3.

0 INTRODUCTION
Till now we have discussed about various components and memory system for a computer. We have also
introduced one interconnection structure called the Bus. In this unit we will discuss more about the
input/output organisation of a computer system. First we will discuss briefly about input/output devices,
then move on to the function and structure of an Input/output processors which were quite common in
mainframe computers. Finally we will discuss about two popular device interfaces. In the next unit, we will
discuss about the newer technologies in computer hardware.

3.1 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
• identify some of the Input/output devices
• identify the term of input/output module
• define the three types of Input/output techniques, viz. Programmed Input/output, Interrupt driven
input/output and Direct Memory Access
• define an Input-output processor
• identify the serial and parallel interfaces,

3.2 INPUT/OUTPUT DEVICES

(PERIPHERALS)
The computer will be of no use if it is not communicating with the external world. Thus, a computer must
have a system to receive information from outside world and must be able to communicate results to
external world. Thus, a computer consists of an I/O system. This system include two basic components, one
is the I/O devices and another called I/O module, which not only connects an I/O device with the system
bus, but plays a very crucial role in between. A device which is connected to an I/O module of computer is
called a peripheral.
Let us discuss few Input/Output devices in this section and we will discuss about I/O module the
subsequent sections.

3.2.1 Input Devices

Input technologies are rapidly developing. These, as the name suggests, are used for transferring use
command or choice or data to the computer.

Keyboard
Figure 1: Keyboard
 The keyboard is one of the most common input device for computers. The layout of the keyboard is
like that of the traditional QWERTY typewriter, although there are some extra command and function
keys provided for. Substantial development has taken place in the ergonomics of key board design to
ensure that operator strain is minimal.
Key-to-tape, key-to-disk and key-to-diskette

These are stand alone data entry stations. These units usually have a small processor attached to a
keyboard and a visual display unit. The processor checks for the accuracy of data at the time of entry.
The screen displays what is being entered. These facilities are highly desirable for a data processing
centre.

Pointing Devices

The keyboard provides facility to input data and commands to computer in text form. We find that, while
working with a display based packages, we are mostly pointing to some area it the display to select an
option and move across on the screen to select subsequent options. For such cases pointing devices are very
useful. There are several pointing devices, some of them are:

a. Mouse: Mouse is a handy device which can be moved on a smooth surface to simulate
the movement of cursor that is desired on the display screen. Mouse could be optical;
offering quite and reliable operation, or mechanical which is cheaper but noisier User can
move the mouse, stop it at a point where the pointer is to be located and, with the help of
buttons, make selection of choices. (Refer to Figure 2)

Figure 2: Mouse
b. Light Pen: This is a pen shaped device allowing natural movement on the screen. The pen
contains the light receptor and is activated by pressing the pen against the display screen.
Receptor is the scanning beam which helps in locating the pen's position. Suitable system
software is provided to initiate necessary action when we locate an area on the display
surface with the help of the light pen.
 Figure 3: The Light Pen

There are a few other pointing devices known as track balls and joy sticks which are used more on
entertainment usage like games. We will not discuss them in this section.

Voice/Speech Input

One of the most exciting areas of research is in recognising human voices/speech so that this could from
input to computer directly. This approach will eliminate the need for keying in data and will facilitate
casual users to use the computer very easily. There are several problem areas for research since speech
recognition system should be able to identify who is speaking and what the message is. Voice recognition
techniques along with several other techniques to convert the voice signals to appropriate words and derive
the correct meaning of words are required for a commercially viable comprehensive speech recognition
system. We have found limited success in this area and today devices are available commercially to
recognise and interpret human voices within limited scope of operation.
Scanners

Scanners facilitate capturing of the information and storing them in graphic format for displaying back on
the graphical screen. Scanner consists of two components, the first one to illuminate the page so that the
optical image can be captured and the other to convert the optical image into digital format for storage by
computer. The graphic image scanned can now be seen and processed directly by the computer. Substantial
research work is going on to establish methods by which the scanned image can be automatically converted
into equivalent text for further processing.

Figure 4: Scanner

Source Data Automation

Most recent trends for data input is towards source data automation. The equipments used for source data
automation capture data as a by-product of a business activity thereby completely eliminating manual input
of data. Some examples are:
1. Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) devices are generally used by the banking industry to
read the account numbers on cheques directly and do the necessary processing.
2. Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) devices can sense marks on computer readable papers. This kind of
device is used by academic and testing institutions to grade aptitude tests where candidates mark the
correct alternatives on a special sheet of paper. These answer sheets are then directly read by the
optical mark recognition devices and the information sent to a computer for processing. The entrance
tests and some of the assignments are being marked by OMR.
3. Optical Bar Code Reader (OBR) scans a set of vertical bars of different widths for specific data and are
used to read tags and merchandise in stores, medical records, library books, etc. These are available as
hand held devices.
3.2.2 Output Devices
The output normally can be produced in two ways; either on a display unit/device or on a paper. Other
kinds of output such as speech output, mechanical output is also being used in certain applications, In this
section, we will discuss only the display and printing output devices.
Display Devices

One of the most important peripherals in computer is the graphic display device. Conventional computer
display terminals knows as alphanumeric terminals, display characters (images) from a multi-dot array
(normally 5 X 7 or 7 X 9). These are used to read text information displayed on the screen. However, there
are increasing demand for display of graphics, diagrams and pictures to make the visual presentation of
information more effective for user interaction and decision making.
Graphic display is made up of a series of dots called 'pixels' (picture elements) whose pattern produces the
image. Each dot on the screen is defined as a separate unit which can be directly addressed. Since each dot
can be controlled individually there is much greater flexibility in drawing pictures. There are three
categories of display screen technology:

1. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)

2. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
3. Projection Displays

CRT Displays

The main components of a CRT terminal are the electron gun, the electron beam controlled by an
electromagnetic field and a phosphor coated display screen.
The electromagnetic field in order to create an image (Refer figure 5). There are two types of CRT displays
:
a. Vector CRT displays in which the electron beam is directed only to the places where the image is
to be created.
b. Raster scan displays in which the image is projected on to the screen by directing the electron
beam across each row of picture elements from the top to the bottom of the screen. This type of
display provides a high dynamic capability since image is continuously refreshed and it allows for
continual user input and output. It offers full colour display at a relatively low cost and is
becoming very popular.
 Figure 5: CRT display
Liquid Crystal Displays(LCD)

First introduction in watches and clocks in 1970s, LCD is now applied to display terminals. The major
advantage of LCD is the low energy consumption. The CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) is replaced by liquid
crystal to produce the image. This also have colour capability but the image quality is relatively poor.
These are commonly used in portable devices because of compactness and low energy requirements.
Projection Displays

The personal size screen of the previous displays is replaced by a large screen upon which images are
projected. These are normally used for large group presentation. These systems can be connected to
computer and whatever appears on the computer terminal gets enlarged and projected on a large screen.
Another popular method is to connect computer to an LCD flat screen and to project the LCD image using
Overhead Projector. These are popularly used for seminars, class rooms, marketing presentations, etc.
Terminals

Terminals have become very popular interactive input and output units. A terminal, when connected to a
CPU, sends data and instructions directly into the computer. Terminals can be classified into two types,
namely hard copy terminals and soft copy terminals. A hard copy terminals provides a print-out on paper
where a soft copy terminal provides a visual display on screen. A soft copy terminal is also known as a
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) terminal. Terminals are also classified as dumb terminals or intelligent terminals
depending upon provision for any intelligence or otherwise at the terminal. Current technology has brought
about a low price differential between intelligent and dumb terminals. This encourages increasing use of
intelligent terminals.
Graphic Display Terminal

A graphic display terminal displays information in both character and graphic forms. These are extensively
used for CAD/CAM (Computer Aided Design/Computer Aided Manufacture) applications.
Printers

Printers are used for producing output on paper There are a large variety of printing devices which can be
classified according to the print quality and the printing speeds. Current estimates indicate that about 1500
types of printers are commercially available conforming to about 15 different printing technologies. The
following categories of printers are identified.

(a) Printing Technology - impact Printers vs. non-impact printers

Impact printers use variations of standards typewriter printing mechanism where a hammer strikes paper
through inked ribbon. Non-impact Printer uses chemical, heat or electrical signals to etch or induce
symbols on paper. Many of these require special coated or treated paper.

(b) Character forms-fully formed characters vs. dot matrix

Fully formed characters are constructed from solid lines and curves like the characters of typewriter
whereas a dot matrix character is made up from a carefully arranged sequence of dots packed very close to
each other. Obviously print quality of a dot matrix printer will be poorer compared to that from fully
formed characters.

(c) Printing sequence - serial vs. line vs. page

This indicates the amount of information of printer can output within a single cycle of operation. Serial
printing is done character by character whereas line printing forms an entire line and prints a line at a time
whereas a page printer outputs a whole page of character and images simultaneously during one cycle.
Clearly the speed of output will depend upon the printing sequence incorporated in the printing device. We
will now look at three of the most popular printers:
Dot Matrix Printers

This is one of the most popular printers used for personal computing systems. These printers are relatively
cheaper compared to other technologies. This uses impact technology and a print head containing banks of
wires moving at high speeds against inked ribbon and paper. Characters are produced in matrix format. The
speeds range from 40 characters per second (CPS) to about 1,000 cps. A disadvantage of this technology is
that the print quality is low.

Figure 6: Dot Matrix Printer

Ink Jet Printers

These print by spraying a controlled stream of tiny ink droplets accurately on the paper forming either
dot matrix or solid characters. These are non-impact and hence are relatively silent and high quality
printers. The typical speeds range from 50 cps to above 300 cps and this technology has been used well
for production of colour printing and elaborate graphics.

Figure 7: Inkjet Printer

Laser Printers

This is a high quality, high speed, high volume technology which works in non-impact fashion on plain
paper or pre-printed forms. Printing is achieved by deflecting laser beam on to the photo sensitive surface
of a drum and the latent image attracts the toner to the image areas. The toner is then electrostatically
transferred to the paper and fixed into a permanent image. Speeds can range from 10 pages a minute to
about 200 pages per minute. This technology is relatively expensive but is becoming very popular because
of the quality, speed and noiseless operations.
 Figure 8: Laser Printer

Plotters
To produce graphical output on paper the plotters are used.
After discussing so much about the I/0 devices, let us come back to one of the basic question: How
does I/O devices are connected to computers? We will try to answer the question in the next section.

Style of Character Print quality

Print head per second
Dot matrix 40-400 Low quality but being steadily improved. Very useful for high-
volume work because of great speeds. Lack of descenders on
letters (many models rectify this) and the inability to reproduce
well on a photocopier are major problems.
Impact printers have the ability to produce multiple copies of documents.
Non-impact printers
Ink-jet upto 92 High-quality print character sets: choice of type set is controlled by
program; print quality is not quite equal to the daisy-wheel low
cost.
Laser 100-2000 Very high quality print at speeds unapproachable by other
technologies. Not yet available at a price affordable by most Non-
impact printers cannot produce multiple copies at one running.
Figure 9: Some Printer Technologies

Check Your Progress 1

State True or False.

Question (a) In case where graphical user interfaces are common mouse should
1: not be used. True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m
(b) Keyboard is one of the most common input device.
True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m
(c) Scanners are devices used for outputting pictures.
True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m
(d) Projection displays can be used for classroom teaching.
True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m
(e) Keyboard, VDU and printers are essential for computers.
True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m

Question 2: Differentiate between the CRT display and LCD display.

 ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Question 3:Compare and contrast the Laser and Dot Matrix Printers.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Question 4: Define the term "Source Data Automation ". Give two examples.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.3 INPUT/OUTPUT MODULE/INTERFACE

The input/output module (I/O module) is normally connected to the computer system on one end and one or
more input/output devices on the other. Normally, an I/O module can control one or more peripheral
devices. An I/O module is needed because of :

(a) Diversity and variety of I/O devices makes it difficult to incorporate all the peripheral device logic (i.e.
its control commands, data format etc.) into CPU. This in turn will also reduce flexibility of using any
new development.

(b)The I/O devices are normally slower than that of memory and CPU, therefore, it is suggested not to use
them on high speed bus directly for communication purpose.

(c)The data format and word length used by the peripheral may be quite different than that of a CPU.
An I/O module is a mediator between the processor and an I/O device/devices. It controls the data
exchange between the external devices and main memory; or external devices and CPU registers.
Therefore, an I/O module provide an interface internal to the computer which connect it to CPU and main
memory and an interface external to the computer connecting it to external device or peripheral. The I/O
module should not only communicate the information from CPU to I/O device, but it should also
coordinate these two. In addition since there are speed differences between CPU and I/O devices, the I/O
module should have facilities like buffer (storage area) and error detection mechanism.

If an I/O module takes more processing burden then it is termed as I/O channel or processor. The primitive
I/O modules which require detailed control by processor are called I/O controller or device controller.
These I/O controllers are normally used in micro-computers while I/O processors are mainly used for
Mainframe because the I/O work for microcomputer is normally limited to single use's job, therefore we do
not expect a very huge amount of I/O to justify the investment in I/O processor, which are expensive.

3.4 INPUT/OUTPUT TECHNIQUES

The input/Output operations can be performed by three basic techniques. These are:
• Programmed Input/Output
• Interrupt driven Input/Output
• Direct memory Access
• Figure 10 given an overview of these three techniques.
 Interrupt Required I/O module to/from Memory transfer
Programmed I/O No Through CPU
Interrupt driven I/O Yes Through CPU
Direct Memory Access Yes Direct transfer

Figure 10:Overview of the three Input/Output Techniques

In both programmed I/O and interrupt driven I/O CPU is responsible for extracting data form the memory
for Output and storing data in memory for Input. Such a requirement does not exist in DMA where the
memory can be accessed directly by I/O module. Thus, the I/O module can store or extract data in/from the
memory. In case the I/O is solely looked after by a separate dedicated processor, then this is referred to as
I/O channel or I/O processor. The basic advantage of these devices are the free CPU of the burden of
Input/Output. Thus, during this time CPU can do other work, therefore, effectively increasing the CPU
utilisation.
Programmed Input/Output
Programmed Input/Output are useful I/O method for computer where hardware costs need to be minimised.
The Input or Output operation in such case may involve:
• Transfer of data from I/O device to the CPU registers
• Transfer of data from CPU registers to memory.
In addition, in a programmed I/O method the responsibility of CPU is to constantly check the status of
the I/O device to check whether it has become free (in case output is desired) or it has finished
inputting the current series of data (in case input is going on). Thus, Programmed I/O is a very time
consuming method where CPU wastes lot of time of checking and verifying the status of an I/O device.
In programmed I/O, the I/O operations are completely controlled by the CPU. The CPU executes
programs that initiate, directs and terminate an I/O operation. It requires a little special I/O hardware,
but is quite time consuming for the CPU, since CPU has to wait for slower I/O operations to complete.
Interrupt Driven Input/Output

What are the basic drawback of programmed I/O? The speed of I/O devices is much slower in comparison
to that of CPU, and because the CPU has to repeatedly check whether a device is free; or wait till the
completion of I/O, therefore, the performance of CPU in programmed I/O goes down tremendously. What
is the solution? What about CPU going back to do other useful work without waiting for the I/O device to
complete or get freed up. On completion of I/O, the I/O device interrupts the CPU to tell it has finished the
work. But what is an interrupt ?
Interrupt: The term interrupt loosely is used for any exceptional event that causes temporary transfer of
control of CPU from one program to the other which is causing the interrupt. Interrupts are primarily issued
on:
• initiation of Input/Output operation
• completion of an Input/Output operation
• occurrence of hardware or software errors.
Interrupts can be generated by various sources internal or external to the CPU.
Direct Memory Access (DMA)
When large amount of data is to be transferred from CPU, a DMA module can be used. In both Interupt
driven and programs I/O, the CPU is tied up in executing input/output instructions while DMA acts as if it
has taken over control from the CPU. The DMA operates in the following way:
• when an I/O is requested, the CPU instructs the DMA module about the operation by
providing the information:
 • which operation (Read or Write) to be performed.

• the I/O device which is to be used.

• the starting location on the memory where the information will be read or written to.

• the number of words to be written or to be read.

• The DMA module transfers the requested block byte by byte directly to the memory
without intervening the CPU.

• On completion of the request DMA module sends an interrupt signal to the CPU.

Thus, in DMA the CPU involvement can be restricted at the beginning and at the end
of the transfer. But what do CPU do while DMA is doing Input/Output, it may
execute another program or may be another part of the same program.

Let us briefly recapitulate the development in the areas of Input/Output functions.

These, can he summarised as:
Step 1 : Direct control of CPU on I/O device. Limited number of I/O devices.
Step 2 : Introduction of I/O controller or I/O module. Use of programmed I/O. CPU was separated from
the details of external I/O interfaces.
Step 3 : Contained use of I/O controllers but with interrupts. CPU need not wait for I/O operation to
complete (increased efficiency)
Step 4 : Direct access of I/O module to the memory via DMA.CPU involvement reduced to at the
beginning and at the end of DMA operation.
Step 5 : Input/Output processor which is an exclusive processor to perform all Input/Output related tasks.

3.5 INPUT-OUTPUT PROCESSORS

The concept of I/O processor is an extension of the concept of DMA. The I/O processor can execute
specialised I/O program residing in the memory without intervention of the CPU. Thus, CPU only needs to
specify a sequence of I/O activity to I/O processor. The I/O processor then executes the necessary I/O
instructions which are required for the task; and interrupts the CPU only after the entire sequence of I/O
activity as specified by CPU have been completed. An advanced I/O processor can have its own memory,
enabling a large set of I/O devices to be controlled without much involvement from the CPU. Thus, an I/O
processor has the additional ability to execute I/O instructions which provide it a complete control on I/O
operations. Thus, I/O processors are much more powerful than DMA which provides only a limited control
of I/O device. For example, if an I/O device is busy then DMA will only interrupt the CPU and will inform
the CPU again when the device is free while I/O device and once it has found to be free go a head with I/O
and when I/O finishes, communicate it to the CPU. The I/O processor is termed as channel in IMB
machines.

In computer systems which have IOPs the CPU normally do not execute I/O data transfer instructions. I/O
instructions are stored in memory and are executed by IOPs. The IOP can be provided with the direct
access to the memory and can control the system bus. An IOP can execute a sequence of data transfer
instructions involving different memory regions and different devices without intervention of the CPU.

3.6 EXTERNAL INTERFACES

 Our discussion on I/O system will not be complete if we do not discuss about external interfaces. The
external interface is the interface between the I/O module and the peripheral devices. This interface can be
characterised into two main categories (a) parallel interface (b) serial interface. Figure 11 gives a block
diagram from these two interfaces.

Figure 11: Parallel and Serial Interface

In parallel interface multiple bits can he transferred, simultaneously. The parallel interface are normally
used for high speed peripherals such as tapes and disks. The dialogue that takes place across the interface
includes the exchange of control information and data. A common parallel interface is centronics.
In serial interface only one line is used to transmit data, therefore, only one bit is transferred at a time.
Serial interface is used for serial printers and terminals. The most common serial interface is RS-232-C.
Check Your Progress 2
State True or False.

Q.1 (a) The devices are normally connected directly to system bus.
True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m
(b) Input/output Module is needed only for slower I/O devices.
True n
j
k
l
m False n
j
k
l
m
(c) Data buffering is helpful for smoothing out the speed difference between
CPU and input/ output devices True nj False n
k
l
m j
k
l
m
(d) The advantages of interrupt driven I/O over programmed I/O is that in
interrupt driven I/O the interrupt mechanisms free I/O devices quickly. True nj False n
k
l
m j
k
l
m
(e) Most of the I/O processors have its own memory while a DMA module does
not have its own memory except for register or a simple buffer area. True nj False n
k
l
m j
k
l
m
(f) Parallel interfaces are commonly used for connecting printers to a computer.
True nj False n
k
l
m j
k
l
m
Q2. What is a device controller?
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------------------------------------------------------------------

3.7 SUMMARY
In this unit, we have discussed about the Input/Output devices, Input/Output module and interfaces and I/O
techniques. The discussion is only at the introductory level, however, you can refer to further readings for
more details. The input/output technologies are developing all the time with the advancement of
technology. Some newer technologies such as data gloves, virtual reality are already available and more
and more sophisticated technologies will be available in near future, however all the new things can be
categorised under one of the techniques we have discussed in the unit.

3.8 MODEL ANSWERS

Check our Progress 1
1.
(a) False
(b) True
(c) False
(d) True
(e) True
2.

CRT LCD
(i) CRT produces radiations LCD is harmless as far as radiation is concerned
(ii) CRT is bulky LCD is compact
(iii) High energy requirement Low energy requirement
(iv) Normally high resolution graphics Low resolution
3.

Laser printer Dot Matrix Printer (DMP)

Both can be used with personal computer
(i) High Cost Low Cost
(ii) Form Characters using laser beam Use Dot Matrix to print characters
(iii) Non-impact printer Output is of low quality
(v) Noiseless operation Noisy

4. In source data automation data is entered essentially while it is being produced through automatic
devices. Examples are OMR & OBR

Check Your Progress 2

1.
(a) False
(b) False
(c) True
 (d) False
(e) True
(f) True

2. A device controller is an I/O module which interacts with the I/Odevices as per the instructions
provided to it by the CPU.