VandeWalle Chp2
VandeWalle Chp2
VandeWalle Chp2
No matter how lucidly and patiently teachers explain to their Mathematics Is the Science
students, they cannot understand for their students. of Pattern and Order
Schifter and Fosnot (1993, p. 9)
13
14 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics
plan and for students as they learn). Basic facts and basic predicting (Fillingim & Barlow, 2010). When this happens
skills such as computation of whole numbers, fractions, and on a daily basis, students are getting an empowering mes-
decimals are important in enabling students to be able to do sage: “You are capable of making sense of this—you are
mathematics. But if taught only for the sake of doing these capable of doing mathematics!”
calculations by rote, students will be not be prepared to
do the mathematics required in the 21st century. To “mas- The Classroom Environment for Doing Mathemat-
ter” these facts and procedures by imitating a teacher’s ics. Classrooms where students are making sense of math-
demonstration and/or through memorization is no more ematics do not happen by accident—they happen because
doing mathematics than playing scales on the piano is mak- the teacher establishes practices and expectations that
ing music. encourage risk taking, reasoning, sharing, and so on. The list
below provides expectations that are often cited as ones that
support students in doing mathematics (Clarke & Clarke,
PAUSE and REFLECT 2004, CCSSO, 2010, Hiebert et al., 1997, NCTM, 2007).
Envision for a moment an elementary or middle school 1. Persistance, effort, and concentration are important in learn-
mathematics class where students are doing mathematics as “a study ing mathematics. Engaging in productive struggle is
of patterns.” What do you see as you observe this class? Think of three important in learning! The more a student stays with a
ideas, and then read about the classroom environment. ● problem, the more likely they are to get it right. Getting
a tough problem right leads to a stronger sense of accom-
plishment than getting a quick, easy problem correct.
A Classroom Environment 2. Students share their ideas. Everyone’s ideas are impor-
for Doing Mathematics tant, and hearing different ideas helps students to
become strategic in selecting good strategies.
Doing mathematics begins with posing worthwhile tasks 3. Students listen to each other. All students have something
and then creating an environment where students take risks to contribute and these ideas should be considered and
and share and defend mathematical ideas. Students are evaluated for whether they will work in that situation.
actively engaged in solving problems, and teachers are pos- 4. Errors or strategies that didn’t work are opportunities for
ing questions that encourage students to make connections learning. Mistakes are opportunities for learning—why
and understand the mathematics they are exploring. did that approach not work? Could it be adapted and
work or is a completely different approach needed? Doing
The Language of Doing Mathematics. Children in tradi- mathematics involves monitoring and reflecting on the
tional mathematics classes often describe mathematics as process—catching and adjusting errors along the way.
imitating what the teacher shows them. Instructions to stu- 5. Students look for and discuss connections. Students should
dents given by teachers or in textbooks ask students to see connections between different strategies to solve a
listen, copy, memorize, drill, and compute. These are particular problem, as well as connections to other
lower-level thinking activities and do not adequately pre- mathematics concepts and to real contexts and situa-
pare students for the real act of doing mathematics. In con- tions. When students look for and discuss connections,
trast, the following verbs engage students in doing they see mathematics as worthwhile and important,
mathematics: rather than an isolated collection of facts.
compare explain predict
Notice who is doing the thinking, the talking, and the math-
conjecture explore represent
ematics—the students. Mathematics requires effort, and it is
construct formulate solve
important that students, families, and the community
describe investigate use
acknowledge and honor the fact that effort is what leads to
develop justify verify
learning in mathematics (National Mathematics Advisory
These verbs lead to opportunities for higher-level Panel, 2008). In fact, a review of research on what connects
thinking and encompass “making sense” and “figuring mathematics teaching practice to student learning found that
out.” Children engaged in these actions in mathematics two things result in conceptual understanding: making math-
classes will be actively thinking about the mathematical ematics relationships explicit and engaging students in productive
ideas that are involved. In observing a third-grade class- struggle (Bay-Williams, 2010; Hiebert & Grouws, 2007).
room where the teacher used this approach to teaching The teacher’s role is making mathematical relation-
mathematics, researchers found that students became ships explicit is to be sure that students are making the con-
“doers” of mathematics. In other words the students began nections that are implied in a task. For example, asking
to take the math ideas to the next level by (1) connecting students to relate today’s topic to one they investigated last
to previous material, (2) responding with information week, or by asking “How is Lisa’s strategy like Marco’s strat-
beyond the required response, and (3) conjecturing or egy?” when the two students have picked different ways to
An Invitation to Do Mathematics 15
3 6
same time?
0
7 9 STOP
Do not read on until you get an answer or get stuck. Can you
check that you are correct? Can you approach the problem using a
4 2 picture? ●
60 minutes 20 minutes
5 + 5 = 10 and 6 + 4 = 10
Does this work any time the numbers are the same? Does it
work in other situations where the addends are not the same?
Explore and develop your own conjectures.
(a)
For Grades 4–8. Does the one up, one down pattern apply to
multiplication?
➝
7 × 7 = 49
8 × 6 = 48
➝
5 × 5 = 25
6 × 4 = 24
A Few Ideas. Multiplication is more complicated. Why? FIGURE 2.3 Two physical ways to think about multiplication
Use a physical model or picture to compare the before and that might help in the exploration.
18 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics
STOP STOP
Work with one or both of these approaches to gain insights Think about the problem and what you know. Experiment. ●
and make conjectures. ●
4. The Best Chance of Purple Strategy 1: Tree Diagrams. On spinner A, the four colors
Three students are spinning to “get purple” with two spinners, each have the same chance of coming up. You could make a
either by spinning first red and then blue or first blue and then tree diagram for A with four branches, and all the branches
red (see Figure 2.4). They may choose to spin each spinner once would have the same chance (see Figure 2.5). Spinner B has
or one of the spinners twice. Mary chooses to spin twice on different-sized sections, leading to the following questions:
spinner A; John chooses to spin twice on spinner B; and Susan
chooses to spin first on spinner A and then on spinner B. Who
● What is the relationship between the blue region and
has the best chance of getting a red and a blue? (Lappan & Even, each of the others?
1989, p. 17)
● How could you make a tree diagram for B with each
branch having the same chance?
● How can you add to the diagram for spinner A so that
it represents spinning A twice in succession?
● Which branches on your diagram represent getting
purple?
Spinner A Spinner B
● How could you make tree diagrams for John’s and that the teacher already has.” In the real world of problem
Susan’s choices? solving outside the classroom, there are no teachers with
● How do the tree diagrams relate to the spinners? answers and no answer books. Doing mathematics includes
using justification as a means of determining whether an
Tree diagrams are only one way to approach this. If the
answer is correct. The answer, then, to the question, is that
strategy makes sense to you, stop reading and solve the
the answers lie in your own reasoning and justification.
problem. If tree diagrams do not seem like a strategy you
want to use, read on.
Strategy 2: Grids. Suppose that you had a square that rep- What Does It Mean
resented all the possible outcomes for spinner A and a
similar square for spinner B. Although there are many ways to Learn Mathematics?
to divide a square into four equal parts, if you use lines Now that you have had the chance to experience doing
going all in the same direction, you can make comparisons mathematics, you may have a series of questions: Can stu-
of all the outcomes of one event (one whole square) with dents solve such challenging tasks? Why take the time to
the outcomes of another event (drawn on a different solve these problems—isn’t it better to do a lot of shorter
square). When the second event (in this case the second problems? Why should students be doing problems like
spin) follows the first event, make the lines on the second this, especially if they are reluctant to do so? In other words,
square go the opposite way from the lines on the first. Use how does “doing mathematics” relate to student learning?
transparencies and create squares to represent each spinner The answer lies in learning theory and research on how
(see Figure 2.6). Place one over the other, and you will see people learn.
24 little sections. Learning theories have been developed through anal-
Why are there six subdivisions for the spinner B ysis of students (and adults) as they develop new under-
square? What does each of the 24 little rectangles stand for? standings. Here we describe two theories (constructivism
What sections would represent purple? Did 24 come into and sociocultural theory) that are most commonly used by
play in another strategy? Can you connect the tree diagram researchers in mathematics education to understand how
strategy to the rectangle strategy? students learn mathematics. These theories are not com-
peting, but are compatible (Norton & D’Ambrosio, 2008).
Where Are the Answers? Learning theories might be thought of as tools or lenses
for interpreting how a person learns (Simon, 2009). For
No answers or solutions are given in this text. How do you example, constructivism might be the best tool, or lens,
feel about that? What about the “right” answers? Are your for thinking about how a student might internalize an
answers correct? What makes the solution to any investiga- idea, and sociocultural theory might be a better tool for
tion “correct”? analyzing influence of the social/cultural aspects of
In the classroom, the ready availability of the answer the classroom.
book or the teacher’s providing the solution or verifying
that an answer is correct sends a clear message to students
about doing mathematics: “Your job is to find the answers Constructivism
Constructivism is rooted in Jean Piaget’s work, which was
developed in the 1930s and translated to English in the
1950s. At the heart of constructivism is the notion that
B
learners are not blank slates but rather creators (construc-
tors) of their own learning. Integrated networks, or cognitive
B schemas, are both the product of constructing knowledge
B and the tools with which additional new knowledge can be
constructed. As learning occurs, the networks are rear-
Y
ranged, added to, or otherwise modified. This is an active
G endeavor on the part of the learner (Baroody, 1987; Cobb,
R 1988; Fosnot, 1996; von Glasersfeld, 1990, 1996).
All people, all of the time, construct or give meaning to
R B G Y
things they perceive or think about. As you read these
Spinner A Spinner B words, you are giving meaning to them. Whether listening
passively to a lecture or actively engaging in synthesizing
FIGURE 2.6 A square shows the chance of obtaining each color findings in a project, your brain is applying prior knowledge
for the spinners in Figure 2.4. (existing schemas) to make sense of the new information.
20 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics
Through reflective thought (effort to connect existing ideas. The red dot is an emerging idea, one that is being
ideas to new information), people modify their existing constructed. Whatever existing ideas (blue dots) are used in
schemas to incorporate new ideas (Fosnot, 1996). This can the construction will be connected to the new idea (red dot)
happen in two ways—assimilation and accommodation. Assim- because those were the ideas that gave meaning to it. If a
ilation occurs when a new concept “fits” with prior knowl- potentially relevant idea (blue dot) is not accessed by the
edge and the new information expands an existing network. learner when learning a new concept (red dot), then that
Accommodation takes place when the new concept does potential connection will not be made.
not “fit” with the existing network (causing what Piaget
called disequilibrium), so the brain revamps or replaces the
Sociocultural Theory
existing schema. Though learning is constructed within
the self, the classroom culture contributes to learning while In the same way that the work of Piaget relates to construc-
the learner contributes to the culture in the classroom tivism, the work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
(Yackel & Cobb, 1996). has greatly influenced sociocultural theory. Vygotsky’s work
also emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, but was not translated
Construction of Ideas. To construct or build something into English until the late 1970s. There are many concepts
in the physical world requires tools, materials, and effort. that these theories share (for example, the learning process
The tools we use to build understanding are our existing as active meaning-seeking on the part of the learner), but
ideas and knowledge. The materials we use to build under- sociocultural theory has several unique features. One is that
standing may be things we see, hear, or touch, or our own mental processes exist between and among people in social
thoughts and ideas. The effort required to connect new learning settings, and that from these social settings the
knowledge to old knowledge is reflective thought. learner moves ideas into his or her own psychological realm
In Figure 2.7, blue and red dots are used as symbols for (Forman, 2003).
ideas. Consider the picture to be a small section of our cog- Second, the way in which information is internalized
nitive makeup. The blue dots represent existing ideas. The (or learned) depends on whether it was within a learner’s
lines joining the ideas represent our logical connections or zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978).
relationships that have developed between and among Simply put, the ZPD refers to a “range” of knowledge that
may be out of reach for a person to learn on his or her own,
but is accessible if the learner has support from peers or
more knowledgeable others. “[T]he ZPD is not a physical
space, but a symbolic space created through the interaction
of learners with more knowledgeable others and the culture
that precedes them” (Goos, 2004, p. 262). Researchers
Cobb (1994) and Goos (2004) suggest that in a true math-
ematical community of learners there is something of a
common ZPD that emerges across learners and there are
also the ZPDs of individual learners.
Another major concept in sociocultural theory is semi-
otic mediation. Semiotic refers to the use of language, and
other ways to convey cultural practices, such as diagrams,
pictures, and actions visuals, and mediation means that
these semiotics are exchanged between and among people.
So, semiotic mediation is the “mechanism by which indi-
vidual beliefs, attitudes, and goals are simultaneously
affected and affect sociocultural practices and institutions”
(Forman & McPhail, 1993, p. 134). In mathematics, semiot-
ics include mathematical symbols (e.g., the equal sign), and
it is through classroom interactions and activities that the
meaning of these symbols are developed.
Social interaction is essential for mediation. The nature
of the community of learners is affected by not just the
culture the teacher creates, but the broader social and his-
FIGURE 2.7 We use the ideas we already have (blue dots) to torical culture of the members of the classroom (Forman,
construct a new idea (red dot), in the process developing a 2003). In summary, from a sociocultural perspective, learn-
network of connections between ideas. The more ideas used and ing is dependent on the new knowledge falling within the
the more connections made, the better we understand. ZPD of the learner (who must have access to the assistance),
What Does It Mean to Learn Mathematics? 21
Provide Opportunities to Talk about Mathematics. FIGURE 2.9 This student’s work indicates that she has a
Learning is enhanced when the learner is engaged with oth- misconception about place value and regrouping.
ers working on the same ideas. A worthwhile goal is to cre-
ate an environment in which students interact with each
other and with you. The rich interaction in such a class-
room allows students to engage in reflective thinking and class where students discuss and share clever ways to figure
to internalize concepts that may be out of reach without the out the product. One student might think of 5 eights (40)
interaction and input from peers and their teacher. In dis- and then 2 more eights (16) to equal 56. Another may have
cussions with peers, students will be adapting and expand- learned 7 × 7 (49) and added on 7 more to get 56. Still
ing on their existing networks of concepts. another might think “8 sevens” and take half of the sevens
(4 × 7) to get 28 and double 28 to get 56. A class discussion
Build In Opportunities for Reflective Thought. Class- sharing these ideas brings to the fore a wide range of use-
rooms need to provide structures and supports to help stu- ful mathematical “dots” relating addition and multiplica-
dents make sense of mathematics in light of what they tion concepts.
know. For a new idea you are teaching to be interconnected In contrast, facts such as 7 × 8 can be learned by rote
in a rich web of interrelated ideas, children must be men- (memorized). This knowledge is still constructed, but it is
tally engaged. They must find the relevant ideas they pos- not connected to other knowledge. No blue dots! Rote
sess and bring them to bear on the development of the new learning can be thought of as a “weak construction” (Nod-
idea. In terms of the dots in Figure 2.7 we want to activate dings, 1993). Students can recall it if they remember it, but
every blue dot students have that is related to the new red if they forget, they don’t have 7 × 8 connected to other
dot we want them to learn. Interestingly, this practice, knowledge pieces that would allow them to redetermine
grounded in learning theory, also has been established the fact.
through research studies. Recall the research finding, stated
earlier, that making mathematical relationships explicit is Engage Students in Productive Struggle. Related to sup-
connected with improving student conceptual understand- porting multiple approaches, it is important to allow stu-
ing (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). dents the time to struggle with the mathematics they are
A key to getting students to be reflective is to engage exploring. As Piaget describes, learners are going to experi-
them in interesting problems in which they use their prior ence disequilibrium in developing new ideas. Let students
knowledge as they search for solutions and create new ideas know this disequilibrium is part of the process. Susan
in the process. The problem-solving (inquiry) approach Carter, a National Board Certified Teacher who learned to
requires not just answers but also explanations and justifica- engage her students in productive struggle, writes of her
tions for solutions. transformation,
Encourage Multiple Approaches. Teaching should pro- I repeated the mantras of ineffective teachers: “This is too
vide opportunities for students to build connections hard for them!” or “My kids just don’t have the back-
between what they know and what they are learning. The ground for this kind of assignment.” . . . Imagine my heart-
break when I realized the disservice I was doing to my
student whose work is presented in Figure 2.9 may not
students, especially the ones who needed it most. By sub-
understand the algorithm she is trying to use. If instead she
stituting a focus on happiness for a focus on engagement
were asked to use her own approach to find the difference, with the ideas, I deprived students of what they needed
she might be able to get to a correct solution and build on most: worthwhile mathematical tasks and the support to
her understanding of place value and subtraction. think through them. The more I challenged myself . . . the
Even learning a basic fact, like 7 × 8, can have better closer I moved to an understanding of the necessity of
results if a teacher promotes multiple strategies. Imagine a struggle in learning.” (Carter, 2008, p. 135)
What Does It Mean to Understand Mathematics? 23
This is not just one teacher’s “aha”; this is one of the experience, effective teaching incorporates and builds on
findings mentioned earlier as key to developing concep- what the students bring to the classroom, honoring those
tual understanding (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). This experiences. Thus, lessons begin with eliciting prior expe-
means redefining what we think of as “helping” stu- riences, and understandings and contexts for the lessons
dents—rather than showing students how to do some- are selected based on students’ knowledge and experi-
thing, your role in helping students is to ask probing ences. Some students will not have all the “blue dots” they
questions that keep students engaged in the productive need—it is your job to provide experiences where those
struggle until they reach a solution. This communicates blue dots are developed and then connected to the concept
high expectations and maximizes students’ opportunities being learned.
to learn with understanding. Classroom culture influences the individual learning of
your students. As stated previously, you should support a
Treat Errors as Opportunities for Learning. When stu- range of approaches and strategies for doing mathematics.
dents make errors, it can mean a misapplication of their Students’ ideas should be valued and included in classroom
prior knowledge in the new situation. Remember that from discussion of the mathematics. This shift in practice, away
a constructivist perspective, the mind is sifting through from the teacher telling one way to do the problem, estab-
what it knows in order to find useful approaches for the new lishes a classroom culture where ideas are valued. This
situation. Knowing that children rarely give random approach values the uniqueness of each individual.
responses (Ginsburg, 1977; Labinowicz, 1985) gives insight
into addressing student misconceptions and helping stu-
dents accommodate new learning. For example, students
comparing decimals may incorrectly apply “rules” of whole
What Does It Mean
numbers, such as “the more digits, the bigger the number” to Understand Mathematics?
(Martinie, 2007; Resnick, Nesher, Leonard, Magone,
Omanson, & Peled, 1989). Often one student’s misconcep- Both constructivist and sociocultural theories emphasize
tion is shared by others in the class, and discussing the prob- the learner building connections (blue dots to the red dots)
lem publicly can help other students understand (Hoffman, among existing and new ideas. So you might be asking,
Breyfogle, & Dressler, 2009). This public negotiation of “What is it they should be learning and connecting?” Or
meaning allows students to construct deeper meaning for “What are those red dots?” This section focuses on math-
the mathematics. ematics content required in today’s classrooms.
Figure 2.9 is an example of a student incorrectly It is possible to say that we know something or we do
applying what she learned about regrouping. If the teacher not. That is, an idea is something that we either have or
tries to help the student by re-explaining the “right” way don’t have. Understanding is another matter. For example,
to do the problem, the student loses the opportunity to most fifth graders know something about fractions. Given
reflect on and correct her misconceptions. If the teacher the fraction 68 , they likely know how to read the fraction and
instead asks the student to explain her regrouping process, can identify the 6 and 8 as the numerator and denominator,
the student must engage her reflective thought and think respectively. They know it is equivalent to 34 and that it is
about what was regrouped and how to keep the num- more than 12 .
ber equivalent. Students will have different understandings, however, of
such concepts as what it means to be equivalent. They may
Scaffold New Content. The practice of scaffolding, often know that 68 can be simplified to 34 but not understand that
3 6
associated with sociocultural theory, is based on the idea 4 and 8 represent identical quantities. Some may think that
that a task otherwise outside of a student’s ZPD can become simplifying 68 to 34 makes it a smaller number. Some students
accessible if it is carefully structured. For concepts com- will be able to create pictures or models to illustrate equiv-
pletely new to students, the learning requires more structure alent fractions or will have many examples of how 68 is used
or assistance, including the use of tools like manipulatives outside of class. In summary, there is a range of ideas that
or more assistance from peers. As students become more students often connect to their individualized understanding
comfortable with the content, the scaffolds are removed of a fraction—each student brings a different set of blue
and the student becomes more independent. Scaffolding dots to his or her knowledge of what a fraction is.
can provide support for those students who may not have a Understanding can be defined as a measure of the qual-
robust collection of “blue dots.” ity and quantity of connections that an idea has with existing
ideas. Understanding is not an all-or-nothing proposition.
Honor Diversity. Finally, and importantly, these theories It depends on the existence of appropriate ideas and on the
emphasize that each learner is unique, with a different creation of new connections, varying with each person
collection of prior knowledge and cultural experiences. (Backhouse, Haggarty, Pirie, & Stratton, 1992; Davis, 1986;
Since new knowledge is built on existing knowledge and Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992).
24 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics
Relational Instrumental
Understanding Understanding
Continuum of Understanding
FIGURE 2.10 Understanding is a measure of the quality and quantity of connections that a new idea has with existing ideas. The greater
the number of connections to a network of ideas, the better the understanding.
beans and string to commercially produced materials such The examples in Figure 2.12 are models that can show
as wooden rods (e.g., Cuisenaire rods) and blocks (e.g., pat- the following concepts:
tern blocks). Figure 2.12 shows six tools, each representing
a. The concept of “6” is a relationship between sets that
a different concept, giving only a glimpse into the many
can be matched to the words one, two, three, four, five,
ways each manipulative can be used to support the develop-
or six. Changing a set of counters by adding one
ment of mathematics concepts and procedures.
changes the relationship. The difference between the
set of 6 and the set of 7 is the relationship “one more
than.”
STOP b. The concept of “measure of length” is a comparison.
Consider each of the concepts and the corresponding model The length measure of an object is a comparison rela-
in Figure 2.12. Try to separate the physical tool from the relationship tionship of the length of the object to the length of
that you must impose on the tool in order to “see” the concept. ● the unit.
(a) (d)
(b) (e)
“Length” involves a comparison of the length attribute of “Chance” can be modeled by comparing outcomes
different objects. Rods can be used to measure length. of a spinner.
(c) (f)
+5
–7
+4
–5 0 5
“Rectangles” can be modeled on a dot grid. They “Positive” and “negative” integers can be modeled with
involve length and spatial relationships. arrows with different lengths and directions.
c. The concept of “rectangle” includes both spatial and students with physical disabilities may be better able to
length relationships. The opposite sides are of equal work with electronic versions of manipulatives.
length and parallel and the adjacent sides meet at It is important to include calculators as a tool. The
right angles. calculator models a wide variety of numeric rela-
d. The concept of “hundred” is not in the larger square tionships by quickly and easily demonstrating the
but in the relationship of that square to the strip (“ten”) effects of these ideas. For example, you can skip-
and to the little square (“one”). count by hundredths from 0.01 (press 0.01 .01 , ,
e. “Chance” is a relationship between the frequency of an . . . ) or from another beginning number such as 3 (press
event happening compared with all possible outcomes. 0.01 , , . . . ). How many presses of are required
The spinner can be used to create relative frequencies. to get from 3 to 4?
These can be predicted by observing relationships of
sections of the spinner.
f. The concept of a “negative integer” is based on the Mathematics Proficiency
relationships of “magnitude” and “is the opposite of.” Much work has emerged since Skemp’s classic work empha-
Negative quantities exist only in relation to positive sized the need for relational and instrumental understand-
quantities. Arrows on the number line model the oppo- ing, based on the need to develop a robust understanding of
site of relationship in terms of direction and size or mathematics. Mathematically proficient people exhibit cer-
magnitude relationship in terms of length. tain behaviors and dispositions as they are “doing mathemat-
ics.” Adding It Up (National Research Council, 2001), an
Ineffective Use of Tools and Manipulatives. In addition influential report on how students learn mathematics,
to not making the connection between the model and the describes five strands involved in being mathematically pro-
concept, there are other ways that models or manipulatives ficient: (1) conceptual understanding, (2) procedural fluency,
can be used ineffectively. One of the most widespread mis- (3) strategic competence, (4) adaptive reasoning, and (5) pro-
uses occurs when the teacher tells students, “Do as I do.” ductive disposition. Figure 2.13 illustrates these interrelated
There is a natural temptation to get out the materials and and interwoven strands, providing a definition of each.
show children exactly how to use them. Children mimic the These five proficiencies are the foundation for the Standards
teacher’s directions, and it may even look as if they under- for Mathematical Practice described in the Common Core
stand, but they could be just following what they see. It is State Standards (CCSSO, 2010). The Standards for Mathe-
just as possible to move blocks around mindlessly as it is to matical Practices can be found in Table 1.2 on page 6.
“invert and multiply” mindlessly. Neither promotes think-
ing or aids in the development of concepts (Ball, 1992; Conceptual Understanding. Conceptual understanding is
Clements & Battista, 1990; Stein & Bovalino, 2001). For knowledge about the relationships or foundational ideas of
example, if you have carefully shown and explained how to a topic. Consider the task of adding 37 + 28. The conceptual
get an answer to a multiplication problem with a set of base- understanding of this problem includes such ideas as this
ten blocks, then students may set up the blocks to get the being a combining situation; that it could represent 37
answer but not focus on the patterns or processes that can people and then 28 more arriving; and that this is the same
be seen in modeling the problem with the blocks. as 30 + 20 + 7 + 8, since you can take numbers apart, rear-
Conversely, leaving students with insufficient focus or range, and still get the same sum. Additionally, students
guidance results in nonproductive and unsystematic inves- might understand that the value is larger than 50, but not
tigation (Stein & Bovalino, 2001). Students may be much larger. (This relates to the Standards for Mathemati-
engaged in conversations about the model they are using, cal Practice in the Common Core State Standards: “1. Make
but if they do not know what the mathematical goal is, sense of problems and persevere in solving them”; “7. Look
the manipulative is not serving as a tool for developing for and make use of structure” [CCSSO, 2010].)
the concept.
Procedural Fluency. Procedural fluency is knowledge and
Technology-Based Tools. Technology provides another use of rules and procedures used in carrying out mathemat-
source of models and manipulatives. There are websites, ical processes and also the symbolism used to represent
such as the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives, that mathematics. A student may choose to use the traditional
have a range of manipulatives available (e.g., geoboards, algorithm (see Figure 2.14b) or employ an invented
base-ten blocks, spinners, number lines). Virtual manipula- approach (see Figure 2.14 (c) or (d)). A student who is pro-
tives are a good addition to physical models. In some cases, cedurally fluent might move part of one number to another
the electronic version allows users to interact with a manip- (see 2.14(c)) or use a counting-up strategy (see 2.14(a)).
ulative in a way that is difficult or impossible to do with This choice will vary with the problem. He or she is flexible
hands-on tools, and it may be accessed at home. Also, some in ways to compute an answer. Note that the ability to
What Does It Mean to Understand Mathematics? 27
(a)
Conceptual understanding: Count 37
comprehension of mathematical Count 28
concepts, operations, and
Strategic competence: relations.
ability to formulate,
represent, and solve
mathematics problems.
Procedural fluency: Count all: 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 64, 65
skill in carrying out
procedures flexibly, (b)
accurately, efficiently,
and appropriately.
Adaptive reasoning:
capacity for logical Productive disposition:
thought, reflection, habitual inclination to
explanation, and see mathematics as
justification. Traditional algorithm Errors are often made
sensible, useful, and
worthwhile, coupled (c)
with a belief in diligence
and one’s own efficacy.
FIGURE 2.15 Potential web of ideas that could contribute to the understanding of “ratio.”
understanding of ratio. (This relates to the Standards for Productive Disposition. What was your reaction when
Mathematical Practice in the Common Core State Standards: you read the problem about the two machines? Did you
“2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively”; “6. Attend to think, “I can’t remember the way to do this type of problem”?
precision”; “7. Look for and make use of structure” Or, did you think, “I can solve this, let me now think how”?
[CCSSO, 2010].) The first response is the result of a history of learning math
in which you were shown how to do things, rather than
Strategic Competence. In solving Problems 1 through 4 challenged to apply your own knowledge. The latter
earlier in the chapter, did you design a strategy? If it didn’t response is a productive disposition—a “can do” attitude. If
work, did you try something else? Perhaps you decided to you were committed to making sense of and solving those
draw a diagram or to fold paper to help you model the task. tasks, knowing that if you kept at it, you would get to a solu-
If you did any of these things, and if you changed out one tion, then you have a productive disposition. This relates to
strategy for a different one, then you were demonstrating the perseverance we just talked about in Chapter 1. What
strategic competence. Think of the value of this strand, not more important thing can we instill in students than a “can
just in mathematics, but as a life skill. You have a problem; do” attitude? (This relates to the Standards for Mathemat-
you need to figure out how you will solve it. If at first you ical Practice in the Common Core State Standards: “1. Make
don’t succeed, try, try again. (This relates to the Standards sense of problems and persevere in solving them”; “8.
for Mathematical Practice in the Common Core State Stan- Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning”
dards: “4. Model with mathematics”; “5. Use appropriate [CCSSO, 2010].)
tools strategically” [CCSSO, 2010].) The last three of the five strands develop only when
students have experiences with solving problems as part of
Adaptive Reasoning. When you finished one of the prob- their daily learning in mathematics (i.e., a problem-based
lems, did you wonder whether you had it right? Did you or inquiry approach to instruction). Note how close these
have a way of convincing yourself or your peer that it had practices are to the teaching suggestions offered in the ear-
to be correct? Conversely, did you head down a wrong path lier section on learning theory.
and realize it wasn’t working? This capacity to reflect on
your work, evaluate it, and then adapt, as needed, is adaptive Benefits of Developing
reasoning. (This relates to the Standards for Mathemati-
cal Practice in the Common Core State Standards: “2. Rea-
Mathematical Proficiency
son abstractly and quantitatively”; “3. Construct viable To teach for mathematical proficiency requires a lot of
arguments and critique the reasoning of others”; “8. Look effort. Concepts and connections develop over time, not in
for and express regularity in repeated reasoning” a day. Tasks must be strategically selected to help students
[CCSSO, 2010].) build connections. The important benefits to be derived
Connecting the Dots 29
from relational understanding make the effort not only relational understanding are not able to apply the skills
worthwhile but also essential. they learned to solve new problems.
Effective Learning of New Concepts and Procedures. Improved Attitudes and Beliefs. Relational understand-
Recall what learning theory tells us—students are actively ing has an affective as well as a cognitive effect. When ideas
building on their existing knowledge. The more robust are well understood and make sense, the learner tends to
their understanding of a concept, the more connections stu- develop a positive self-concept and a confidence in his or
dents are building, and the more likely it is they can connect her ability to learn and understand mathematics. There is a
new ideas to the existing conceptual webs they have. Frac- definite feeling of “I can do this! I understand!” There is
tion knowledge and place-value knowledge come together no reason to fear or to be in awe of knowledge learned
to make decimal learning easier, and decimal concepts relationally. At the other end of the continuum, instrumen-
directly enhance an understanding of percentage concepts tal understanding has the potential of producing mathemat-
and operations. Without these and many other connections, ics anxiety, a real phenomenon that involves fear and
children will need to learn each new piece of information avoidance behavior.
they encounter as a separate, unrelated idea.
important in the development of conceptual ideas in math- ● To what extent does it lead students to develop a rela-
continuum from relational to instrumental? Give an exam- (See Figure 2.13 on page 27.)
ple of an idea, and explain how a student’s understanding
might fall on either end of the continuum.
4. Explain why a tool for a mathematical idea is not really an Some people say that to add four consecutive numbers, you add
example of the idea. If it is not an example of the concept, the first and the last numbers and multiply by 2. Is this always
what does it mean to say we “see” the concept when we look true? How do you know? (Stoessiger & Edmunds, 1992)
at the tool?
Reflections on Chapter 2 31
2. Not every educator believes in the constructivist-oriented through quality explanations. Students should not have to
approach to teaching mathematics. Some of their reasons “reinvent the wheel.” How would you respond to these
include the following: There is not enough time to let kids arguments?
discover everything. Basic facts and ideas are better taught