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Chapter 2

Exploring What It Means


to Know and Do Mathematics

No matter how lucidly and patiently teachers explain to their Mathematics Is the Science
students, they cannot understand for their students. of Pattern and Order
Schifter and Fosnot (1993, p. 9)

W hat does it mean to know a mathematics topic?


Take division of fractions, for example. If you
know this topic well, what do you know? The answer is
more than being able to do a procedure (e.g., invert the
This heading is a wonderfully simple description of
mathematics, found in the thought-provoking publication
Everybody Counts (Mathematical Sciences Education Board,
1989). This emphasis challenges the popular view of math-
ematics as a discipline dominated by computation. Science
second fraction and multiply). Knowing division of frac- is a process of figuring out or making sense, and mathemat-
tions means that you can think of examples or situations, ics is the science of concepts and processes that have a pat-
use alternative strategies to solve problems, estimate an tern of regularity and logical order. Finding and exploring
answer, draw a diagram to show what happens when a num- this regularity or order, and then making sense of it, is what
ber is divided by a fraction, and describe in general what doing mathematics is all about.
it means. Even the youngest schoolchildren can and should be
This chapter is about the learning theory of teaching involved in the science of pattern and order. Have you ever
developmentally and the knowledge necessary for students noticed that these combinations all have the same sum?
to learn mathematics with understanding. You might 6+7
consider this chapter the what, why, and how of teaching 5+8
mathematics. The how is addressed first—how should 4+9
mathematics be experienced by a learner? Second, why
should mathematics look this way? And, finally, what does Do you see a pattern? What are the relationships
it mean to understand mathematics? between these examples? In multiplication, have you ever
wondered why an odd number times an odd number
always generates an odd answer, an even number times an
even number is always an even number, and an even num-
ber times an odd number is always an odd number? Why
What Does It Mean is this true?
to Do Mathematics? Patterns are central to algebra, too. Imagine sending a
toy car down a ramp. Does the height of the ramp deter-
Mathematics is more than completing sets of exercises or mine how far the car will roll? Through exploring different
mimicking processes the teacher explains. Doing mathe- ramp heights and measuring the distance the toy cars travel,
matics means generating strategies for solving problems, you can see whether there is a pattern, which leads to a
applying those approaches, seeing if they lead to solutions, general rule—a function—to describe the relationship
and checking to see whether your answers make sense. between ramp height and distance traveled by the car.
Doing mathematics in classrooms should closely model the Engaging in the science of pattern and order—doing
act of doing mathematics in the real world. mathematics—takes time and effort (for teachers as they

13
14 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

plan and for students as they learn). Basic facts and basic predicting (Fillingim & Barlow, 2010). When this happens
skills such as computation of whole numbers, fractions, and on a daily basis, students are getting an empowering mes-
decimals are important in enabling students to be able to do sage: “You are capable of making sense of this—you are
mathematics. But if taught only for the sake of doing these capable of doing mathematics!”
calculations by rote, students will be not be prepared to
do the mathematics required in the 21st century. To “mas- The Classroom Environment for Doing Mathemat-
ter” these facts and procedures by imitating a teacher’s ics. Classrooms where students are making sense of math-
demonstration and/or through memorization is no more ematics do not happen by accident—they happen because
doing mathematics than playing scales on the piano is mak- the teacher establishes practices and expectations that
ing music. encourage risk taking, reasoning, sharing, and so on. The list
below provides expectations that are often cited as ones that
support students in doing mathematics (Clarke & Clarke,
PAUSE and REFLECT 2004, CCSSO, 2010, Hiebert et al., 1997, NCTM, 2007).
Envision for a moment an elementary or middle school 1. Persistance, effort, and concentration are important in learn-
mathematics class where students are doing mathematics as “a study ing mathematics. Engaging in productive struggle is
of patterns.” What do you see as you observe this class? Think of three important in learning! The more a student stays with a
ideas, and then read about the classroom environment. ● problem, the more likely they are to get it right. Getting
a tough problem right leads to a stronger sense of accom-
plishment than getting a quick, easy problem correct.
A Classroom Environment 2. Students share their ideas. Everyone’s ideas are impor-
for Doing Mathematics tant, and hearing different ideas helps students to
become strategic in selecting good strategies.
Doing mathematics begins with posing worthwhile tasks 3. Students listen to each other. All students have something
and then creating an environment where students take risks to contribute and these ideas should be considered and
and share and defend mathematical ideas. Students are evaluated for whether they will work in that situation.
actively engaged in solving problems, and teachers are pos- 4. Errors or strategies that didn’t work are opportunities for
ing questions that encourage students to make connections learning. Mistakes are opportunities for learning—why
and understand the mathematics they are exploring. did that approach not work? Could it be adapted and
work or is a completely different approach needed? Doing
The Language of Doing Mathematics. Children in tradi- mathematics involves monitoring and reflecting on the
tional mathematics classes often describe mathematics as process—catching and adjusting errors along the way.
imitating what the teacher shows them. Instructions to stu- 5. Students look for and discuss connections. Students should
dents given by teachers or in textbooks ask students to see connections between different strategies to solve a
listen, copy, memorize, drill, and compute. These are particular problem, as well as connections to other
lower-level thinking activities and do not adequately pre- mathematics concepts and to real contexts and situa-
pare students for the real act of doing mathematics. In con- tions. When students look for and discuss connections,
trast, the following verbs engage students in doing they see mathematics as worthwhile and important,
mathematics: rather than an isolated collection of facts.
compare explain predict
Notice who is doing the thinking, the talking, and the math-
conjecture explore represent
ematics—the students. Mathematics requires effort, and it is
construct formulate solve
important that students, families, and the community
describe investigate use
acknowledge and honor the fact that effort is what leads to
develop justify verify
learning in mathematics (National Mathematics Advisory
These verbs lead to opportunities for higher-level Panel, 2008). In fact, a review of research on what connects
thinking and encompass “making sense” and “figuring mathematics teaching practice to student learning found that
out.” Children engaged in these actions in mathematics two things result in conceptual understanding: making math-
classes will be actively thinking about the mathematical ematics relationships explicit and engaging students in productive
ideas that are involved. In observing a third-grade class- struggle (Bay-Williams, 2010; Hiebert & Grouws, 2007).
room where the teacher used this approach to teaching The teacher’s role is making mathematical relation-
mathematics, researchers found that students became ships explicit is to be sure that students are making the con-
“doers” of mathematics. In other words the students began nections that are implied in a task. For example, asking
to take the math ideas to the next level by (1) connecting students to relate today’s topic to one they investigated last
to previous material, (2) responding with information week, or by asking “How is Lisa’s strategy like Marco’s strat-
beyond the required response, and (3) conjecturing or egy?” when the two students have picked different ways to
An Invitation to Do Mathematics 15

solve a problem, are ways to be “explicit” about mathematical


relationships. The focus is on students’ applying their prior STOP
knowledge, testing ideas, making connections and com- Do not read on until you have listed as many patterns as you
parisons, and making conjectures. can identify. ●
Have you ever just wanted to think through something
yourself, without being interrupted or told how to do it? Yet, A Few Ideas. Here are some questions to guide your pat-
how often in mathematics class does this happen? As soon tern search:
as a student pauses in solving a problem the teacher steps in
to show or explain. While this may initially help the student
● Do you see at least one alternating pattern?
reach the answer, it does not help the student learn mathe-
● Have you looked at odd and even numbers?
matics—engaging in productive struggle is what helps stu-
● What can you say about the numbers in the tens place?
dents learn mathematics. Notice the importance of both
● Have you tried doing any adding of numbers? Num-
words in “productive struggle.” Students must have the tools bers in the list? Digits in the numbers?
and prior knowledge to solve a problem, and not be given a
● Do the patterns change when the numbers are greater
problem that is out of reach, or they will struggle without than 100?
being productive; yet students should not be given tasks that
are straightforward and easy, or they will not be struggling
with mathematical ideas. When students (even very young
STOP
students) know that struggle is expected as part of the pro- If there is an idea in this list you haven’t tried, try that now. ●
cess of doing mathematics, they embrace the struggle and
feel success when they reach a solution (Carter, 2008). Don’t forget to think about what happens to your pat-
terns after the numbers are more than 100. How are you
thinking about 113? One way is as 1 hundred, 1 ten, and
3 ones. But, of course, it could also be “eleventy-three,”
An Invitation where the tens digit has gone from 9 to 10 to 11. How do
these different perspectives affect your patterns? What
to Do Mathematics would happen after 999?
The purpose of this section is to provide you with oppor- When you added the digits in the numbers, the sums are
tunities to engage in the science of pattern and order—to 3, 8, 4, 9, 5, 10, 6, 11, 7, 12, 8, and so on. Did you look at every
do some mathematics. If possible, find one or two peers to other number in this string? And what is the sum of the dig-
work with you so that you can experience sharing and its for 113? Is it 5 or is it 14? (There is no “right” answer here.
exchanging ideas. For each problem posed, allow yourself But it is interesting to consider different possibilities.)
to try to (1) make connections within the mathematics (i.e.,
make mathematical relationships explicit) and (2) engage in Next Steps. Sometimes when you have discovered some
productive struggle. patterns in mathematics, it is a good idea to make some
We will explore four different problems. None requires changes and see how the changes affect the patterns. What
mathematics beyond elementary school mathematics—not changes might you make in this problem?
even algebra. But the problems do require higher-level
thinking and reasoning. Try out your ideas! Have fun!
STOP
Try some ideas now before going on. ●
Problems
Your changes may be even more interesting than the
following suggestions. But here are some ideas:
1. Start and Jump Numbers: Searching for Patterns
You will need to make a list of numbers that begin with a “start
● Change the start number but keep the jump number
number” and increase by a fixed amount we will call the “jump equal to 5. What is the same and what is different?
number.” First try 3 as the start number and 5 as the jump num-
● Keep the same start number and explore with different
ber. Write the start number at the top of your list, then 8, 13, jump numbers.
and so on, “jumping” by 5 each time until your list extends to
● What patterns do different jump numbers make? For
about 130. example, when the jump number was 5, the ones-digit
Examine this list of numbers and record the patterns you pattern repeated every two numbers—it had a “pattern
see. Share your ideas with the group, and write down every pat- length” of 2. But when the jump number is 3, the length
tern you agree really is a pattern. of the ones-digit pattern is 10! Do other jump numbers
create different pattern lengths?
16 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

of paper in 4 hours. The new machine could shred the


same truckload in only 2 hours. How long will it take to
shred a truckload of paper if Ron runs both shredders at the

3 6
same time?
0
7 9 STOP
Do not read on until you get an answer or get stuck. Can you
check that you are correct? Can you approach the problem using a

4 2 picture? ●

A Few Ideas. Have you tried to predict approximately


1 5 how much time you think it should take the two machines?
8 For example, will it be closer to 1 hour or closer to 4 hours?
What facts about the situation led you to this estimated
time? Is there a way to check your estimate? Checking a
guess in this way sometimes leads to a new insight.
Some people draw pictures to solve problems. Others
like to use something they can move or change. For exam-
ple, you might draw a rectangle or a line segment to stand
FIGURE 2.1 For jumps of 3, this cycle of digits will occur in the for the truckload of paper, or you might get some counters
ones place. The start number determines where the cycle begins. (chips, plastic cubes, pennies) and make a collection that
stands for the truckload.

● For a jump number of 3, how does the ones-digit pat- STOP


tern relate to the circle of numbers in Figure 2.1? Are
there similar circles of numbers for other jump Go back and try an approach that models the situation. ●
numbers?
● Using the circle of numbers for 3, find the pattern for Consider Solutions of Others. There are many ways to
jumps of multiples of 3, that is, jumps of 6, 9, or 12. model and solve the problem, and understanding other
people’s ways can develop our own understanding. See
Using Technology. Calculators facilitate explora- below one explanation for solving the problem, using strips
tion of this problem. Using the calculator makes (adapted from Schifter & Fosnot, 1993):
the list generation accessible for young children “This rectangle [see Figure 2.2] stands for the whole
who can’t skip count yet, and it opens the door for truckload. In 1 hour, the new machine will do half of
students to work with bigger jump numbers, such as 25 or this.” The rectangle is divided in half. “In 1 hour, the old
36. Most simple calculators have an automatic constant machine could do 14 of the paper.” The rectangle is
feature that will add the same number successively. For divided accordingly. “So in 1 hour, the two machines have
example, if you press 3 5 and then keep pressing , done 34 of the truck, and there is 14 left. What is left is one-
the calculator will keep counting by fives from the previous third as much as what they already did, so it should take
the two machines one-third as long to do that part as
answer (the first sequence of numbers you wrote). This also
it took to do the first part. One-third of an hour is
works for the other three operations. A nice online calculator
20 minutes. That means it takes 1 hour and 20 minutes
that can be projected in the classroom (and/or used with an to do it all.”
interactive whiteboard) while children use their own hand-
held calculators can be found at www.online-calculator.com/ As with the teachers in these examples, it is important to
full-screen-calculator. decide whether your solution is correct through justifying
why you did what you did; this reflects real problem solving
(rather than checking with an answer key). After you have
2. Two Machines, One Job justified that you have solved the problem in a correct man-
Ron’s Recycle Shop started when Ron bought a used paper- ner, try to find other ways that students might solve the
shredding machine. Business was good, so Ron bought a new problem—in considering multiple ways, you are making
shredding machine. The old machine could shred a truckload mathematical connections.
An Invitation to Do Mathematics 17

New machine in Old machine in Both machines


1 hour 1 hour together

60 minutes 20 minutes

FIGURE 2.2 Cora’s solution to the paper-shredding problem.

after products. For example, draw rectangles (or arrays)


3. One Up, One Down with a length and height of each of the factors (see
For Grades 1–3. When you add 7 + 7, you get 14. When you Figure 2.3(a)), then draw the new rectangle (e.g., 8-by-
make the first number 1 more and the second number 1 less, 6-unit rectangle). See how the rectangles compare.
you get the same answer: You may prefer to think of multiplication as equal sets.
For example, using stacks of chips, 7 × 7 is seven stacks with

seven chips in each stack (set) (see Figure 2.3(b)). The


7 + 7 = 14 and 8 + 6 = 14
expression 8 × 6 is represented by eight stacks of six (though
It works for 5 + 5 too: six stacks of eight is a possible interpretation). See how the
stacks for each expression compare.

5 + 5 = 10 and 6 + 4 = 10

Does this work any time the numbers are the same? Does it
work in other situations where the addends are not the same?
Explore and develop your own conjectures.
(a)
For Grades 4–8. Does the one up, one down pattern apply to
multiplication?

7 × 7 = 49
8 × 6 = 48

5 × 5 = 25
6 × 4 = 24

In these two multiplication examples, One Up, One Down


resulted in an answer that is not equal, but is one less than the This is 7 × 7 shown as an array of 7 rows of 7.
original problem. Does this work any time the original numbers
are the same? Does it work in other products where the original
numbers are not the same? Explore and develop your own (b)
conjectures.

STOP This is 7 × 7 as 7 sets of 7.


Explore the multiplication problem, responding to the ques-
tions posed. ● What happens when you change one of these to show 6 × 8?

A Few Ideas. Multiplication is more complicated. Why? FIGURE 2.3 Two physical ways to think about multiplication
Use a physical model or picture to compare the before and that might help in the exploration.
18 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

STOP STOP
Work with one or both of these approaches to gain insights Think about the problem and what you know. Experiment. ●
and make conjectures. ●

A Few Ideas. Sometimes it is tough to get a feel for prob-


Additional Patterns to Explore. Recall that doing math- lems that are abstract or complex. In situations involving
ematics includes the tendency to extend beyond the prob- chance, find a way to experiment and see what happens. For
lem posed. This problem lends itself to many “what if ?”s. this problem, you can make spinners using a drawing on
Here are a few. If you have found other ones, great! paper, a paper clip, and a pencil. Put your pencil point
through the loop of the clip and on the center of your
● Have you looked at how the first two numbers are
spinner. Now you can spin the paper clip “pointer.” Try at
related? For example, 7 × 7, 5 × 5, and 9 × 9 are all
least 20 pairs of spins for each choice and keep track of
products with like factors. What if the product were
what happens.
two consecutive numbers (e.g., 8 × 7 or 13 × 12)? What
Consider these issues as you explore:
if the factors differ by 2 or by 3?
● Think about adjusting by numbers other than one. ● For Susan’s choice (A then B), would it matter if she
What if you adjust two up and two down (e.g., 7 × 7 to spun B first and then A? Why or why not?
9 × 5)? ● Explain why you think purple is more or less likely in
● What happens if you use big numbers instead of small one of the three cases compared to the other two. It
ones (e.g., 30 × 30)? sometimes helps to talk through what you have
● If both factors increase (i.e., one up, one up), is there a observed to come up with a way to apply some more
pattern? precise reasoning.
Have you made some mathematical connections and
conjectures in exploring this problem? In doing so you have
hopefully felt a sense of accomplishment and excitement—
STOP
one of the benefits of doing mathematics. Try these suggestions before reading on. ●

4. The Best Chance of Purple Strategy 1: Tree Diagrams. On spinner A, the four colors
Three students are spinning to “get purple” with two spinners, each have the same chance of coming up. You could make a
either by spinning first red and then blue or first blue and then tree diagram for A with four branches, and all the branches
red (see Figure 2.4). They may choose to spin each spinner once would have the same chance (see Figure 2.5). Spinner B has
or one of the spinners twice. Mary chooses to spin twice on different-sized sections, leading to the following questions:
spinner A; John chooses to spin twice on spinner B; and Susan
chooses to spin first on spinner A and then on spinner B. Who
● What is the relationship between the blue region and
has the best chance of getting a red and a blue? (Lappan & Even, each of the others?
1989, p. 17)
● How could you make a tree diagram for B with each
branch having the same chance?
● How can you add to the diagram for spinner A so that
it represents spinning A twice in succession?
● Which branches on your diagram represent getting
purple?

Spinner A Spinner B

FIGURE 2.4 You may spin A twice, B twice, or A then B. Which


option gives you the best chance of spinning a red and a blue?
FIGURE 2.5 A tree diagram for spinner A in Figure 2.4.
What Does It Mean to Learn Mathematics? 19

● How could you make tree diagrams for John’s and that the teacher already has.” In the real world of problem
Susan’s choices? solving outside the classroom, there are no teachers with
● How do the tree diagrams relate to the spinners? answers and no answer books. Doing mathematics includes
using justification as a means of determining whether an
Tree diagrams are only one way to approach this. If the
answer is correct. The answer, then, to the question, is that
strategy makes sense to you, stop reading and solve the
the answers lie in your own reasoning and justification.
problem. If tree diagrams do not seem like a strategy you
want to use, read on.

Strategy 2: Grids. Suppose that you had a square that rep- What Does It Mean
resented all the possible outcomes for spinner A and a
similar square for spinner B. Although there are many ways to Learn Mathematics?
to divide a square into four equal parts, if you use lines Now that you have had the chance to experience doing
going all in the same direction, you can make comparisons mathematics, you may have a series of questions: Can stu-
of all the outcomes of one event (one whole square) with dents solve such challenging tasks? Why take the time to
the outcomes of another event (drawn on a different solve these problems—isn’t it better to do a lot of shorter
square). When the second event (in this case the second problems? Why should students be doing problems like
spin) follows the first event, make the lines on the second this, especially if they are reluctant to do so? In other words,
square go the opposite way from the lines on the first. Use how does “doing mathematics” relate to student learning?
transparencies and create squares to represent each spinner The answer lies in learning theory and research on how
(see Figure 2.6). Place one over the other, and you will see people learn.
24 little sections. Learning theories have been developed through anal-
Why are there six subdivisions for the spinner B ysis of students (and adults) as they develop new under-
square? What does each of the 24 little rectangles stand for? standings. Here we describe two theories (constructivism
What sections would represent purple? Did 24 come into and sociocultural theory) that are most commonly used by
play in another strategy? Can you connect the tree diagram researchers in mathematics education to understand how
strategy to the rectangle strategy? students learn mathematics. These theories are not com-
peting, but are compatible (Norton & D’Ambrosio, 2008).
Where Are the Answers? Learning theories might be thought of as tools or lenses
for interpreting how a person learns (Simon, 2009). For
No answers or solutions are given in this text. How do you example, constructivism might be the best tool, or lens,
feel about that? What about the “right” answers? Are your for thinking about how a student might internalize an
answers correct? What makes the solution to any investiga- idea, and sociocultural theory might be a better tool for
tion “correct”? analyzing influence of the social/cultural aspects of
In the classroom, the ready availability of the answer the classroom.
book or the teacher’s providing the solution or verifying
that an answer is correct sends a clear message to students
about doing mathematics: “Your job is to find the answers Constructivism
Constructivism is rooted in Jean Piaget’s work, which was
developed in the 1930s and translated to English in the
1950s. At the heart of constructivism is the notion that
B
learners are not blank slates but rather creators (construc-
tors) of their own learning. Integrated networks, or cognitive
B schemas, are both the product of constructing knowledge
B and the tools with which additional new knowledge can be
constructed. As learning occurs, the networks are rear-
Y
ranged, added to, or otherwise modified. This is an active
G endeavor on the part of the learner (Baroody, 1987; Cobb,
R 1988; Fosnot, 1996; von Glasersfeld, 1990, 1996).
All people, all of the time, construct or give meaning to
R B G Y
things they perceive or think about. As you read these
Spinner A Spinner B words, you are giving meaning to them. Whether listening
passively to a lecture or actively engaging in synthesizing
FIGURE 2.6 A square shows the chance of obtaining each color findings in a project, your brain is applying prior knowledge
for the spinners in Figure 2.4. (existing schemas) to make sense of the new information.
20 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

Through reflective thought (effort to connect existing ideas. The red dot is an emerging idea, one that is being
ideas to new information), people modify their existing constructed. Whatever existing ideas (blue dots) are used in
schemas to incorporate new ideas (Fosnot, 1996). This can the construction will be connected to the new idea (red dot)
happen in two ways—assimilation and accommodation. Assim- because those were the ideas that gave meaning to it. If a
ilation occurs when a new concept “fits” with prior knowl- potentially relevant idea (blue dot) is not accessed by the
edge and the new information expands an existing network. learner when learning a new concept (red dot), then that
Accommodation takes place when the new concept does potential connection will not be made.
not “fit” with the existing network (causing what Piaget
called disequilibrium), so the brain revamps or replaces the
Sociocultural Theory
existing schema. Though learning is constructed within
the self, the classroom culture contributes to learning while In the same way that the work of Piaget relates to construc-
the learner contributes to the culture in the classroom tivism, the work of Lev Vygotsky, a Russian psychologist,
(Yackel & Cobb, 1996). has greatly influenced sociocultural theory. Vygotsky’s work
also emerged in the 1920s and 1930s, but was not translated
Construction of Ideas. To construct or build something into English until the late 1970s. There are many concepts
in the physical world requires tools, materials, and effort. that these theories share (for example, the learning process
The tools we use to build understanding are our existing as active meaning-seeking on the part of the learner), but
ideas and knowledge. The materials we use to build under- sociocultural theory has several unique features. One is that
standing may be things we see, hear, or touch, or our own mental processes exist between and among people in social
thoughts and ideas. The effort required to connect new learning settings, and that from these social settings the
knowledge to old knowledge is reflective thought. learner moves ideas into his or her own psychological realm
In Figure 2.7, blue and red dots are used as symbols for (Forman, 2003).
ideas. Consider the picture to be a small section of our cog- Second, the way in which information is internalized
nitive makeup. The blue dots represent existing ideas. The (or learned) depends on whether it was within a learner’s
lines joining the ideas represent our logical connections or zone of proximal development (ZPD) (Vygotsky, 1978).
relationships that have developed between and among Simply put, the ZPD refers to a “range” of knowledge that
may be out of reach for a person to learn on his or her own,
but is accessible if the learner has support from peers or
more knowledgeable others. “[T]he ZPD is not a physical
space, but a symbolic space created through the interaction
of learners with more knowledgeable others and the culture
that precedes them” (Goos, 2004, p. 262). Researchers
Cobb (1994) and Goos (2004) suggest that in a true math-
ematical community of learners there is something of a
common ZPD that emerges across learners and there are
also the ZPDs of individual learners.
Another major concept in sociocultural theory is semi-
otic mediation. Semiotic refers to the use of language, and
other ways to convey cultural practices, such as diagrams,
pictures, and actions visuals, and mediation means that
these semiotics are exchanged between and among people.
So, semiotic mediation is the “mechanism by which indi-
vidual beliefs, attitudes, and goals are simultaneously
affected and affect sociocultural practices and institutions”
(Forman & McPhail, 1993, p. 134). In mathematics, semiot-
ics include mathematical symbols (e.g., the equal sign), and
it is through classroom interactions and activities that the
meaning of these symbols are developed.
Social interaction is essential for mediation. The nature
of the community of learners is affected by not just the
culture the teacher creates, but the broader social and his-
FIGURE 2.7 We use the ideas we already have (blue dots) to torical culture of the members of the classroom (Forman,
construct a new idea (red dot), in the process developing a 2003). In summary, from a sociocultural perspective, learn-
network of connections between ideas. The more ideas used and ing is dependent on the new knowledge falling within the
the more connections made, the better we understand. ZPD of the learner (who must have access to the assistance),
What Does It Mean to Learn Mathematics? 21

and occurs through interactions that are influenced by tools


Marlena
of mediation (words, pictures, etc.) and the culture within
and beyond the classroom.

Implications for Teaching Mathematics


It is not necessary to choose between a social constructiv-
ist theory that favors the views of Vygotsky and a cognitive
constructivism built on the theories of Piaget (Cobb,
1994; Simon, 2009). In fact, when considering classroom
practices that maximize opportunities to construct ideas,
or to provide tools to promote mediation, they are quite
similar. Classroom discussion based on students’ own
ideas and solutions to problems is absolutely “founda- Darrell
tional to children’s learning” (Wood & Turner-Vorbeck,
2001, p. 186).
Remember that learning theory is not a teaching
strategy—theory informs teaching. This section outlines
teaching strategies that are informed by constructivist and
sociocultural perspectives. You will see these strategies
revisited in Chapters 3 and 4, where a problem-based
model for instruction is discussed, and in Section II,
where you learn how to apply these ideas to specific areas
of mathematics.
Importantly, if these strategies are grounded in how
people learn, it means all people learn this way—students
with special needs, English language learners, students who
struggle, and students who are gifted. Too often, when
teachers make adaptations and modifications for particular
learners, they abandon these problem-based strategies for FIGURE 2.8 Two fourth-grade children invent unique solutions
methods that involve fewer opportunities for students to to a computation.
connect ideas and build knowledge—thereby impeding, not Source: Reprinted with permission from P. F. Campbell and M. L. Johnson,
supporting, learning. “How Primary Students Think and Learn,” in I. M. Carl (Ed.), Prospects for
School Mathematics (pp. 21–42), copyright © 1995 by the National Council
of Teachers of Mathematics, Inc. www.nctm.org.
Build New Knowledge from Prior Knowledge. Consider
the following task.
Four children had 3 bags of M&Ms. They decided to open
explain their reasoning. From a constructivist and sociocul-
all 3 bags of candy and share the M&Ms fairly. There were
tural perspective, this classroom culture allows students to
52 M&M candies in each bag. How many M&M candies
did each child get? (Campbell & Johnson, 1995, pp. 35–36) access their prior knowledge, use cultural tools, and build
new knowledge.
Note: You may want to select a nonfood context, such as Marlena interpreted the first task as “How many sets
decks of cards, or any culturally relevant or interesting item of 4 can be made from 156?” She used facts that were either
that would come in similar quantities. easy or available to her: 10 × 4 and 4 × 4. These totals she
subtracted from 156 until she got to 100. This seemed to
cue her to use 25 fours. She added her sets of 4 and knew
STOP the answer was 39 candies for each child. Marlena is using
Consider how you might introduce division to third graders an equal subtraction approach using known multiplication
and what your expectations might be for this problem as a teacher facts. While this is not the most efficient approach, it dem-
grounding your work in constructivist or sociocultural learning onstrates that Marlena understands the concept of division
theory. ● and, with the assistance of others, can move toward more
efficient approaches.
The student work samples in Figure 2.8 are from a Darrell’s approach reflects the sharing context of the
classroom where students are asked to develop strategies problem. He formed four columns and distributed amounts
for doing mathematics using their prior knowledge and to each, accumulating the amounts mentally and orally as
22 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

he wrote the numbers. Darrell used a counting-up approach,


first giving each student 20 M&Ms, seeing they could get
more, distributed 5 to each, then 10, then singles until he
reached the total. Like Marlena, Darrell used facts and pro-
cedures that he knew.
Note that this approach, in which students explore a
problem and the mathematical ideas are later connected to
that experience, is called a problem-based or inquiry approach.
It is through inquiry that students are activating their own
knowledge and trying to assimilate or accommodate (or
internalize) new knowledge.

Provide Opportunities to Talk about Mathematics. FIGURE 2.9 This student’s work indicates that she has a
Learning is enhanced when the learner is engaged with oth- misconception about place value and regrouping.
ers working on the same ideas. A worthwhile goal is to cre-
ate an environment in which students interact with each
other and with you. The rich interaction in such a class-
room allows students to engage in reflective thinking and class where students discuss and share clever ways to figure
to internalize concepts that may be out of reach without the out the product. One student might think of 5 eights (40)
interaction and input from peers and their teacher. In dis- and then 2 more eights (16) to equal 56. Another may have
cussions with peers, students will be adapting and expand- learned 7 × 7 (49) and added on 7 more to get 56. Still
ing on their existing networks of concepts. another might think “8 sevens” and take half of the sevens
(4 × 7) to get 28 and double 28 to get 56. A class discussion
Build In Opportunities for Reflective Thought. Class- sharing these ideas brings to the fore a wide range of use-
rooms need to provide structures and supports to help stu- ful mathematical “dots” relating addition and multiplica-
dents make sense of mathematics in light of what they tion concepts.
know. For a new idea you are teaching to be interconnected In contrast, facts such as 7 × 8 can be learned by rote
in a rich web of interrelated ideas, children must be men- (memorized). This knowledge is still constructed, but it is
tally engaged. They must find the relevant ideas they pos- not connected to other knowledge. No blue dots! Rote
sess and bring them to bear on the development of the new learning can be thought of as a “weak construction” (Nod-
idea. In terms of the dots in Figure 2.7 we want to activate dings, 1993). Students can recall it if they remember it, but
every blue dot students have that is related to the new red if they forget, they don’t have 7 × 8 connected to other
dot we want them to learn. Interestingly, this practice, knowledge pieces that would allow them to redetermine
grounded in learning theory, also has been established the fact.
through research studies. Recall the research finding, stated
earlier, that making mathematical relationships explicit is Engage Students in Productive Struggle. Related to sup-
connected with improving student conceptual understand- porting multiple approaches, it is important to allow stu-
ing (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). dents the time to struggle with the mathematics they are
A key to getting students to be reflective is to engage exploring. As Piaget describes, learners are going to experi-
them in interesting problems in which they use their prior ence disequilibrium in developing new ideas. Let students
knowledge as they search for solutions and create new ideas know this disequilibrium is part of the process. Susan
in the process. The problem-solving (inquiry) approach Carter, a National Board Certified Teacher who learned to
requires not just answers but also explanations and justifica- engage her students in productive struggle, writes of her
tions for solutions. transformation,

Encourage Multiple Approaches. Teaching should pro- I repeated the mantras of ineffective teachers: “This is too
vide opportunities for students to build connections hard for them!” or “My kids just don’t have the back-
between what they know and what they are learning. The ground for this kind of assignment.” . . . Imagine my heart-
break when I realized the disservice I was doing to my
student whose work is presented in Figure 2.9 may not
students, especially the ones who needed it most. By sub-
understand the algorithm she is trying to use. If instead she
stituting a focus on happiness for a focus on engagement
were asked to use her own approach to find the difference, with the ideas, I deprived students of what they needed
she might be able to get to a correct solution and build on most: worthwhile mathematical tasks and the support to
her understanding of place value and subtraction. think through them. The more I challenged myself . . . the
Even learning a basic fact, like 7 × 8, can have better closer I moved to an understanding of the necessity of
results if a teacher promotes multiple strategies. Imagine a struggle in learning.” (Carter, 2008, p. 135)
What Does It Mean to Understand Mathematics? 23

This is not just one teacher’s “aha”; this is one of the experience, effective teaching incorporates and builds on
findings mentioned earlier as key to developing concep- what the students bring to the classroom, honoring those
tual understanding (Hiebert & Grouws, 2007). This experiences. Thus, lessons begin with eliciting prior expe-
means redefining what we think of as “helping” stu- riences, and understandings and contexts for the lessons
dents—rather than showing students how to do some- are selected based on students’ knowledge and experi-
thing, your role in helping students is to ask probing ences. Some students will not have all the “blue dots” they
questions that keep students engaged in the productive need—it is your job to provide experiences where those
struggle until they reach a solution. This communicates blue dots are developed and then connected to the concept
high expectations and maximizes students’ opportunities being learned.
to learn with understanding. Classroom culture influences the individual learning of
your students. As stated previously, you should support a
Treat Errors as Opportunities for Learning. When stu- range of approaches and strategies for doing mathematics.
dents make errors, it can mean a misapplication of their Students’ ideas should be valued and included in classroom
prior knowledge in the new situation. Remember that from discussion of the mathematics. This shift in practice, away
a constructivist perspective, the mind is sifting through from the teacher telling one way to do the problem, estab-
what it knows in order to find useful approaches for the new lishes a classroom culture where ideas are valued. This
situation. Knowing that children rarely give random approach values the uniqueness of each individual.
responses (Ginsburg, 1977; Labinowicz, 1985) gives insight
into addressing student misconceptions and helping stu-
dents accommodate new learning. For example, students
comparing decimals may incorrectly apply “rules” of whole
What Does It Mean
numbers, such as “the more digits, the bigger the number” to Understand Mathematics?
(Martinie, 2007; Resnick, Nesher, Leonard, Magone,
Omanson, & Peled, 1989). Often one student’s misconcep- Both constructivist and sociocultural theories emphasize
tion is shared by others in the class, and discussing the prob- the learner building connections (blue dots to the red dots)
lem publicly can help other students understand (Hoffman, among existing and new ideas. So you might be asking,
Breyfogle, & Dressler, 2009). This public negotiation of “What is it they should be learning and connecting?” Or
meaning allows students to construct deeper meaning for “What are those red dots?” This section focuses on math-
the mathematics. ematics content required in today’s classrooms.
Figure 2.9 is an example of a student incorrectly It is possible to say that we know something or we do
applying what she learned about regrouping. If the teacher not. That is, an idea is something that we either have or
tries to help the student by re-explaining the “right” way don’t have. Understanding is another matter. For example,
to do the problem, the student loses the opportunity to most fifth graders know something about fractions. Given
reflect on and correct her misconceptions. If the teacher the fraction 68 , they likely know how to read the fraction and
instead asks the student to explain her regrouping process, can identify the 6 and 8 as the numerator and denominator,
the student must engage her reflective thought and think respectively. They know it is equivalent to 34 and that it is
about what was regrouped and how to keep the num- more than 12 .
ber equivalent. Students will have different understandings, however, of
such concepts as what it means to be equivalent. They may
Scaffold New Content. The practice of scaffolding, often know that 68 can be simplified to 34 but not understand that
3 6
associated with sociocultural theory, is based on the idea 4 and 8 represent identical quantities. Some may think that
that a task otherwise outside of a student’s ZPD can become simplifying 68 to 34 makes it a smaller number. Some students
accessible if it is carefully structured. For concepts com- will be able to create pictures or models to illustrate equiv-
pletely new to students, the learning requires more structure alent fractions or will have many examples of how 68 is used
or assistance, including the use of tools like manipulatives outside of class. In summary, there is a range of ideas that
or more assistance from peers. As students become more students often connect to their individualized understanding
comfortable with the content, the scaffolds are removed of a fraction—each student brings a different set of blue
and the student becomes more independent. Scaffolding dots to his or her knowledge of what a fraction is.
can provide support for those students who may not have a Understanding can be defined as a measure of the qual-
robust collection of “blue dots.” ity and quantity of connections that an idea has with existing
ideas. Understanding is not an all-or-nothing proposition.
Honor Diversity. Finally, and importantly, these theories It depends on the existence of appropriate ideas and on the
emphasize that each learner is unique, with a different creation of new connections, varying with each person
collection of prior knowledge and cultural experiences. (Backhouse, Haggarty, Pirie, & Stratton, 1992; Davis, 1986;
Since new knowledge is built on existing knowledge and Hiebert & Carpenter, 1992).
24 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

Relational Instrumental
Understanding Understanding

Continuum of Understanding

FIGURE 2.10 Understanding is a measure of the quality and quantity of connections that a new idea has with existing ideas. The greater
the number of connections to a network of ideas, the better the understanding.

Relational Understanding It is incorrect to say that a tool “illustrates” a concept.


To illustrate implies showing. Technically, all that you actu-
One way that we can think about understanding is that it ally see with your eyes is the physical object; only your mind
exists along a continuum from a relational understanding— can impose the mathematical relationship on the object
knowing what to do and why—to an instrumental under- (Suh, 2007b; Thompson, 1994).
standing—doing something without understanding (see Manipulatives can be a testing ground for emerging
Figure 2.10). The two ends of this continuum were named ideas. It is sometimes difficult for students (of all ages) to
by Richard Skemp (1978), an educational psychologist who think about and test abstract relationships using only words
has had a major influence on mathematics education. or symbols. For example, students exploring the relation-
In the 68 example, the student who can draw diagrams, ship between perimeter and area might use color tiles
give examples, find equivalencies, and approximate the size (squares of various colors), a geoboard (pegs on a grid) with
of 68 has an understanding toward the relational end of the rubber bands, or toothpicks to make the rectangles. A vari-
continuum, while a student who only knows the names and ety of tools should be accessible for students to select and
a procedure for simplifying 68 to 34 has an understanding use freely.
closer to the instrumental end of the continuum.
Examples of Tools. Physical materials or manipulatives in
Multiple Representations. The more ways children are mathematics abound—from common objects such as lima
given to think about and test an emerging idea, the better
chance they will correctly form and integrate it into a rich
web of concepts and therefore develop a relational under-
standing. Figure 2.11 illustrates five representations for
demonstrating an understanding of any topic (Lesh, Pictures
Cramer, Doerr, Post, & Zawojewski, 2003). Lesh and col-
leagues have found that children who have difficulty trans-
lating a concept from one representation to another also
have difficulty solving problems and understanding compu-
Manipulative Written
tations. Strengthening the ability to move between and models symbols
among these representations improves student understand-
ing and retention. Discussion of oral language, real-world
situations, and written symbols is woven into this chapter,
but here we elaborate on how manipulatives and models can
help (or fail to help) children construct ideas.

Tools and Manipulatives. A tool for a mathematical concept Real-world Oral


refers to any object, picture, or drawing that represents the situations language
concept or onto which the relationship for that concept
can be imposed. Manipulatives are physical objects that stu-
dents and teachers can use to illustrate and discover math-
ematical concepts, whether made specifically for FIGURE 2.11 Five different representations of mathematical
mathematics (e.g., connecting cubes) or for other purposes ideas. Translations between and within each can help develop
(e.g., buttons). new concepts.
What Does It Mean to Understand Mathematics? 25

beans and string to commercially produced materials such The examples in Figure 2.12 are models that can show
as wooden rods (e.g., Cuisenaire rods) and blocks (e.g., pat- the following concepts:
tern blocks). Figure 2.12 shows six tools, each representing
a. The concept of “6” is a relationship between sets that
a different concept, giving only a glimpse into the many
can be matched to the words one, two, three, four, five,
ways each manipulative can be used to support the develop-
or six. Changing a set of counters by adding one
ment of mathematics concepts and procedures.
changes the relationship. The difference between the
set of 6 and the set of 7 is the relationship “one more
than.”
STOP b. The concept of “measure of length” is a comparison.
Consider each of the concepts and the corresponding model The length measure of an object is a comparison rela-
in Figure 2.12. Try to separate the physical tool from the relationship tionship of the length of the object to the length of
that you must impose on the tool in order to “see” the concept. ● the unit.

(a) (d)

Base-ten concepts (ones, tens, hundreds) are


Countable objects can be used to model “number” frequently modeled with base 10 blocks.
and related ideas such as “one more than.” Sticks and bundles of sticks are also commonly used.

(b) (e)

“Length” involves a comparison of the length attribute of “Chance” can be modeled by comparing outcomes
different objects. Rods can be used to measure length. of a spinner.

(c) (f)

+5

–7

+4

–5 0 5

“Rectangles” can be modeled on a dot grid. They “Positive” and “negative” integers can be modeled with
involve length and spatial relationships. arrows with different lengths and directions.

FIGURE 2.12 Examples of tools to illustrate mathematics concepts.


26 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

c. The concept of “rectangle” includes both spatial and students with physical disabilities may be better able to
length relationships. The opposite sides are of equal work with electronic versions of manipulatives.
length and parallel and the adjacent sides meet at It is important to include calculators as a tool. The
right angles. calculator models a wide variety of numeric rela-
d. The concept of “hundred” is not in the larger square tionships by quickly and easily demonstrating the
but in the relationship of that square to the strip (“ten”) effects of these ideas. For example, you can skip-
and to the little square (“one”). count by hundredths from 0.01 (press 0.01 .01 , ,
e. “Chance” is a relationship between the frequency of an . . . ) or from another beginning number such as 3 (press
event happening compared with all possible outcomes. 0.01 , , . . . ). How many presses of are required
The spinner can be used to create relative frequencies. to get from 3 to 4?
These can be predicted by observing relationships of
sections of the spinner.
f. The concept of a “negative integer” is based on the Mathematics Proficiency
relationships of “magnitude” and “is the opposite of.” Much work has emerged since Skemp’s classic work empha-
Negative quantities exist only in relation to positive sized the need for relational and instrumental understand-
quantities. Arrows on the number line model the oppo- ing, based on the need to develop a robust understanding of
site of relationship in terms of direction and size or mathematics. Mathematically proficient people exhibit cer-
magnitude relationship in terms of length. tain behaviors and dispositions as they are “doing mathemat-
ics.” Adding It Up (National Research Council, 2001), an
Ineffective Use of Tools and Manipulatives. In addition influential report on how students learn mathematics,
to not making the connection between the model and the describes five strands involved in being mathematically pro-
concept, there are other ways that models or manipulatives ficient: (1) conceptual understanding, (2) procedural fluency,
can be used ineffectively. One of the most widespread mis- (3) strategic competence, (4) adaptive reasoning, and (5) pro-
uses occurs when the teacher tells students, “Do as I do.” ductive disposition. Figure 2.13 illustrates these interrelated
There is a natural temptation to get out the materials and and interwoven strands, providing a definition of each.
show children exactly how to use them. Children mimic the These five proficiencies are the foundation for the Standards
teacher’s directions, and it may even look as if they under- for Mathematical Practice described in the Common Core
stand, but they could be just following what they see. It is State Standards (CCSSO, 2010). The Standards for Mathe-
just as possible to move blocks around mindlessly as it is to matical Practices can be found in Table 1.2 on page 6.
“invert and multiply” mindlessly. Neither promotes think-
ing or aids in the development of concepts (Ball, 1992; Conceptual Understanding. Conceptual understanding is
Clements & Battista, 1990; Stein & Bovalino, 2001). For knowledge about the relationships or foundational ideas of
example, if you have carefully shown and explained how to a topic. Consider the task of adding 37 + 28. The conceptual
get an answer to a multiplication problem with a set of base- understanding of this problem includes such ideas as this
ten blocks, then students may set up the blocks to get the being a combining situation; that it could represent 37
answer but not focus on the patterns or processes that can people and then 28 more arriving; and that this is the same
be seen in modeling the problem with the blocks. as 30 + 20 + 7 + 8, since you can take numbers apart, rear-
Conversely, leaving students with insufficient focus or range, and still get the same sum. Additionally, students
guidance results in nonproductive and unsystematic inves- might understand that the value is larger than 50, but not
tigation (Stein & Bovalino, 2001). Students may be much larger. (This relates to the Standards for Mathemati-
engaged in conversations about the model they are using, cal Practice in the Common Core State Standards: “1. Make
but if they do not know what the mathematical goal is, sense of problems and persevere in solving them”; “7. Look
the manipulative is not serving as a tool for developing for and make use of structure” [CCSSO, 2010].)
the concept.
Procedural Fluency. Procedural fluency is knowledge and
Technology-Based Tools. Technology provides another use of rules and procedures used in carrying out mathemat-
source of models and manipulatives. There are websites, ical processes and also the symbolism used to represent
such as the National Library of Virtual Manipulatives, that mathematics. A student may choose to use the traditional
have a range of manipulatives available (e.g., geoboards, algorithm (see Figure 2.14b) or employ an invented
base-ten blocks, spinners, number lines). Virtual manipula- approach (see Figure 2.14 (c) or (d)). A student who is pro-
tives are a good addition to physical models. In some cases, cedurally fluent might move part of one number to another
the electronic version allows users to interact with a manip- (see 2.14(c)) or use a counting-up strategy (see 2.14(a)).
ulative in a way that is difficult or impossible to do with This choice will vary with the problem. He or she is flexible
hands-on tools, and it may be accessed at home. Also, some in ways to compute an answer. Note that the ability to
What Does It Mean to Understand Mathematics? 27

(a)
Conceptual understanding: Count 37
comprehension of mathematical Count 28
concepts, operations, and
Strategic competence: relations.
ability to formulate,
represent, and solve
mathematics problems.
Procedural fluency: Count all: 1, 2, 3, 4, …, 64, 65
skill in carrying out
procedures flexibly, (b)
accurately, efficiently,
and appropriately.

Adaptive reasoning:
capacity for logical Productive disposition:
thought, reflection, habitual inclination to
explanation, and see mathematics as
justification. Traditional algorithm Errors are often made
sensible, useful, and
worthwhile, coupled (c)
with a belief in diligence
and one’s own efficacy.

Intertwined strands of proficiency

FIGURE 2.13 Adding It Up describes five strands of mathematical


proficiency.
Source: National Research Council. (2001). Adding It Up: Helping Children
Learn Mathematics, p. 5. Reprinted with permission from the National (d)
Academy of Sciences, courtesy of the National Academies Press, 37 and 20 more—47, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65
Washington, DC.
(counting on fingers)

employ invented strategies, such as the ones described 59 60 61 64


65
here, requires a conceptual understanding of place value 58
and multiplication.
The ineffective practice of teaching procedures in the
62 63
absence of conceptual understanding results in a lack of
37, 47, 57
retention and increased errors. Think about the following
problem: 40,005 – 39,996 = ___. A student with weak pro-
cedural skills may launch into the standard algorithm,
regrouping across zeros (this usually doesn’t go well), rather
than notice that the number 39,996 is just 4 away from FIGURE 2.14 A range of computational examples showing
40,000, and therefore notice that the difference between the different levels of understanding.
two numbers is 9. Much research supports the fact that con-
ceptual understanding is critical to developing procedural
proficiency (Bransford et al., 2000; National Mathematics
Advisory Panel, 2008; NCTM, 2000). The Principles and
Standards Learning Principle states it well: Students can also have weak understanding of con-
cepts—for example, only understanding the ideas when tied
The alliance of factual knowledge, procedural proficiency, to a context. It is important to note that having deep con-
and conceptual understanding makes all three compo- ceptual and procedural understanding is important in hav-
nents usable in powerful ways. (p. 19) ing a relational understanding (Baroody, Feil, & Johnson,
2007). One way to explore all the interrelated ideas for a
Excerpt reprinted with permission from Principles and Standards for
topic is to create a network or web of associations, as
School Mathematics, copyright © 2000 by the National Council of demonstrated in Figure 2.15 (page 28) for the concept of
Teachers of Mathematics. ratio. Note how much is involved in having a relational
28 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

Scale: The scale on the map


shows 1 inch per 50 miles.
Division: The ratio 3 is to
4 is the same as 3 ÷ 4.
Geometry: The ratio of
circumference to diameter is
Trigonometry: All trig always ϖ, or about 22 to 7. Any
functions are ratios. two similar figures have
corresponding measurements
Comparisons: The ratio of sunny
RATIO that are proportional (in the
days to rainy days is greater in the same ratio).
South than in the North.
Slopes of lines (algebra) and slopes of roofs
(carpentry): The ratio of the rise to the run is 18 .
Unit prices: 12 oz. / $1.79.
That’s about 60¢ for 4 oz.
or $2.40 for a pound.
Business: Profit and loss are figured
as ratios of income to total cost.

FIGURE 2.15 Potential web of ideas that could contribute to the understanding of “ratio.”

understanding of ratio. (This relates to the Standards for Productive Disposition. What was your reaction when
Mathematical Practice in the Common Core State Standards: you read the problem about the two machines? Did you
“2. Reason abstractly and quantitatively”; “6. Attend to think, “I can’t remember the way to do this type of problem”?
precision”; “7. Look for and make use of structure” Or, did you think, “I can solve this, let me now think how”?
[CCSSO, 2010].) The first response is the result of a history of learning math
in which you were shown how to do things, rather than
Strategic Competence. In solving Problems 1 through 4 challenged to apply your own knowledge. The latter
earlier in the chapter, did you design a strategy? If it didn’t response is a productive disposition—a “can do” attitude. If
work, did you try something else? Perhaps you decided to you were committed to making sense of and solving those
draw a diagram or to fold paper to help you model the task. tasks, knowing that if you kept at it, you would get to a solu-
If you did any of these things, and if you changed out one tion, then you have a productive disposition. This relates to
strategy for a different one, then you were demonstrating the perseverance we just talked about in Chapter 1. What
strategic competence. Think of the value of this strand, not more important thing can we instill in students than a “can
just in mathematics, but as a life skill. You have a problem; do” attitude? (This relates to the Standards for Mathemat-
you need to figure out how you will solve it. If at first you ical Practice in the Common Core State Standards: “1. Make
don’t succeed, try, try again. (This relates to the Standards sense of problems and persevere in solving them”; “8.
for Mathematical Practice in the Common Core State Stan- Look for and express regularity in repeated reasoning”
dards: “4. Model with mathematics”; “5. Use appropriate [CCSSO, 2010].)
tools strategically” [CCSSO, 2010].) The last three of the five strands develop only when
students have experiences with solving problems as part of
Adaptive Reasoning. When you finished one of the prob- their daily learning in mathematics (i.e., a problem-based
lems, did you wonder whether you had it right? Did you or inquiry approach to instruction). Note how close these
have a way of convincing yourself or your peer that it had practices are to the teaching suggestions offered in the ear-
to be correct? Conversely, did you head down a wrong path lier section on learning theory.
and realize it wasn’t working? This capacity to reflect on
your work, evaluate it, and then adapt, as needed, is adaptive Benefits of Developing
reasoning. (This relates to the Standards for Mathemati-
cal Practice in the Common Core State Standards: “2. Rea-
Mathematical Proficiency
son abstractly and quantitatively”; “3. Construct viable To teach for mathematical proficiency requires a lot of
arguments and critique the reasoning of others”; “8. Look effort. Concepts and connections develop over time, not in
for and express regularity in repeated reasoning” a day. Tasks must be strategically selected to help students
[CCSSO, 2010].) build connections. The important benefits to be derived
Connecting the Dots 29

from relational understanding make the effort not only relational understanding are not able to apply the skills
worthwhile but also essential. they learned to solve new problems.

Effective Learning of New Concepts and Procedures. Improved Attitudes and Beliefs. Relational understand-
Recall what learning theory tells us—students are actively ing has an affective as well as a cognitive effect. When ideas
building on their existing knowledge. The more robust are well understood and make sense, the learner tends to
their understanding of a concept, the more connections stu- develop a positive self-concept and a confidence in his or
dents are building, and the more likely it is they can connect her ability to learn and understand mathematics. There is a
new ideas to the existing conceptual webs they have. Frac- definite feeling of “I can do this! I understand!” There is
tion knowledge and place-value knowledge come together no reason to fear or to be in awe of knowledge learned
to make decimal learning easier, and decimal concepts relationally. At the other end of the continuum, instrumen-
directly enhance an understanding of percentage concepts tal understanding has the potential of producing mathemat-
and operations. Without these and many other connections, ics anxiety, a real phenomenon that involves fear and
children will need to learn each new piece of information avoidance behavior.
they encounter as a separate, unrelated idea.

Less to Remember. When students learn in an instrumen-


tal manner, mathematics can seem like endless lists of iso- Connecting the Dots
lated skills, concepts, rules, and symbols that must be
refreshed regularly and often seem overwhelming to keep It seems appropriate to close this chapter by connecting
straight. Constructivists talk about teaching “big ideas” some dots, especially because the ideas represented here are
(Brooks & Brooks, 1993; Hiebert et al., 1996; Schifter & the foundation for the approach to each topic in the content
Fosnot, 1993). Big ideas are really just large networks of chapters. This chapter began with discussing what doing
interrelated concepts. Frequently, the network is so well mathematics is and challenging you to do some mathemat-
constructed that whole chunks of information are stored and ics. Each of these tasks offered opportunities to make con-
retrieved as single entities rather than isolated bits. For nections between mathematics concepts—connecting the
example, knowledge of place value subsumes rules about blue dots.
lining up decimal points, ordering decimal numbers, moving Second, you read about learning theory—the impor-
decimal points to the right or left in decimal-percent con- tance of having opportunities to connect the dots. The best
versions, rounding and estimating, and a host of other ideas. learning opportunities, according to constructivism and
sociocultural theories, are those that engage learners in
Increased Retention and Recall. Memory is a process of using their own knowledge and experience to solve prob-
retrieving information. Retrieval of information is more lems through social interactions and reflection. This is what
likely when you have the concept connected to an entire you were asked to do in the four tasks. Did you learn some-
web of ideas. If what you need to recall doesn’t come to thing new about mathematics? Did you connect an idea that
mind, reflecting on ideas that are related can usually lead you had not previously connected?
you to the desired idea eventually. For example, if you for- Finally, you read about understanding—that having
get the formula for surface area of a rectangular solid, relational knowledge (knowledge in which blue dots are
reflecting on what it would look like if unfolded and spread well connected) requires conceptual and procedural
out flat can help you remember that there are six rectangu- understanding as well as other proficiencies. The problems
lar faces in three pairs that are each the same size. that you solved in the first section emphasized concepts
and procedures while placing you in a position to use
Enhanced Problem-Solving Abilities. The solution of strategic competence, adaptive reasoning, and a produc-
novel problems requires transferring ideas learned in one tive disposition.
context to new situations. When concepts are embedded in This chapter focused on connecting the dots between
a rich network, transferability is significantly enhanced theory and practice—building a case that your teaching
and, thus, so is problem solving (Schoenfeld, 1992). When must focus on opportunities for students to develop their
students understand the relationship between a situation own networks of blue dots. As you plan and design instruc-
and a context, they are going to know when to use a par- tion, you should constantly reflect on how to elicit prior
ticular approach to solve a problem. While many students knowledge by designing tasks that reflect the social and
may be able to do this with whole-number computation, cultural backgrounds of students, to challenge students to
once problems increase in difficulty and numbers move think critically and creatively, and to include a comprehen-
to rational numbers or unknowns, students without a sive treatment of mathematics.
30 Chapter 2 Exploring What It Means to Know and Do Mathematics

RESOURC E S for Chapter 2


RECOMMENDED READINGS complexities of teaching. It is wonderfully written and easily
accessed at any point in the book.
Articles
Berkman, R. M. (2006). One, some, or none: Finding beauty in ONLINE RESOURCES
ambiguity. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 11(7),
324–327. Classic Problems
This article offers a great teaching strategy for nurturing rela- www.mathforum.org/dr.math/faq/faq.classic.problems
tional thinking. Examples of the engaging “one, some, or none” .html
activity are given for geometry, number, and algebra activities. A nice collection of well-known problems (“Train A leaves
Carter, S. (2008). Disequilibrium & questioning in the primary the station at . . .”) along with discussion, solutions, and
classroom: Establishing routines that help students learn. extensions.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 15(3), 134–137. Constructivism in the Classroom
This is a wonderful teacher’s story of how she infused the con- http://mathforum.org/mathed/constructivism.html
structivist notion of disequilibrium and the related idea of pro- Provided by the Math Forum, this page contains links to
ductive struggle to support learning in her first-grade class. numerous sites concerning constructivism as well as arti-
Hedges, M., Huinker, D., & Steinmeyer, M. (2005). Unpacking cles written by researchers.
division to build teachers’ mathematical knowledge.
Teaching Children Mathematics, 11(9), 478–483. Utah State University National Library of
This article describes the many concepts related to division. Virtual Manipulatives
Suh, J. (2007). Tying it all together: Classroom practices that http://nlvm.usu.edu/en/nav/vlibrary.html
promote mathematical proficiency for all students. Teaching A robust collection of virtual manipulatives. Many do not
Children Mathematics, 14(3), 163–169. have corresponding, hands-on counterparts. A great site to
As the title implies, this is a great resource for connecting the bookmark and use.
NRC’s Mathematics Proficiencies (National Research Council,
2001) to teaching.
Books
Lampert, M. (2001). Teaching problems and the problems of teach-
ing. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Lampert reflects on her personal experiences in teaching fifth
grade and shares with us her perspectives on the many issues and

REF LE C T ION S on Chapter 2


WRITING TO LEARN FOR DISCUSSION AND EXPLORATION
1. How would you describe what it means to “do mathe- 1. Consider the following task and respond to these three
matics”? questions.
2. What is reflective thought? Why is reflective thinking so ● What features of “doing mathematics” does it have?

important in the development of conceptual ideas in math- ● To what extent does it lead students to develop a rela-

ematics? tional understanding?


3. What does it mean to say that understanding exists on a ● To what extent does it develop mathematical proficiency?

continuum from relational to instrumental? Give an exam- (See Figure 2.13 on page 27.)
ple of an idea, and explain how a student’s understanding
might fall on either end of the continuum.
4. Explain why a tool for a mathematical idea is not really an Some people say that to add four consecutive numbers, you add
example of the idea. If it is not an example of the concept, the first and the last numbers and multiply by 2. Is this always
what does it mean to say we “see” the concept when we look true? How do you know? (Stoessiger & Edmunds, 1992)
at the tool?
Reflections on Chapter 2 31

2. Not every educator believes in the constructivist-oriented through quality explanations. Students should not have to
approach to teaching mathematics. Some of their reasons “reinvent the wheel.” How would you respond to these
include the following: There is not enough time to let kids arguments?
discover everything. Basic facts and ideas are better taught

Field Experience Guide


C O N N E C T I O N S
Go to the MyEducationLab (www.myeducationlab.com) An environment for doing mathematics is the
for Math Methods and familiarize yourself with the content. focus of Chapter 1 of the Field Experience
Much of the site content is organized topically. The topics Guide. Activities include observation proto-
include all of the following to support your learning in the cols, teacher and student interviews, teaching,
course: and a project. The act of doing mathematics is also the focus
● Learning outcomes for important mathematics methods of an observation targeting higher-level thinking (FEG 2.2).
course topics aligned with the national standards In addition, Chapter 4 of the guide includes experiences re-
● Assignments and Activities, tied to these learning out- lated to teaching for understanding and learning mathemat-
comes and standards, that can help you more deeply ics developmentally.
understand course content
● Building Teaching Skills and Dispositions learning units
that allow you to apply and practice your understanding
of the core mathematics content and teaching skills

Your instructor has a correlation guide that aligns the


exercises on the topical portion of the site with your book’s
chapters.
On MyEducationLab you will also find book-specific
resources including Blackline Masters, Expanded Lesson
Activities, and Artifact Analysis Activities.

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