Introduction:

Digital Design:
NUMBER SYSTEM
Number systems are the technique to represent numbers in the computer
system architecture, every value that you are saving or getting into/from
computer memory has a defined number system.

Computer architecture supports following number systems.

 Binary number system

 Octal number system
 Decimal number system
Hexadecimal

BINARY NUMBER SYSTEM

A Binary number system has only two digits that are 0 and 1. Every
number (value) represents with 0 and 1 in this number system. The base
of binary number system is 2, because it has only two digits.

OCTAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Octal number system has only eight (8) digits from 0 to 7. Every number
(value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 and 7 in this number system. The
base of octal number system is 8, because it has only 8 digits.

DECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

Decimal number system has only ten (10) digits from 0 to 9. Every
number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6, 7,8 and 9 in this number
system. The base of decimal number system is 10, because it has only 10
digits.

HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM

A Hexadecimal number system has sixteen (16) alphanumeric values from

0 to 9 and A to F. Every number (value) represents with 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,
7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E and F in this number system. The base of hexadecimal
number system is 16, because it has 16 alphanumeric values. Here A is
10, B is 11, C is 12, D is 14, E is 15 and F is 16.

Number system Base(Radix) Used digits Example

Binary 2 0,1 (11110000)2
Octal 8 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7 (360)8
Decimal 10 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 (240)10
0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,
Hexadecimal 16 (F0)16
A,B,C,D,E,F
CONVERSIONS
1. BINARY TO OCTAL

An easy way to convert from binary to octal is to group binary digits

into sets of three, startingwith the least significant (rightmost) digits.

Binary: 11100101 = 11 100 101

011 100 101 Pad the most significant digits with zeros if
necessary to complete a group of three.

Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary = 011 100 101

Octal = 3 4 5 = 345 oct

2. BINARY TO HEXADECIMAL
An equally easy way to convert from binary to hexadecimal is to group
binary digits into sets offour, starting with the least significant
(rightmost) digits.

Binary: 11100101 = 1110 0101

Then, look up each group in a table:

Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex
 3.OCTAL TO BINARY
Converting from octal to binary is as easy as converting from binary
to octal. Simply look upeach octal digit to obtain the equivalent group
of three binary digits.

Octal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

Octal = 3 4 5
Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

4. HEXADECIMAL TO BINARY

Converting from hexadecimal to binary is as easy as converting from

binary to hexadecimal. Simply look up each hexadecimal digit to
obtain the equivalent group of four binary digits.

Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111
Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F
Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal = A 2 D E
Binary = 1010 0010 1101 1110 = 1010001011011110 binary

5. OCTAL TO DECIMAL

The conversion can also be performed in the conventional mathematical

way, by showing eachdigit place as an increasing power of 8.

345 octal = (3 * 82) + (4 * 81) + (5 * 80) = (3 * 64) + (4 * 8) + (5 * 1) = 229 decimal

6. DECIMAL TO OCTAL

Decimal to Octal Conversion Result

Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Octal Number is
(30071)8
7. DECIMAL TO HEXADECIMAL

Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Result

Example 1
Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Hexadecimal Number is
(3039)16

Example 2 Hexadecimal Number is

Decimal Number is : (725)10 (2D5)16
Convert
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
to its equivalent... A, B,
C, D, E, F
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion Result
Example 1
Decimal Number is : (12345)10

Hexadecimal Number is
(3039)16

Example 2
Decimal Number is : (725)10 Hexadecimal Number is
(2D5)16
Convert
10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15
to its equivalent...
A, B, C, D, E, F

8. OCTAL TO HEXADECIMAL

When converting from octal to hexadecimal, it is often easier to first

convert the octal number into binary and then from binary into
hexadecimal. For example, to convert 345 octal into hex:

(from the previous example)

 Octal = 3 4 5

Binary = 011 100 101 = 011100101 binary

Drop any leading zeros or pad with leading zeros to get groups of
four binary digits (bits):Binary 011100101 = 1110 0101

Then, look up the groups in a table to convert to hexadecimal digits.

Binary: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111

Hexadecimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Binary: 1000 1001 1010 1011 1100 1101 1110 1111

Hexadecimal: 8 9 A B C D E F

Binary = 1110 0101

Hexadecimal = E 5 = E5 hex

Therefore, through a two-step conversion process, octal 345 equals

binary 011100101 equals hexadecimal E5.

9. HexaDecimal to Decimal Conversion

Example 1

9 = 9 * (16 ^ 0) = 9

C = 12 * (16 ^ 1) = 192

Then, we add the results.

192 + 9 = 20110 decimal

Example 2:

C = 12 * (16 ^ 0) 12
B = 11 * (16 ^ 1) 176
A = 10 * (16 ^ 2) 2560

Then, we add the results.

2560 + 176 + 12 = 274810 decimal

10. Hexadecimal to Octal

Example: Convert ACB into an octal number.

Solution: Given, ACB is a hexadecimal number.

A → 1010, C →1100, B → 1011

Next, arrange them from right to left, each with three digits.

101, 011, 001, 011

101→5, 011 →3, 001→1, 011→3

Hence, ACB = 5313

1’S COMPLEMENT:

2’S COMPLEMENT:
Boolean algebra
The logical symbol 0 and 1 are used for representing the digital input or output.

The digital circuit can be made up of several logic gates.

To perform the logical operation with minimum logic gates, a set of rules were invented, known as the Laws of
Boolean Algebra.

These rules are used to reduce the number of logic gates for performing logic operations.

The Boolean algebra is mainly used for simplifying and analyzing the complex Boolean expression.

It is also known as Binary algebra because we only use binary numbers in this.
Rules in Boolean algebra

1. Only two values(1 for high and 0 for low) are possible for the variable used in Boolean algebra.
2. The overbar(-) is used for representing the complement variable. So, the complement of variable C is
represented as .
3. The plus(+) operator is used to represent the ORing of the variables.
4. The dot(.) operator is used to represent the ANDing of the variables.

Boolean Laws
There are six types of Boolean Laws.

Commutative law
Any binary operation which satisfies the following expression is referred to as commutative operation.

Commutative law states that changing the sequence of the variables does not have any effect on the output of a logic
circuit.

Associative law
This law states that the order in which the logic operations are performed is irrelevant as their effect is the same.

Distributive law
Distributive law states the following condition.

AND law
These laws use the AND operation. Therefore they are called as AND laws.

OR law
These laws use the OR operation. Therefore they are called as OR laws.
INVERSION law
This law uses the NOT operation. The inversion law states that double inversion of a variable results in the original
variable itself.

Function:

Logic Gates:
Logic gates are the basic building blocks of any digital system. It is an electronic circuit having one or more than one
input and only one output. The relationship between the input and the output is based on a certain logic. Based on
this, logic gates are named as AND gate, OR gate, NOT gate etc.

AND Gate
A circuit which performs an AND operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
OR Gate
A circuit which performs an OR operation is shown in figure. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOT Gate
NOT gate is also known as Inverter. It has one input A and one output Y.

Logic diagram

Truth Table
NAND Gate
A NOT-AND operation is known as NAND operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

NOR Gate
A NOT-OR operation is known as NOR operation. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram
Truth Table

XOR Gate
XOR or Ex-OR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor. The
exclusive-OR gate is abbreviated as EX-OR gate or sometime as X-OR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.

Logic diagram

Truth Table

XNOR Gate
XNOR gate is a special type of gate. It can be used in the half adder, full adder and subtractor. The exclusive-NOR
gate is abbreviated as EX-NOR gate or sometime as X-NOR gate. It has n input (n >= 2) and one output.
Logic diagram

Truth Table

Introduction to Combinational Circuit Design:

Combinational circuit is a circuit in which we combine the different gates in the circuit.

Block diagram

We're going to elaborate few important combinational circuits as follows.

Half Adder
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two inputs and two outputs. The half adder circuit is designed to add
two single bit binary number A and B. It is the basic building block for addition of two single bit numbers. This circuit
has two outputs carry and sum.

Block diagram

Truth Table

Circuit Diagram

Design procedure of a Combinational Circuit

The design procedure of a combinational circuit involves the following steps:

1. The total number of available input variables and required output variables is determined.
2. The input and output variables are allocated with letter symbols.
3. The exact truth table that defines the required relationships between inputs and outputs is derived.
4. The simplified Boolean function is obtained from each output.
5. The logic diagram is drawn.
Classification of Combinational Circuit:

Introduction to Synchronous Sequential Circuit Design:

Sequential Circuit:

Synchronous Sequential Circuit: