaire number
The purpose for this questionnaire is to gain insight on substance abuse among students.
Information gathered through this questionnaire will be made available to legitimate and
interested stakeholders in order to establish partners for the development of problem solving
strategies in relation to drug abuse. This questionnaire is not a test but merely an information
exercise. Please answer the questions as honestly as possible. Remember that there is no right or
wrong answers.
In order to help address the drug problem in schools, your contribution in this research is
important. Therefore, you are kindly requested to provide the researcher with accurate
information. Your responses will be processed by computer and will be treated as confidential.
Please do not write your name on this paper. Also do not write the name of the institution.

Provide the following information by ticking/ writing the applicable number in the blocks
provided.

SECTION A: BACKGROUND DATA

1 Indicate whether you are one of the following:

Class teacher [1]

Counselor [2]

Both class teacher and counselor [3]

136
2 Indicate whether you are one of the following:

20 – 25 years [1]

26 – 30 years [2]

31 – 35 years [3]

36 – 40 years [4]

40 and above [5]

3 Gender

Male [1]

Female [2]

4 Type of school. Tick appropriate.

Day Boys [1]

Day Girls [2]

Day Mixed [3]

Boarding Boys [4]

Boarding Girls [5]

Boarding Mixed [6]

5 The school is :

Private [1]

Public [2]

137
6 Professional Qualifications

P1 [1]

S1 [2]

Diploma [3]

Graduate ((e.g. Bed, B) [4]

7 Academic Qualifications : Tick one only

Form 4 [1]

Form 6 [2]

Graduate [3]

Other [4]
Specify ……………………………………………………….

8 For how many years have you taught since you qualified as a
teacher? Tick appropriately.

0 – 5 years [1]

6 – 10 years [2]

11 – 15 years [3]

16 – 20 years [4]

Over 20 years [5]

138
SECTION B : NATURE AND EXTENT OF DRUG ABUSE

9 Do you ever teach anything about drug use as you teach your
subjects?

Yes [1]

No [2]

10 If you are a school counselor, how many hours do you spend on

counseling students per week?

One hour [1]

Two hours [2]

Three hours [3]

More than three hours [4]

11 Besides counseling, what other duties do you have? Tick

appropriately.

None [1]

Teaching [2]

Administrative responsibility [3]

139
12 Have you had any experience in dealing with drug problems in your
School?

Yes [1]

No [2]

13 If your school is co-educational (mixed), what is the general

distribution of known drug abusers in terms of gender? Tick one only

Boys are the main abusers [1]

Both boys and girls equally abuse drugs [2]

Girls are the main abusers [3]

14 Which Forms are mostly involved in drug abuse? You can tick more
than one.

Form 1 [1]

Form II [2]

Form III [3]

Form IV [4]

15 Where does the majority of the known drug-abusers come from?

Rural areas [1]

Urban areas [2]

140
16 Is there a drug problem in your school?

Yes [1]

No [2]

17 If there is a drug problem in your school, is it increasing?

No [1]

Yes [2]

18 If increasing, what are the reasons for your answer? Tick one only.

Most drugs are available [1]

School rules do not prohibit drug abuse [2]

School administration is relaxed [3]

Students are more stressed due to a wide curriculum [4]

19 What is your overall assessment of drug abuse in our secondary

schools? Tick one only.

Nearly 100% of students take drugs [1]

About 80% of students take drugs [2]

About 60% of students take drugs [3]

About 40% of students take drugs [4]

About 20% of students take drugs [5]

Less than 20% of students take drugs [6]

141
SECTION C: CAUSES OF DRUG ABUSE

20 In your own opinion, which are the main sources of abused drugs?
You can tick more than one.

a. Matatu touts [1]

b. Shoe cobbles [2]

c. Shops [3]

d. Slum areas [4]

e. Cinema halls [5]

f. Hospitals [6]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

21. Rank the following sources of drugs abused from the most common to the least common
source. Indicate the appropriate number in the box.

Sources Most Common Moderately Fairly Not

common source common common common
source source source source
a) Matatu touts 1 2 3 4 5
b) Shoe cobblers 1 2 3 4 5
c) Shops 1 2 3 4 5
d) Slum areas 1 2 3 4 5
e) Cinema halls 1 2 3 4 5
f) Hospitals 1 2 3 4 5

142
22 In your own opinion, why do students in your school take drugs?
You can tick more than one.

a. Lack of role models at home [1]

b. Conflict with parents [2]

c. Peer pressure [3]

d. A lot of work in school (stress) [4]

e. To enhance intellectual ability [5]

f. Break down of family units [6]

g. Excess pocket money [7]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

SECTION D: COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS

23 What drugs do most students take? You can tick more than one.

a. Alcohol [1]

b. Tobacco [2]

c. Khat (miraa) [3]

d. Cannabis sativa (bhang) [4]

e. Glue [5]

f. Sleeping pills [6]

g. Petrol [7]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

143
SECTION E: CONSEQUENCES OF DRUG ABUSE

24 Has your school ever experienced any problem due to drug abuse?

No [1]

Yes [2]

25 If yes, what kind of problems has the school experienced? You can
tick more than one.

a. Fighting amongst students [1]

b. Sneaking [2]

c. Stealing [3]

d. Strikes [4]

e. Conflicts between teachers and students [5]

f. Disagreements among students [6]

g. Destruction of school property [7]

h. Poor performance in examinations [8]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

26 How does drug abuse affect the students who engage in the vice! You
can tick more than one.

a. They do not concentrate in class [1]

b. The steal from others [2]

c. They are always punished [3]

144
 d. They break school rules [4]

e. They are not co-operative [5]

f. They are usually absent [6]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

27 In your own opinion, what problems would be experienced in schools

due to drug abuse among students? You can tick more than one.

a. There are many strikes [1]

b. Poor performance by students [2]

c. Most students are indiscipline [3]

d. High rate of absenteeism [4]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

28 What problems do the school authorities encounter in dealing with

drug abuse in schools? You can tick more than one.

a. Parents do not support the administration [1]

b. Some teachers provide drugs to students [2]

c. Some teachers take drugs [3]

d. The teachers do not discourage drug taking [4]

e. Lack of adequate knowledge on drug use [5]

f. Time schedules are not flexible [6]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

145
 SECTION F: METHODS USED TO ADDRESS DRUG ABUSE

29. How frequently are the measures listed below taken to fight drug related problems in your
institution? Use the ranking key below.

Ranking key:

a. VO – very often
b. O - Often
c. NO - Not often
d. NA - Not at all
Indicate the appropriate number in the box.

VO O NO NA
Measures
Expulsion 1 2 3 4
Suspension 1 2 3 4
Guidance & counseling 1 2 3 4
Ask parents to come to school 1 2 3 4
Heavy punishment 1 2 3 4

30 Do you think the measures mentioned above are effective in dealing

with drug abuse?

Yes [1]

No [2]

146
31 Does your institution offer any form of drug education or related
programmes to students?

Yes [1]

No [2]

32 In your own opinion, are these programmes effective?

Yes [1]

No [2]

33 Which of the following people are involved in drug education in your

institution? You can tick more than one.

a. Class teachers [1]

b. Teacher of all subjects [2]

c. School counselors [3]

d. Parents – Teacher Association (P.T.A.) members [4]

e. School administration [5]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

34 What is your overall assessment of the methods used to curb the drug
problem in our secondary schools? Tick only one.

They are very effective [1]

They are effective [2]

They are moderately effective [3]

147
 They are not effective [4]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

35 Suggest ways of eradicating drug abuse in our schools. You can tick
more than one.

a. Guidance and counseling department [1]

b. Peer counseling [2]

c. Inco-operate drug education to other subjects [3]

d. Strict school regulations [4]

e. Invite guest speakers on danger of drug abuse [5]

Other: Specify …………………………………………….

36 Should drug education be part of the school curriculum or a separate

programme? Tick one only

Part of school curriculum [1]

Separate programme [2]

THANK YOU FOR YOUR CO – OPERATION

148
 APPENDIX 111
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR STUDENTS ON DRUG ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY
SCHOOL STUDENTS IN KENYA

Questionnaire number

The purpose for this questionnaire is to gain insight on substance abuse among students.
Information gathered through this questionnaire will be made available to legitimate and
interested stakeholders in order to establish partners for the development of problem solving
strategies in relation to drug abuse. Please note that this is not a test but just information
collecting exercise. In order to help address the drug problem in schools, your contribution in this
research is important. Therefore, you are kindly requested to provide the researcher with accurate
information. Remember there is no right or wrong answers. Your responses will be treated as
confidential. Please do not write your name or the name of your institution on this paper.

Provide the following information by ticking /writing the applicable number in the blocks
provided.

SECTION A: BACKGROUND DATA

1 Gender

Male [1]

Female [2]

2 Age in years

149
3 Form (Class)

Form (III) [1]

Form (IV) [2]

4 How long have you been in this school?

5 Type of school.

Day Boys [1]

Day Girls [2]

Day Mixed [3]

Boarding Boys [4]

Boarding Girls [5]

Boarding Mixed [6]

6 Where do you live with your parents/guardian?

Rural [1]

Urban [2]

7 Your school is

Public [1]

Private [2]

150
8 Religion

Christian [1]

Muslim [2]

Hindu [3]

Other [4]

Specify: …………………………………………………………………

9 Who pays your school fees? Tick one only.

Parents [1]

Sponsor [2]

Brother [3]

Sister [4]

Guardian [5]

Other: [6]

Specify: …………………………………………………………………

151
SECTION B: EXTENT OF DRUG ABUSE

10 Have you ever used drugs other than for medicinal purposes?

Yes [1]

No [2]

11 If yes, and not currently using, for how long did you use them.

1 – 2 years [1]

2 – 3 years [2]

3 – 4 years [3]

More than 4 years [4]

12 If yes and currently using, for how long have you used the drugs?

a. Less than a year [1]

b. More than a year [2]

c. More than two years [3]

13 Do you know of friends who take drugs in your school?

Yes [1]

No [2]

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14 How many of your friends take drugs? Tick only one.

All [1]

5–6 [2]

3–4 [3]

1-2 [4]

None [5]

15 Is drug abuse common in your school?

Yes [1]

No [2]

16 Which classes abuse drugs most? Tick only one

Form I [1]

Form II [2]

Form III [3]

Form IV [4]

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SECTION C: CAUSES OF DRUG ABUSE AMONG STUDENTS

17 Why do students use drugs? Indicate the right number in the box.
You can tick more than one.

a. To increase intelligence [1]

b. Out of curiosity [2]

c. A lot of pocket money [3]

d. Availability of drugs [4]

e. Teachers/parents take drugs [5]

f. To be accepted by friends. [6]

g. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

18 Is any member of your family a drug user?

Yes [1]

No [2]

19 How do you relate with your parents/guardians? Tick one only.

They like me very much [1]

They fairly like me [2]

The do not like me [3]

20 How do you relate with your parents/guardians? Tick one only.

They like me very much [1]

They fairly like me [2]

They would discuss with the school administration [3]

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 They would take me for counseling [4]

Other [5]

Specify: ……………………………………………

21 What do people in your school think about drugs? You can tick more
than one.

a. They increase intelligence [1]

b. They make one feel grown-up [2]

c. They affect performance in examinations negatively [3]

d. They lead to conflicts in schools [4]

e. They reduce stress [5]

22 As far as you are concerned, why do students abuse drugs? You can
tick more than one.

a. Drugs are cheap [1]

b. The school administration does not mind [2]

c. They are easy to get [3]

d. Students do not know the dangers [4]

e. They help one to perform better [5]

f. They help one get along with friends [6]

g. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

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23 Do most students like to use the same drugs as their friends?

Yes [1]

No [2]

24 Do friends encourage others in the school to take drugs?

Yes [1]

No [2]

25 Where do people prefer taking drugs (place)? You can tick more than
one.

a. In the field [1]

b. In the classroom [2]

c. In the toilet [3]

d. In the thickets [4]

e. Away from school [5]

f. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

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SECTION D: COMMONLY ABUSED DRUGS

26. Identify the most commonly abused drugs by students by indicating the relevant number
in the box.

Ranking key:

a. VO – very often
b. O - Often
c. NO - Not often
d. NA - Not at all
Indicate the appropriate number in the box.

VO O NO NA
Measures
a. Alcohol 1 2 3 4
b. Tobacco/cigarettes 1 2 3 4
c. Khat (miraa) 1 2 3 4
d. Cannabis sativa (bhang) 1 2 3 4
e. Glue 1 2 3 4
f. Sleeping pills 1 2 3 4

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27 Where do these drugs come from? You can tick more than one.

a. Matatu drivers [1]

b. Matatu touts [2]

c. Watchmen [3]

d. Cooks [4]

e. Kiosks/shops [5]

f. Shoe cobblers [6]

g. Slum areas [7]

h. Hospitals [8]

i. Family members [9]

g. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

28 Do friends encourage others in the school to take drugs?

a. Alcohol [1]

b. Tobacco/cigarettes [2]

c. Khat (Miraa) [3]

d. Bhang [4]

e. Heroine [5]

f. Cocaine [6]

g. Sleeping pills [7]

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29 Are these drugs easy to get in school?

Yes [1]

No [2]

THANK YOU FOR YOUR CO – OPERATION

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SECTION E: CONSEQUENCES OF DRUG ABUSE

30 Which effects does drug abuse have on the users? You can tick more
than one.

a. Lack of sleep [1]

b. Lack of appetite [2]

c. Lack of concentration in class [3]

d. Physical weakness [4]

e. Rejection by friends [5]

f. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

31 How does drug abuse affect one‟s studies? You can tick more than
one.

a. Not doing assignments [1]

b. Missing classes [2]

c. Lack of concentration [3]

d. Conflict with teachers [4]

e. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

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32 How does drug abuse affect one‟s studies? You can tick more than
one.

a. Conflicts with friends [1]

b. Poor academic performance [2]

c. Financial problems [3]

d. Conflict with teachers [4]

e. Conflict with parents [5]

f. Health problems [6]

g. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

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SECTION F: METHODS USED TO ADDRESS DRUG ABUSE

33 How are your friends or other students who use drugs in your school
treated? You can tick more than one.

a. They are punished heavily [1]

b. They are expelled from school [2]

c. They go for their parents [3]

d. They are never found out [4]

e. They are counseled [5]

f. Nothing is done to them [6]

g. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

34 Can a student with a drug problem be helped?

Yes [1]

No [2]

35 If yes, who can help? You can tick more than one.

a. Head teacher [1]

b. Deputy Head teacher [2]

c. Class teacher [3]

d. School counselor [4]

e. Friends [5]

f. Other: Specify ………………………………………….

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36 If you have used drugs, have you ever tried to stop the drug use
habit?

Yes [1]

No [2]

37 If you have already stopped using drugs, why did you do so? Tick
only one.

Friends encouraged me [1]

Personal decision [2]

Teachers advised me [3]

Parents advised me [4]

Counseling [5]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

38 If your friends use drugs, do the school authorities know that they use
drugs

Yes [1]

No [2]

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39 If yes, how did they know? Tick only one.

Other students reported them [1]

School administration investigated [2]

Teachers found them [3]

Other [4]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

40 Do you think action taken against drug abusers is adequate?

Yes [1]

No [2]

41 If NO, why do you think so? Tick only one.

Students are still taking drugs [1]

There are other methods which can be used [2]

Drug abuse has increased [3]

Students think the methods are not effective [4]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

42 Have you or your friends in school ever been exposed to any drug
preventative methods/education (e.g. Counseling, seminars, etc.)?

Yes [1]

No [2]

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43 If yes, which methods have been used to prevent drug abuse in your
school? You can tick more than one.

a. Drug prevention talks by invited guests [1]

b. Counseling [2]

c. Posters [3]

d. Prevention programmes by the school [4]

e. Information by teachers during teaching [5]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

44 In your own opinion, which drug prevention methods are most

effective? You can tick more than one.

a. Debate amongst students [1]

b. Talking to student on assembly [2]

c. Teaching about drug abuse is class [3]

d. Counseling [4]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

45 Have you or your friends in school ever been exposed to any drug
preventative methods/education (e.g. Counseling, seminars, etc.)?

Yes [1]

No [2]

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46 If yes, how can the school do it? You can tick more than one..

a. Through guidance and counseling [1]

b. Teaching drug use and abuse as a subject [2]

c. Conducting seminars and debates [3]

d. Inviting medical practitioners/experts [4]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

47 In your own opinion, who should be approached by students when

they want to help friends who have drug related problems? Tick one
only.

Head teacher [1]

Class teacher [2]

School counselor [3]

School chaplain [4]

Other: Specify ………………………………………….

THANK YOU FOR YOUR CO-OPERATION

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 APPENDIX 1V
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR DEPUTY- HEAD TEACHERS ON, DRUG ABUSE AMONG
SECONDARY SCHOOL STUDENTS IN KENYA.

The purpose for this interview is to gain insight on substance abuse among students in order to
develop a programme for intervention. The researcher is a student at the University of South
Africa (UNISA), pursuing her Doctoral degree in Education. Information gathered through this
interview will be made available to legitimate and interested stakeholders in order to establish
partners for the development of problem solving strategies in relation to drug abuse.

In order to help address the drug problem in secondary schools, your contribution in this research
is important. Therefore, you are kindly requested to provide the researcher with accurate
information. Your responses will be treated as confidential.

1. Gender?

2. Age in years?

3. Type of school?

4. Professional qualifications?

5. For how long have you served in the school?

6. Comment on the general situation of drug abuse in your institution.

7. How does drug abuse in your school affect:

a) The individual student?
b) The school in general?
c) Society?

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8. What problems have you experienced as a result of drug abuse in your
institution?

9. Why do you think students abuse drugs?

10. Which are the commonly abused drugs?

11. Where do the drugs come from?

12. Comment on the known drug abusers in the school – which classes, place of
origin, conduct, home background, etc

13. What corrective measures has the school employed to curb the problem?

14. Have you introduced any drug education programmes in your school?
If yes, what are their main objectives?
How are they organized?
Whom do they target in the school population?

15. What challenges have you faced when dealing with drug abuse problem?

16. What measures do you take against drug abusers in your school?

17. What do you think the Ministry of Education (M.O.E.) should do to minimize
drug abuse in schools?

18. What recommendations would you like to make in relation to the drug
Problems in secondary schools?

THANK YOU FOR YOUR CO-OPERATION

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 APPENDIX V

INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PARENTS ON DRUG ABUSE AMONG SECONDARY

SCHOOL STUDENTS IN KENYA

1. Gender

2. Age in years

3. Type of school?

4. Class of the child and gender?

5. Level of education?

6. Occupation?

7. For how long have you been a parent in this school?

8. Apart from being a parent, do you serve the school in any other way?

9. Generally what do you think about the issue of drunk abuse?

10. Do you think students in secondary schools abuse drugs?

11. What is the extent of drug abuse in secondary schools?

12. Are you aware of any cases of drug abuse in your school?

13. Has your child ever been involved in drug abuse?

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14. Which are the commonly abused drugs?

15. What are the causes of drug abuse among students?

16. In your own opinion, which are the main sources of these drugs?

17. What measures should the schools take in reducing drug abuse problem?

18. How does drug abuse affect students in general?

19. What should parents do to help address the problem in schools?

20. Do you think it is possible for parents to work with schools in addressing drug abuse
problem?

21. If yes, in which way/ areas can they work together?

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 APPENDIX V1

ADMINISTRATIVE MAP OF KENYA

Source: http://geography,about.com/library/cia/blckenya.htm

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 APPENDIX VII

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