Science Study 2024

Term 1
Atoms and Elements
Atoms are made of subatomic particles (protons, neutrons and electrons) Protons have a positive
charge, neutrons are neutral and electrons have a negative charge. In the centre of the atom is the
nucleus, which is composed of protons and neutrons. Surrounding the nucleus are atomic shells
which hold electrons. The outermost shell is known as the valence shell. Each period increases by 1
atomic shell. Chemical bonding occurs in the valence shell, as the valence shell wants to be
completely filled to stabilise. An element is a pure substance that is made of one type of atom.
Atoms can bond with each other using corrosion and combustion The current atomic theory is the
Rutherford-Bohr model which was refined by Chadwick.

History of the Atom

440 BC The ancient Greeks believed that everything was fundamentally made from 4
elements; Earth, wind, fire and water. They also proposed the continuum model that
says that matter is always divisible

460 - Democritus theory suggested that the ‘atom’ was a small hard particle made of a single
370 BC material formed into different shapes and sizes. He thought if you kept cutting a silver
coin that you would eventually be left with an indivisible particle. The word atom
means

384 - Aristotle strongly disagreed with Democritus atomic theory and because he was more
322 BC popular, his ideas were accepted. Democritus was correct, but not proven correct for
hundreds of years.

1766 - John Dalton is considered one of the fathers of modern science. Dalton proposed his
1844 own atomic theory believing that all substances are made of atoms. Atoms are small
particles that cannot be created, divided or destroyed. All atoms of the same element
are exactly alike and atoms of different elements are different. Atoms join with other
substances to make new substances.

1856 - JJ Thompson discovered the electron in 1897 because he knew that atoms had an
1940 overall neutral charge. He revised Dalton’s theory to account for the presence of
electrons and called this the Plum pudding model because even though he knew
electrons were there, he didn’t know where they were located. The plum pudding
model represents electrons dispersed like soft blobs throughout the atom like in a
plum pudding.

1871 - In 1911, Rutherford (New Zealand scientist) developed a new theory of the atom. After
1937 experimenting with firing atoms at gold foil, he discovered that the centre of an atom
consists of a tiny, densely packed, positively charged nucleus. Most of an atom’s
weight comes from the nucleus.

1885 - Neils Bohr was a student of Rutherford who suggested that electrons travel around the
1962 nucleus in definite paths. The electron paths are located in levels at certain distances
from the nucleus. He believed that electrons could jump between these paths.

1932 Sir James Chadwick discovered the nucleus contained particles called neutrons, as well
as positively charged protons. While neutrons have about the same mass as a proton,
they have no charge.
 Modern Current scientific understanding believes that electrons do not travel in distinct paths,
Theory but are unpredictable and extremely fast. Inside there are regions where electrons are
likely to be found called electron clouds.

The colour emitted by larger atoms is lower in energy than the light emitted by smaller atoms. So,
for example, strontium (atomic number 38) produces a reddish colour, while sodium (atomic
number 11) produces a yellowish colour. The sodium ion has a stronger affinity for the electron, so
more energy is required to move the electron. When the electron does move, it reaches a higher
state of excitement. As the electron returns to its ground state, it has more energy to disperse,
which means the colour has a higher frequency/shorter wavelength.

● Covalent bonds - When atoms share electrons

● Ionic bonds - When atoms give up electrons, or take electron
● Metallic bonds - When atoms lose electrons to form positively charged ions

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a framework for investigating scientific ideas and problems. It consists of 3
main methods.

Ibn al-Haytham is credited with its discovery. He was under house arrest for insanity, after realising
how hard it would be to fulfil his promise to build a bridge across the Nile, and would rather be
arrested than death. He was put in a dark room, and he found that light travels in a straight line.

Main steps:
● Observation
● Hypothesis
● Experiment

It was refined by Francis Bacon and Galileo Galilei to become:

● Observation
● Question
● Hypothesis
● Experiment
● Conclusion
● Results

The Periodic Table

It was invented by Dmitri Mendeelev

What it consists of, the most reactive groups, the least reactive groups.

The periodic table consists of all the elements arranged in increasing atomic mass. It is divided into
rows, called periods and columns, called groups.
Groups 1 and 17 are highly reactive as the former has one too many electrons and the latter has one
less. The least reactive group is Group 18, which has a filled valence shell. Group 1 is the most
reactive in water.
Group 1 - Alkali metals - highly reactive with water
Group 2 - Alkaline metals - still reactive
Group 3 - 12 - Transition metals
Group 13- Boron group - have 3 valence electrons
Group 14 - 4 valence electrons
Group 15 - 5 valence electron
Group 16 - 6 electrons
Group 17 - Halogens - brightly coloured and reactive
Group 18 - Noble gases - non reactive.

Hydrogen - Pops in heat

Oxygen - Makes fire burn
Carbon - Puts out fire

Chemical Change
It is known that a chemical change has occurred when there is:
● Sound
● Heat
● Odour
● Colour change
● Bubbles
● Light

Lab Safety
Lab Safety rules exist so that no one gets hurt and nothing is damaged.
We wear safety goggles to protect our eyes from splashes and sparks
We wear lab coats and gloves to protect from anything touching your skin
We wear enclosed footwear to protect from hazardous chemicals and sharp objects which may drop
on the floor.
We tie back long hair to not get it burned or get in the way.

In science and life, there are moral and ethical choices that need to be made. These choices will
determine where you will end up in life.

Show honesty, responsibility, integrity, accountability and be humble

Do not blame others, show dishonesty, cheat, be avoidant and entitled

You do not use broken glass, because it has a point of weakness, and in later uses, could explode.

Safety Data Sheet

An Safety Data Sheet contains the chemical makeup, safety info, first aid and safe handling measures
when dealing with a chemical. It is required by all organisations, schools and workplaces. There are
currently 15 sections in the SDS
Acids and Bases
The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a substance. When you test a substance with the pH
scale, there are different colours to determine the different levels.
7 is neutral, 1-2 is a strong acid and 13 - 14 is a strong base. 5 - 6 is a weak acid and 8 - 9 is a weak
base.
Acids are mostly made of hydrogen.
Common acids are Hydrochloric Acid, Vinegar, Coke and Lemon.
Common Bases are Caustic Soda, Cloudy Ammonia, Cleaning Supplies, Bicarbonate of Soda and
Toothpaste.
Water is Neutral. Acid + Base = salt + water
Neutralisation is when you add a base and acid together. This has a neutralising effect.
Acids are corrosive that have a sour taste. Comes from Latin Word ACIDUS - meaning sour
Base has the ability to accept hydrogen ions in water. They neutralise acids, and bases have a bitter
taste.

A pH metre measures the number of hydrogen ions that are in the liquid and uses this to calculate
the pH which is displayed on the screen.

The universal indicator is the pH scale, which checks its potential of Hydrogen (pH).

Chemical Reaction
Combustion

Complete Combustion - Example Blue Fire

Fuel + Oxygen (O2 ) -----> Carbon Dioxide(CO2) + Water(H20)

Incomplete Combustion - When there is a lack of oxygen - Example Yellow Fire

Fuel + Oxygen (O2 ) -----> Carbon Dioxide(CO2) + Water(H20) + Carbon Monoxide (C0)

The Law of Conservation of Mass

States: In a Chemical Reaction, mass is neither created or destroyed

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are compounds containing only the elements carbon and hydrogen.

Methane (CH4) ------> Methanol (CH4O)

Ethane (C2H6) ------> Ethanol (C2H6O)
Propane (C3H8) ------> Propanol (C3H8O)
Butane (C4H10) ------> Butanol (C4H10O)
Pentane (C5H12) ------> Pentanol (C5H12O)
Hexane (C6H14) ------> Hexanol (C6H14O)

These become fuels with one added oxygen atom.

Carbon Monoxide (CO) needs oxygen, and wants to become Carbon Dioxide (CO2). It kills people by
taking the oxygen in their lungs.
Radiation

Radiation is caused when an lets go of excess electrons from being unstable and emits radiation.

Non-ionising radiation - has a lower frequency on the EMR. Not strong enough to break chemical
bonds
Ionising radiation - high frequency on the EMR. Strong enough to break chemical bond/harmful

Damage by Radiation
Radiation is the method of heat transfer from place to place by using electromagnetic waves.
How much radiation we can absorb depends on a few different factors.
● Time and concentration/ distance/shielding
● Levels of immunity
● Too much radiation can cause cancer
● Internal bleeding
● Bone marrow depletion
● Organ failure

Somatic damage is harmful to the person, and not passed down genetically
Genetic damage is harmful to the person and is hereditary

Pioneers of Radiation
Wilhelm Roentgen - Discovered X-Rays
William Crookes - Crookes Tube
Henri Becquerel - Worked with the Curies in Radioactivity
Marie/Pierre Curie - Radioactivity, Found Polonium and Radium
Ernest Rutherford - Alpha and Beta Rays
Paul Villard - Gamma Rays

Chernobyl 1986
In Chernobyl, Ukraine, one of its reactors, called Reactor 4, exploded. This was because of
operational errors, and had no radiation containment shields. It had a very old design, and when it
was about to be decommissioned, it became unstable and fissions occurred too quickly. All the
control rods had been completely taken out, and even with the attempt to put them back in, it
exploded. 2 people died from the original explosion, 3 died during the night, 50 emergency workers
died from acute radiation, 600 000 people were contaminated by radiation, and 4 000 died from
long term cancer.

Fukushima 2011
In Fukushima, a massive earthquake (magnitude of 9) struck off the coast, which did not significantly
damage the reactor, which now relied on backup generators. Japan’s coastline moved 8 feet across
and 3 feet down. The earthquake caused a tsunami (17 metres high), killing 19 000 people and
destroying 1 000 000 buildings. It also destroyed 12 out of the 13 generators for the nuclear reactor.
Without the power from the generator, the water stopped cooling the reactors. It soon started
overheating, then had a Hydrogen explosion. Three nuclear reactors exploded. This was a triple
disaster, as 3 different disasters occurred simultaneously. The reactors were designed in America,
and were made to withstand hurricanes, which don’t usually occur in Japan. The effects of radiation
first started showing up in milk, fish and vegetables. The psychosocial consequences were the stress,
the loss of livelihood, the worry and trauma, and mostly trauma from Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The
clean up and restoration costs are estimated to be 21.5 trillion yen.
The major difference between the two, was that Fukushima had no radiation deaths, and was based
on a natural disaster, but they were quick to act. The Japanese government was also very quick to
return to Fukushima, and the nuclear reactor had many containers.

Hiroshima and Nagasaki

In WW2, 1945, the United States dropped nuclear weapons on the two Japanese towns, Hiroshima
and Nagasaki. This was the first time nuclear weapons were ever used.
The bomb on Hiroshima dropped on the 6th of August was made of Uranium-235, and was given the
name “Little Boy”. The bomb on Nagasaki dropped on the 9th of August was made of Plutonium-239,
and was given the name “Fat Man”. These bombs killed on impact, 70 000+ in Hiroshima and 40
000+ in Nagasaki. Survivors suffered incredible thermal burns and acute radiation syndrome.

How Nuclear Reactors Work

Water is heated via nuclear fission and pumped into a heat exchange. This creates steam, the steam
turns turbines which produce electricity. Basically, a nuclear reactor is like an enormous kettle.
Uranium pellets make up the rods inside a nuclear reactor. Nuclear energy is a very clean process.

Nuclear Fission

Nuclear fission involves the nuclei of atoms, thus the name nuclear reactions. For nuclear reactions
to occur, they need optimal conditions. They produce an enormous amount of energy. They take
place when the nucleus of an atom interacts with the nucleus of another atom.
Nuclear fission is when large atoms like uranium are split by firing a neutron resulting in 2 smaller
atoms, Barium and Krypton, and extra neutrons, which then continue the process, causing a chain
reaction.
Alpha, Beta and Gamma Rays

Alpha Beta Gamma

Is it a particle? Yes Yes No

Nature of the Is a Helium nucleus Electron (negatively A form of

radiation (positively charged +2) charged, charge is -1) electromagnetic
radiation

Can it penetrate No Yes Yes

through paper?

Can it penetrate No No Yes

through a metal?

Describe effect on Unlikely to be harmful Can penetrate skin Damage to DNA and
human body and if outside the body and harm tissues tissue cells
circumstances where When consumed or
it could occur ingested can be
harmful

Velocity of radiation Comparatively quiet 99% of the speed of Speed of light

slow about 10% of light
speed of light

Radiation Australia Uses

Australia uses 4 main sources of energy

● Coal
● Solar
● Wind
● Snowy Hydro
The amount of absorbed radiation is known as a Sievert (Sv).

Human Equivalent Dose

Human equivalent dose, H (mSv) Source

0.005 1 hour in and aircraft on an international flight

0.06 One chest X-ray

0.7 One mammogram

1 Living 1 year in a house with granite tile flooring

1.5 Background radiation experienced by the

average Australian in a year

2.4 World average background radiation in a year

2.5 Total experienced by the average radiography

technician in a year

2.6 One head CT scan

Radiation Effects
Radiation dose (Sv) Effects
0.75 Causes vomiting in 10 percent of people
1 Short-term effects such as nausea and
diarrhoea. Development of cancer after many
years in around 5 percent of people.
3-5 Damage to bone marrow which results in
infection and haemorrhage. Can lead to death
in about 50 percent of people within two
months if medical treatment is not available.
> 10 Death within 10 days due to fluid and
electrolyte imbalance, bone marrow and
gastrointestinal damage and infection.
> 40 Death within 48 hours due to damage to the
vascular systems resulting in an accumulation
of fluid in the brain.
Hazardous Substances
Term 2
Vocabulary List
Acid - An acid is a chemical substance, usually a liquid, which contains hydrogen and can react with
other substances to form salts
Apparatus - The technical equipment or machinery needed for a particular activity or purpose.
Base - A substance that can neutralise the acid by reacting with hydrogen ions
Corrosive - capable of destroying other substances as they cause a chemical reaction
Electron - a negatively charged subatomic particle that can be either bound to an atom or free (not
bound)
Flammable - substances that will ignite and continue to burn when brought into contact with an
ignition source
Hazardous - risky; dangerous
Hypothesis - and assumption, an idea that is proposed for the sake of argument so that it can be
tested to see if it might be true
Indicator - substances that change colour when they are added to acidic or alkaline solutions
Indivisible - unable to be divided or separated
Ionisation - the process in which an atom/molecule acquires a positive/negative charge by losing or
gaining electrons
Isotope - atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons (i.e., atomic number,
"Z") but a different number of neutrons
Neutral - when it is not positively or negatively charged
Neutralisation - when an acid and a base react to form water and a salt and involves the
combination of H+ ions and OH- ions to generate water
Nuclear - the study of how atomic nuclei can change into new nuclei
Nucleus - a positively charged region at the centre of the atom
Precipitation - a substance separated from a solution or suspension by chemical or physical change
usually as an insoluble amorphous or crystalline solid
Radiation - energy that comes from a source and travels through space at the speed of light
Scientific - a science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and
with the changes that they go through
Symbol - recognisable symbols designed to warn about hazardous or dangerous materials, locations,
or objects

Abiotic - Non Living

Alveoli - Tiny air sacs in the lungs involved in gas exchange
Artery - Blood vessel that carries blood away from the heart to other organs and tissues in the body
Biotic - Living things
Bronchiole - Tiny branches of air tubes in the lungs
Capillary - The smallest type of blood vessel
Cillary - Small hairlike structure that acts as a filter

Experiments
● Magnesium Flash Experiment
○ If Magnesium is heated, then a bright light will be emitted. It was a chemical change
as sound, heat, odour, colour change, and light was produced.

● The Flame Test

○ When elements are heated, they produce different coloured light/flames. Each
element has a specific wavelength and frequency on the Electromagnetic Spectrum
(EMS).
○ When an element is heated, the electron becomes excited and moves from a ground
state to a higher electron shell.
 ○ As they lose energy, and return to their ground state, they emit a photon, which is
light.

Revision Questions
1. List 4 safety procedures before a lab
a. Safety goggles, - protect from splashes
b. Lab coat - To protect from corrosive or flammable items
c. Gloves - For when touching harmful materials
d. Enclosed footwear

2. Identify the lab equipment

a. Measuring cylinder
b. Test tube rack
c. Test tube
d. Funnel
e. Pipette
f. Flask/Beaker
g. Tripod
h. Tile/Heat Mat
i. Bunsen Burner

3. List the subatomic particles

a. Proton
b. Neutron
c. Electron

4. What is the most reactive group to water?

a. Group 1 - Alkali metals

5. The Periodic Table contains rows called periods and columns called groups

6. What are the 3 main steps in the scientific method?

a. Observation
b. Hypothesis
c. Experimentation

7. Why was Ibn al Haytham locked in a dark room?

a. Because he had the idea to build a bridge across the Nile, but later realised how
difficult it would be. The tyrant ruling the times would’ve killed him, so the best
course of action was to feign insanity. He was put under house arrest.

8. What is the Law of Conservation of Mass?

a. In a chemical reaction, mass is neither be created nor destroyed

9. What does Carbon Monoxide need to stabilise?

 a. It needs oxygen to become Carbon Dioxide. This is why Carbon Monoxide poisoning
is so dangerous, as it takes the oxygen from your body.

10. Why do certain metals produce different colours when burned?

a. Because each metal has its own frequency

11. What was the cause of the hospitalisation in the ice rink?
a. Carbon Monoxide Poisoning

12. Why should you wear safety goggles when using Strontium?
a. Because the light from the Strontium is so bright that you can damage your eyes, so
to protect them, you should wear safety goggles

13. What are the 3 types of radiation?

a. Alpha, Beta and Gamma rays, ordered from weakest to strongest penetration

14. List an occupation that has a high radiation exposure

a. Pilot, radiographer, miner, radiologists

15. What is an SDS?

a. It is a Safety Data Sheet, which is carried by organisations, schools and workplaces to
ensure the safety and knowledge of the substance at hand. The SDS shows how to
contain the substance, first aid against it, hazardous warning signs and its chemical
makeup. In Australia, it currently has 15 sections.

16. How do Isotopes cause radiation?

a. An isotope has more neutrons than protons, which makes the atom unstable. It lets
off excess particles, which emits radiation.

17. List one harmful effect of radiation

a. It changes the structure of your cells and DNA

18. What were the triple disasters in Fukushima?

a. Earthquake, Tsunami, Nuclear Reactor overheated and exploded

19. What were the two acts of nuclear warfare?

a. Hiroshima and Nagasaki

20. What element in the control rods is radioactive?

a. Uranium-235 and Uranium-238

21. Is Nuclear Energy clean?

a. Yes
22. What types of energy does Australia currently use?
a. Australia used coal, wind, solaar and the snowy hydro

23. What are the subatomic particles of an atom

a. Protons, neutrons and electrons

24. Where is the valence shell located?

a. It is in an atom, and is the outermost shell
25. Where does chemical bonding occur in an atom?
a. In the valence shell, because an atom wants to have a filled valence shell

26. What did Dmitri Mendeelev create?

a. The Periodic Table

27. What is the Scientific Method

a. Observation, Hypothesis, and Experiment
28. Who made the Scientific Method
a. Ibn al Haytham

29. What is the least reactive group in the periodic table?

a. Noble gases, or group 18

30. Why should you not use broken glass?

a. Because the damaged spot becomes a point of weakness, which can break later on,
causing injury or damage to property.

31. What number is a strong acid?

a. 1 - 2

32. What number is neutral on the periodic table?

a. 7

33. What are examples of acids and bases?

a. Hydrochloric Acid and Caustic Soda, Lemon Juice, and Cloudy Ammonia

34. What are the two types of combustion?

a. Incomplete and complete combustion

35. Name a pioneer of Radiation

a. Marie Curie, Ernest Rutherford, Paul Villard, Wilhelm Roentgen

36. What can gamma radiation penetrate through?

a. Paper, wood, skin