Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 73

CHAPTER 4
SOURCES OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
1. Energy resources are all forms of fuel used in the modern world, either for heating,
generation of electrical energy, or for other forms of energy conversion processes.
2. The different types of energy sources cause more or less impacts on the environment.
3. Renewable energy sources (non-conventional energy sources) do not pollute the
environment and natural surrounding and require less expenditure.
[impact = affect, expenditure = spending money]
4. In this chapter, we will learn about different sources of energy and their environmental
impacts.
4.1 ENERGY DEMAND AND CRISIS
1. Energy is the basic necessity for life.
2. Energy demand is the term used to describe the consumption of energy by human
activities.
3. It drives the whole energy system, influencing the total amount of energy used; the
locations and types of fuel used in the energy supply system and the characteristics of
the technologies that consume energy.
4. Energy demand depends on different socioeconomic factors such as population,
urbanization, industrialization, net capital income and development of technologies, etc.
[socioeconomic = of, relating to, or involving both economic and social factors]
[urbanization = the process of creating towns in country areas]
[industrialization = develops a lot of industries]
[net capital income = All the incomes which will add directly in the capital]
5. Energy demand forecasting is crucial for ensuring future economic growth and
environmental security.
6. There has been an enormous increase in the global demand for energy in recent years
as a result of industrial development and population growth.
7. Supply of energy is, therefore, far less than the actual demand.
74 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

8. Because the population and new technology are always expanding, demand for energy
is expected to increase year by year.
9. The energy crisis is the concern that the world's demands on the limited natural
resources that are used to power industrial society are diminishing as the demand rises.
10. It is a situation in which a nation suffers from a disruption of energy supplies connected
by increasing energy prices that threaten economic and national security.
11. With ninety percent of the world's oil reserves already discovered; people need to find
new ways to make energy.
12. Since the non-renewable resources of the energy will not last long and cannot be
regained, the world is going to face the problem of energy crisis in near future.
13. Renewable energy has huge potential to provide solution to increase energy crisis and
it is the key factor to the future of energy, food and economic security.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 75

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.1

R043:Why does the energy demand increase year by year?
Ans: Because the population and new technology are always expanding, demand for
energy is expected to increase year by year.
E01: At present day, the rate of formation of fossil fuels (coal, petroleum, natural gas) is
estimated to be about 4 billion kW (4  l09 kW) and the world's consumption of
energy is of the order of 1017 Btu/year. Show that the rate of consumption of fossil
fuel is of the same order of magnitude as the rate of their formation and these energy
sources are therefore non-renewable.
Ans: Today's world consumption of energy is of the order of 1017 Btu/year.
This number need to be converted to kW.
Using 1 Btu = 1055 J and 1 year = 3.15  107 s
1017 1055
1017 Btu/year = J s-1 = 3.349 × 1012 W = 3.349 × 109 kW
1 3.15 107
Hence, the rate of consumption of fossil fuel is of the same order of magnitude as
the rate of their formation and these energy sources are therefore non-renewable.
76 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.2 SOURCES OF ENERGY

1. In our daily life, we use different forms of energy such as heat energy, light energy,
mechanical energy, electrical energy, chemical energy and sound energy.
2. The most common forms of energy are heat, light and electricity.
3. All the sources of energy can be divided into two categories: renewable sources and
non-renewable sources of energy.
4. A non-renewable resource is a natural substance that is not replenished with the speed
at which it is consumed.
5. It is a finite resource.
6. Non-renewable energy resources include coal, natural gas, crude oil, and nuclear
energy.
7. They occur in limited and exhaustible quantities and cannot be regenerated in a short
period of time or used again and again.
8. Renewable energy sources (also called non-conventional energy sources) are
continuously replenished by natural processes.
9. It is the energy generated by using wind, solar, hydro, tides, etc.
10. They cannot be exhausted easily and can be generated at a constant rate for their use
over and over again.
11. They can be produced or generated through natural processes, at a rate greater than or
equal to the rate of their consumption.
12. Non-renewable energy sources are available only in limited supply.
13. Examples include fossil fuels (like coal, oil, natural gases, etc.) and nuclear energy.
14. It takes a long time (often millions of years) for these resources to be replenished.
15. Renewable resources are replenished naturally and over short periods of time, so are in
a virtually unlimited supply.
16. Examples include the solar energy, hydro energy, wind energy and geothermal energy.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 77

Figure 4.1 Energy resources

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.2

R044:What is the main source of energy?
Ans: The sun is the main source of energy.
78 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.3 NON-RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

4.3.1 Fossil Fuels
1. Fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and natural gas, are important non-renewable sources of
energy.
2. Carbon is the main constituent of these fossil fuels.
3. A large amount of chemical energy is stored in the fossil fuels.
4. This stored chemical energy is converted into various other forms of energy such as
heat, light and mechanical energy.
5. Fossil fuels are excellent sources of energy for our transportation needs.
6. For example, the fossil fuel industry extracts crude oil from the ground and converts it
to gasoline.
7. Fossil fuel liquids also are refined into petrochemical products that are used as
ingredients in the manufacture of literally hundreds of products from plastics and
polyurethane to solvents.
8. Coal is formed in a way similar to the other fossil fuels, though it goes through a
different process called coalification.
9. It is made of decomposed plant matter in conditions of high temperature and pressure,
and it takes a relatively shorter amount of time to form.
10. Coal is not a uniform substance; its composition varies from deposit to deposit.
11. Natural gas is another major source of the energy in our country.
12. Oil and gas fields have been found some places on the earth.
13. These fields always contain some gases, but this natural gas (methane) does not take
nearly as long to form.
14. Natural gas is also found in independent deposits within the ground as well as from
other sources too.
15. Methane is a common gas found in swamps and is also the by-product of animals'
digestive system.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 79

Figure 4.2 Examples for fossil fuel

4.3.2 Nuclear Energy
16. Nuclear energy is non-renewable as the uranium fuels used are consumed in the nuclear
fission reaction and hence are non-replenishable.
17. Nevertheless, nuclear energy has many uses:
 energy produced in a nuclear reactor can
be harnessed to produce electricity,
 nuclear energy is also being used to power
submarines and ship.
 vessels driven by nuclear energy can sail
for long periods without having to refuel.
 radioisotopes obtained as by-products in nuclear reactions are used in medicine,
agriculture, and research.

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.3

R045:What are the main characteristics of fossil fuels?
Ans: Fossil fuels are coal, oil and natural gas, etc.
Carbon is the main constituent of fossil fuels.
A large amount of chemical energy is stored in the fossil fuels.
Fossil fuels were formed within the earth from dead plants and animals over millions
of years.
80 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.4 RENEWABLE SOURCES OF ENERGY

1. There are several alternative and renewable sources of energy, which are not only
environment friendly but can also be available in abundance.
2. The major types of renewable energy sources are: (i) solar, (ii) wind, (iii) hydropower,
(iv) ocean, (v) geothermal, and (vi) biomass.
4.4.1 Solar Energy
3. The sun is one of the most powerful renewable sources of energy.
4. Solar energy is the radiant light and heat from the sun that has been harnessed by
humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies.
5. The earth's atmosphere and clouds absorb or scatter as much as 54 % of the incoming
sunlight.
6. The sunlight that reaches the ground consists of visible light, infrared, ultraviolet and
other forms of electromagnetic radiation.
7. The total amount of radiation energy passing through per unit area and per unit time is
called irradiance and is measured in W m-2 or kW m-2.
8. Another commonly used term for irradiance of sunlight is insolation.
9. Insolation is the solar irradiance received on a horizontal surface such as ground.
10. Above the earth's atmosphere, solar radiation has an intensity of approximately
1350 W m-2 (429 Btu h-1 ft-2).
11. This value is known as the solar constant. At the earth's surface solar radiation has an
intensity of approximately 1000 W m-2 on a clear day at solar noon in the summer
months. earth’s
atmosphere
[The solar constant is a measurement of 1 m2
the solar electromagnetic radiation earth
sun 1 au
available in a square meter of earth’s
atmosphere which is 1 au from the sun.] [Figure Solar constant]

P P 3.847 1026 W
[Solar power per unit area =   = 1368 W m-2]
A 4πr 2 4  3.142  (1.496 1011 m) 2
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 81

12. Figure 4.3 shows the solar spectral irradiance curves.

irradiance (W m-2 nm-1)

2.0
at the top of the
atmosphere

1.5 at the surface

of the earth

1.0 at 10 m below
the ocean surface

0.5

0.0
500 1000 1500 2000
wavelength (nm)

Figure 4.3 Solar irradiance curves at the top of the atmosphere and at the surface of the earth
Solar Technologies
13. There are three main ways to harness solar energy: photovoltaic solar cell, solar
heating, and concentrated solar power (CSP).
Photovoltaic Solar Cell
14. Conversion of light energy into electrical energy is based on a phenomenon called
photovoltaic effect.
15. When semiconductor materials are exposed to light, some of the photons of light are
absorbed by the semiconductor crystal, which causes a significant number of free
electrons in the crystal. This is the basic reason for producing electricity due to
photovoltaic effect.
16. A solar cell (also known as a photovoltaic cell) is defined as an electrical device that
converts light energy into electrical energy through the photovoltaic effect.
82 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

17. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode.

18. When light is incident on the photovoltaic cell, the light photons can easily reach the
p-n junction.
19. The light energy, in the form of photons, supplies sufficient energy to the junction to
create a number of electron-hole pairs. [Figure 4.4]

load

n-type silicon
junction
p-type silicon

electron
flow

photons from
sun light hole
flow

Figure 4.4 Photovoltaic solar cell

20. As a result, a current flow in the external circuit connected to the p-n junction.
21. Individual solar cells can be combined to form modules commonly known as solar panels.
22. When combined into a large solar panel, considerable amounts of renewable energy
can be generated.
23. Achieving the perfect perpendicular sun rays is the optimal orientation so that solar
panels receive direct light throughout the day.
24. Power conversion efficiency of the solar panel is the ratio of the electrical power
delivered by the panel to the solar power received by it.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 83

Solar Heating
25. Solar heating can also play an important role in reducing the impact of global warming.
26. Solar water heating systems installed in homes are comprised of three main elements:
the solar collector, insulated piping, and a hot water storage tank.
27. The solar collector gathers the heat from solar radiation and transfers the heat to water.
28. This heated water flows out of the collector to a hot water tank, and is used as necessary.
29. Flat plate collectors are the most common type of collector.
30. Flat plate collectors have copper pipes attached to an absorber plate contained in an
insulated box that is covered with a tempered glass or polymer cover plate.

solar hot water heater

preheated
water

cold water
pressure from
public system existing tank hot water
sends to unit

main cold turn off

water intake

Figure 4.5 (a) Solar Heating System

84 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

outlet
glazing

absorber
plate
insulation inlet
flow tubes
header

Figure 4.5 (b) Flat plate collectors

Concentrated Solar Power

31. Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems generate solar power by using mirrors or
lenses to concentrate a large area of sunlight onto a specific point of receiver, which
converts into heat.
32. The heat is then used to create steam, which drives a turbine to generate electrical
power.
33. Therefore, CSP plants consist of two parts: the one that collects solar energy and
converts it to heat, and another that converts the heat energy to electricity.
34. There are four types of CSP technologies:
(a) Parabolic trough systems,
(b) Linear fresnel systems,
(c) Power tower systems and
(d) Parabolic dish systems.
35. Figure 4.6 (a), (b), (c) and (d) show the four types of CSP technologies.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 85

absorber
tube

sun rays
reflector second stage reflectors
solar field primary fresnel reflectors
piping absorber tube

Fig 4.6 (a) Parabolic trough system Fig 4.6 (b) Linear fresnel system

central receiver/engine
receiver
reflector

heliostats
Fig 4.6 (c) Power tower system Fig 4.6 (d) Parabolic dish system

Figure 4.6 Four types of concentrated solar power (CSP) systems

86 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4 Part 1

R049:(1) The band gap of GaAs is 1.4 eV. Calculate the minimum maximum wavelength
of light for photovoltaic generation in a GaAs solar cell. [p. 49]
Ans: energy gap Eg = 1.4 eV, maximum wavelength max =?
h = 6.626 × 10-34 J s, c = 3 × 108 m s-1
hc
Eg =
max

hc 6.626  1034  3  108

max= = 19
= 8.874 × 10-7 m
Eg 1.4  1.6  10

R049:(2) A 100 ft  50 ft building has a flat roof. What is the average solar energy received
by the roof a month? (The solar radiation per day in winter is about 1600 Btu ft-2)
[p. 49]
Ans: area A = 100 ft  50 ft = 5  103 ft2
solar energy per day = 5  103 ft2  1600 Btu ft-2
= 8  106 Btu
solar energy per month = 8  106  30
= 2.4  108 Btu

R050:(3) Calculate the solar energy received by a standard hot water collector of
dimensions 1 m  2 m, over one hour at around noon, if the irradiance stays fairly
constant at about 800 W m-2. [p. 50]
Ans: area A = 1 m  2 m = 2 m2, time t = 1 h = 3600 s
solar radiation = 800 W m-2 = 800 J s-1 m-2
solar energy received = 800 J s-1 m-2  3600 s  2 m2 = 5.76  106 J
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 87

E4.2: A home requires 62 kWh of heat on a winter day to maintain a constant indoor
temperature of 20 °C. Assume that the temperature of hot water outlet is 60 °C.
(i) How much collector surface area does it need for a solar heating system that has
a 20 % efficiency? (ii) How large does the storage tank have to be to provide this
much energy? (The average solar radiation per day in winter is about 6.5 kWh m-2)
[p. 50]
Ans: Solar radiation per day= 6.5 kWh m-2, efficiency of system = 20 % = 0.2
(i) Thermal energy per day = solar radiation per day × efficiency of system
(obtained using collector)
= 6.5 kWh m-2 × 0.2
= 1.3 kWh m-2
This means that for every square meter of collector surface area, 1.3 kWh of heat are
produced every day.
heat required 62 kWh
Collector surface area =  -2
= 47.69 m2
heat produced per unit area 1.3kWh m

(ii) T = 60 C 20 C = 40 C = 40 K
Since 1 kWh = 3.6 × 106 J,
Q = 62 kWh = 62 × 3.6 × 106 J
Specific heat capacity of water, c = 4184 J kg-1 K-1
Q = m c  T
Q 62  3.6 106
m= = = 1334 kg
cT 4184  40
1 kg of water equals 1 L.
The amount of water needed is 1334 L.
88 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.4.2 Wind Energy

36. Wind energy is the energy generated or produced by harnessing the power of the wind.
37. Like solar power, harnessing the wind is highly dependent on weather and location.
38. However, it is one of the oldest and cleanest forms of energy and the most developed
of the renewable energy sources.
39. Both windmills and wind turbines harness wind energy and put it to practical use.
40. Windmills convert wind energy directly into mechanical energy for such tasks as
milling grain and pumping water.
41. A wind turbine converts wind energy into electricity, which can then be used to power
electrical equipment, stored in batteries or transmitted over power lines.

rotor blade

gear box
nacelie
wind

generator
power cables

tower switchyard

transformer

Figure 4.7 Windmill and wind turbines

42. In a wind turbine, wind first hits the blades of the turbine, causing them to rotate and
turn the turbine connected to them.
43. That changes the kinetic energy to rotational energy, by rotating a shaft, which is
connected to a generator, and thereby producing electrical energy through
electromagnetism.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 89

44. Wind farms consist of many individual wind turbines, which are connected to the
electric power transmission network.
45. The amount of power that can be harvested from wind depends on the size of the turbine
and the length of its blades.
46. Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion.
47. Total wind energy flowing through an imaginary surface with area A during the time t
is calculated as follows,
1 2 1 1 1
E mv  V v 2   Avt v 2   At v 3
2 2 2 2
where  is the density of air,
v is the wind speed,
A v t is the volume V of air passing through area A
(which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the wind)
in time t.
A is the area, and
t is the time.
48. Power is energy per unit time, so the wind power incident on A is,
1
P  Av3 (4.1)
2
where A = the rotor area of a wind turbine.
49. The output power is proportional to the dimensions of the rotor and to the cube of the
wind speed.
50. Theoretically, when wind speed doubles, wind power potential increases by a factor of
eight.
51. Wind turbines, like windmills, are mounted on a tower to capture the most energy.
52. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above the ground, they can take advantage of the faster
and less turbulent wind.
53. Turbines catch the wind energy with their propeller-like blades.
54. Usually, two or three blades are mounted on a shaft to form a rotor.
90 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4 Part 2

R051:How does wind power generate electricity? [p. 51]
Ans: In a wind turbine, wind first hits the blades of the turbine, causing them to rotate and
turn the turbine connected to them.
That changes the kinetic energy to rotational energy, by rotating a shaft which is
connected to a generator, and thereby producing electrical energy through
electromagnetism.
E03: Determine the input power of the wind if the wind speed is 20 m s-1 and blade length
is 20 m. Density of air is 1.3 kg m-3. [p. 51]
Ans: radius of blade of turbine r = 20 m, wind speed v = 20 m s-1,
density of air  = 1.3 kg m-3, wind power P =?
Area of a wind turbine A=  r2 = 3.142  (20)2 = 1257 m2
1 1
P  Av3 = 1.3 1257  (20)3 = 6.536 × 106 W = 6.536 MW
2 2
Q12: The wind is blowing at 10 m s- 1, how much total power produced by the wind turbine
if the blades are 45 m long? Density of air is 1.3 kg m-3. [p. 62]
Ans: radius of blade of turbine r = 45 m, wind speed v = 10 m s-1,
density of air  = 1.3 kg m-3, wind power P =?
Area of a wind turbine A=  r2 = 3.142  (45)2 = 6363 m2
1 1
P  Av3 =  1.3  6363  (10)3 = 4.136  106 W = 4.136 MW
2 2
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 91

4.4.3 Hydroelectric Energy

55. The flowing water and water stored in huge dams is also a very important source of
energy which is known as hydroelectric energy.
56. Hydropower, or hydroelectric power, is one of the oldest and largest sources of
renewable energy.
57. The source of power in a hydroelectric plant is the motion of water.
58. It is an affordable source of electricity that costs less than most of other sources of
energy.
59. However, overdevelopment and unrestricted harnessing of water power can have a
devastating effect on the local environment and habitation areas.
60. There are three types of hydropower facilities: impoundment, diversion, and pumped
storage.
61. Hydroelectric energy, also called hydroelectric power or hydroelectricity, is a form of
energy that harnesses the power of water in motion such as water flowing over a
waterfall to generate electricity.
Impoundment Facility
62. The most common type of hydroelectric power plant is an impoundment facility.
63. It is typically a large hydropower system, uses a dam to store river water in a reservoir.
64. Water is collected or stored at a higher elevation and gravity pulls the water downward
through large pipes or tunnels (penstocks) to a lower elevation; the difference in these
two elevations is known as the head.
65. At the end of its passage down the pipes, the falling water causes turbines to rotate.
66. The turbines in turn drive generators, which convert mechanical energy into electricity.
67. Transformers are then used to convert the alternating voltage of the generators to a
higher voltage suitable for long-distance transmission.
68. A penstock is a closed conduit that channels the flow of water to turbines with water
flow regulated by gates and valves.
92 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

reservoir electrical
energy
potential long distance
energy powerhouse power line
intake
generator
kinetic
energy turbine

river
mechanical
energy
Figure 4.8 Hydroelectric power plant
Diversion Facility or Run-of-river Facility
69. A diversion, sometimes called a run-of-river facility, channels a portion of a river
through a canal or a penstock to utilize the natural decline of the riverbed elevation to
produce energy.
70. A diversion may not require the use of a dam.

intake river diversion

[forebay] [channel]

[sediment exclusion
camber (optional)]
penstock
powerhouse
turbine
generator [river]
[tailrace]

transmission
[interconnect]

Figure Run-of-river facility

Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 93

Pumped Storage Facility

71. Another type of hydropower is pumped storage hydropower (PSH).
72. A PSH facility is able to store the electricity generated by other power sources.
73. When the demand for electricity is low, a PSH facility stores energy by pumping water
from the lower reservoir to an upper reservoir at a higher elevation.
74. During periods of high electrical demand, the water is released back to the lower
reservoir and turns a turbine, generating electricity.

transmission
network
upper
reservoir

flow in
pump mode

transformer
flow in
lower
turbine mode
reservoir
generator
turbine/pump

Figure Pumped Storage facility

94 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Available Hydroelectric Power

75. A hydropower resource can be evaluated by its available power.
76. The power available from falling water can be calculated from the flow rate and density
of water, the height of fall, and the local acceleration due to gravity.

P   V gh
where P is useful power output (W),
 is efficiency of the turbine (dimensionless),
 is density of water,
g is the local acceleration due to gravity
h is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet
 V
V= is volumetric flow rate. It is measured in m3 s-1.
t
77. Most conventional hydroelectric plants include most common parts,
(i) dam (raises the water level of the river and controls flow of water)
(ii) turbine (a water turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into
mechanical energy)
(iii) generator (connected to the turbine by shafts and converts the mechanical energy
from the turbine to electrical energy)
(iv) transformer
(v) transmission system (transport electricity from the hydropower station to consumers).
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 95

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4 Part 3

Q03: Write the differences between thermal power plant and hydropower plant. [p. 61]
Ans thermal power plant hydropower plant
1. produces electricity by burning produces electricity by the flowing water.
fossil fuels.
2. chemical energy stored in the potential energy stored in the water is
fossil fuels is transformed into transformed into electricity.
electricity.
3. burning of fossil fuels pollute the blocking of water flow affects animals in
air. the water.
4. easier to build. harder to build.
5. running cost is high. running cost is low.
Q01: Can we generate electricity from waterfall by using a turbine-generator? If it is
possible, what are the necessary conditions? [p. 61]
Ans: Yes.
The power available from falling water P is

P   V gh
where P is useful power output (W),
 is efficiency of the turbine,
 is density of water, g is the local acceleration due to gravity
h is the difference in height between the outlet and inlet
 V
V= = volumetric flow rate m3 s-1.
t
To generate electricity from waterfall by using a turbine-generator,
 the height of the water fall must be large enough.
 the volumetric flow rate of the water fall must be large enough.
 the local acceleration due to gravity must be sufficient enough.
96 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q06: Choose the correct answer. [p. 61]

(i) How does hydroelectric energy work?
A. The water heats up and it turns into water vapor to power.
B. Water turns a piece similar to a propeller to power.
C. Water freezes and then is thrown to power it.
(ii) What principle pulls water into the penstock?
A. Gravity B. Force of the volume of water C. Turbine
(iii)Which is true for hydroelectric energy?
A. It does not costs to build.
B. Water everywhere, it can be used everywhere.
C. It rains all the time
Ans (i) B (ii) A (iii) B
Q02: What are the major components of hydropower plants? [p. 61]
Ans The major components of hydropower plants are
dam, turbine, generator, and transformer.
Q04: State the changes in the form of energy while producing hydroelectricity. [p. 61]
Ans gravitational potential energy  kinetic energy  electrical energy
Q05: What is the main source of power of a hydroelectric power plant? [p. 61]
Ans The main source of power in a hydroelectric plant is the motion of water.
R053:The hydroturbine receives water from a reservoir at an elevation of 100 m above it.
What is the minimum water flow in kg s-1 to produce a steady turbine output of
50 MW if the turbine generator efficiency is 75 %? (g = 9.8 m s-2,  = 1000 kg m-3)
Ans: height h = 100 m, power P = 50 MW = 50  106 W, efficiency  = 75 % = 0.75

water flow rate V =?, mass of 1 m3 of water = 1000 kg, g = 9.8 m s-2,  = 1000 kg m-3

P   V gh
 P 50  106
V  = 68.03 m3 s-1
 gh 0.75  1000  9.8 100

water flow rate in kg s-1 =  V = 1000 × 68.03 = 68.03  103 kg s-1
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 97

E04: At a hydroelectric power plant, the water pressure head is at a height of 300 m and the
water flow available is 100 m3 s-1. If the turbine generator efficiency is 60 %, estimate
the electric power available from the plant. (g = 9.8 m s-2,  = 1000 kg m-3)
Ans: height h = 300 m, efficiency  = 60 % = 0.6, available electric power P =?

volume of water flowing per second V = 100 m3 s-1,

P   V gh
= 0.6  1000  100  9.8  300 = 17.64  107 W = 176.4 MW
Q10: An important hydroelectric plant has a head of 100 m and water volumetric flow rate
of 10 000 m3 s-1. The turbine generator efficiency is 60 %. What is the maximum
power that the plant can produce? (Density of water= 1000 kg m-3)

Ans: height h = 100 m, volume of water flowing per second V = 10 000 m3 s-1
efficiency  = 60 % = 0.6, the maximum power that the plant can produce P =?
g = 9.8 m s-2,  = 1000 kg m-3

P   V gh = 0.6  1000  104  9.8  100 = 5.88  109 W = 5880 MW
Q11: A dam with maximum head of 200 m produces 2000 MW of electrical power. What
is the rate of falling water on the turbines? The turbine generator efficiency is 50 %.
(Density of water= 1000 kg m-3)
Ans: height h = 200 m, the power produced P = 2000 MW = 2  109 W
efficiency  = 50 % = 0.5, density of water  = 103 kg m-3

volume of water flowing per second V =?

P   V gh
 P 2  109
V  = 2.041  103 m3 s-1
 gh 0.5  103  9.8  200
98 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.4.4 Energy from the Ocean

Tidal Energy
78. Due to the gravitational pull of mainly the moon on the spinning earth, the level of
water in the sea rises and falls.
79. This phenomenon is called high and low tides.
80. The tidal energy is produced by the difference in sea levels.
81. It is harnessed by constructing a dam (a tidal barrage) across a narrow opening to the
sea.
82. A tidal barrage works similarly to a large hydropower reservoir dam but it is placed at
the entrance to a bay or estuary. [estuary = the wide part of river where it joins the sea]
83. A turbine fixed at the opening of the tidal barrage converts tidal energy to electricity.
84. Similar to river current technologies, turbines anchored to the ocean floor or suspended
from a buoy in the path of an ocean current could also be used to generate power.
sluice gates
road high water level
head tidal tidal
height barrage basin

outgoing
tide turbine tunnel

Figure 4.9 Ocean tidal power plant

Wave Energy
85. The kinetic energy of huge waves near the seashore can be trapped to generate
electricity.
86. The waves are generated by strong winds blowing across the sea.
87. A variety of technologies are being tested to convert wave energy into electricity.
88. Most systems capture energy on the surface of waves or use pressure differences just
below the surface.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 99

turbine
generator
motion of chamber
waves water wall
air TG
column

sea coastline
ocean floor
Figure 4.10 Conversion of wave energy into electricity

Ocean Thermal Energy

89. The water at the surface of the sea or ocean is heated by the sun while the water in
deeper sections is relatively cold.
90. This difference in temperature is exploited to obtain energy in ocean-thermal-energy
conversion plants.
91. These plants can operate if the temperature difference between the water at the surface
and water at the depths up to 2 km is 20 K (20 °C) or more.
92. The warm surface-water is used to boil a volatile liquid
(e.g. ammonia, boiling point ~ -33.34 °C).
93. The vapours of the liquid (ammonia) are then used to run the turbine of generator.
94. The cold water from the depth of the ocean is pumped up and condense vapour again
to liquid.
95. The energy potential from the sea (tidal energy, wave energy and ocean thermal energy)
is quite large, but efficient commercial exploitation is difficult.
100 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

turbine

ocean surface

warm evaporator condenser

sea water sea water out
in (25 C)
ammonia
pump

cold sea water

in (5 C)
Figure 4.11 Conversion of ocean thermal energy into electricity

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4 Part 4

R055:(1) Why are wind and solar energies more popular than ocean energy?
Ans: Wind and solar energies can be obtained in any location, but ocean energy can be
obtained only in the ocean.
R055:(2) What type of working fluids do closed-cycle ocean thermal energy conversion
systems use?
Ans: A volatile liquid (Ammonia).
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 101

4.4.5 Geothermal Energy

96. Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the Earth's core (the
internal heat of the earth) and it is one of the oldest types of natural sources of heat.
97. However, it is limited to regions of the world where there are hot underground rocks.
98. Thermal energy from magma can be used to generate electricity.
99. Magma is extremely hot liquid and semi-liquid rock located under Earth's surface.
100.Wells of up to a mile deep or more are drilled into underground reservoirs to tap into
the geothermal resources.
101.These resources can be exploited from naturally occurring heat, rock and water
permeability.
102.Cooled water is pumped into heated rocks where it is turned into steam, which then
rises up to drive the turbines and generate electricity.
103.Condensed water is cooled and the process is repeated.

1. Magma 5. Transformer
2. Reservoir 6. Electric mains
3. Turbine 7. Condenser
4. Generator 8. Cooling Tower

Figure 4.12 Electricity generated from geothermal energy

102 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4 Part 5

R056:(1) What is geothermal energy?
Ans: Geothermal energy is a type of renewable energy taken from the Earth's core (the
internal heat of the earth).
R056:(2) How does geothermal heat get from the interior of the earth to the surface?
Ans: Cooled water is pumped into heated rocks where it is turned into steam, which then
rises up to drive the turbines and generate electricity.
Q07: Why is geothermal energy considered as a renewable resource? [p. 61]
Ans: Geothermal energy is considered as a renewable energy source because it comes
from the Earth’s internal heat, which is renewable and never runs out.
Q08: How is geothermal electricity produced? [p. 61]
Ans: Cooled water is pumped into heated rocks where it is turned into steam, which then
rises up to drive the turbines and generate electricity.
Condensed water is cooled and the process is repeated.
Q09: What are the advantages of geothermal energy compared to other energies? [p. 61]
Ans: Geothermal energy
 can be obtained from naturally occurring heat, rock and water permeability.
 is more environmentally friendly than conventional fuel sources.
 is a source of renewable energy that will last long.
 is naturally replenished, making it both renewable and sustainable.
 is always available to be tapped into.
 can be predicted the power output with a high degree of accuracy.
 there is no fuel required.
 is low running costs once established.
 is low carbon footprint.
 is low ecological impact.
 is renewable and sustainable.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 103

4.4.6 Biomass
104.Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals.
105.Biomass contains stored chemical energy.
106.Biomass sources for energy include:
 Wood and wood processing wastes (e.g. firewood, furniture mill sawdust and waste
from pulp and paper mills).
 Agricultural crops and waste materials (e.g. corn, soybeans, sugar cane, woody
plants, algae, rice husk and food processing residues).
 Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste (e.g. paper, cotton, wool products, food
and wood wastes).
 Animal manure and human sewage.
107.Biomass is converted to energy through various processes, including: direct
combustion (burning) to produce heat, thermochemical conversion to produce solid,
gaseous, and liquid fuels, chemical conversion to produce liquid fuels, biological
conversion to produce liquid and gaseous fuels.
108.Direct combustion is the most common method for converting biomass to useful
energy. All biomass can be burned directly for heating buildings and water, for
industrial heat process, and for generating electricity in steam turbines.
109.Thermochemical conversion of biomass includes pyrolysis, and gasification.
110.Both are thermal decomposition processes in which biomass feedstock materials are
heated in closed, pressurized vessels called gassifiers at high temperatures.
111.Biomass pyrolysis produces fuels such as charcoal, bio-oil, renewable diesel, methane,
and hydrogen.
112.Biomass gasification produces a carbon monoxide and hydrogen rich gas called
synthesis gas or syngas.
113.Syngas can be used as a fuel for diesel engines, for heating, and for generating
electricity in gas turbines.
104 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

114.Chemical conversion process known as transesterification is used for converting

vegetable oils, animal fats, and greases into biodiesel.
115.Biological conversion includes fermentation to convert biomass into ethanol and
anaerobic digestion to produce natural gas.
116.Ethanol is used as a vehicle fuel.
117.Natural gas, also called biogas or biomethane, is produced in anaerobic digesters at
sewage treatment plants and at dairy and livestock operations.
118.It also forms in and may be captured from solid waste landfills.
119.Properly treated renewable natural gas has the same uses as fossil fuel natural gas.

Figure 4.13 Biomass sources for energy

Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 105

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4 Part 6

R057:(1) What is biomass?
Ans: Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals.
R057:(2) Give the types of biomass energy sources.
Ans: Biomass sources for energy include:
 Wood and wood processing wastes (e.g. firewood, furniture mill sawdust and
waste from pulp and paper mills).
 Agricultural crops and waste materials (e.g. corn, soybeans, sugar cane,
woody plants, algae, rice husk and food processing residues).
 Biogenic materials in municipal solid waste (e.g. paper, cotton, wool
products, food and wood wastes).
 Animal manure and human sewage.
106 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND CONSEQUENCES

1. Apart from the problem of energy resources getting depleted, energy harnessing and
utilization cause an immense amount of environmental damage.
2. There are environmental problems associated with the use of almost all forms of
energy.
3. The environmental problems directly related to energy production and consumption
include air pollution, climate change, water pollution, thermal pollution, and solid
waste disposal.
4. It is important to understand the environmental impacts associated with producing
electrical power from both non-renewable and renewable sources.
4.5.1 Environmental Impacts of Conventional Sources
5. The problems that relate to the use of fossil fuels are: global warming, acid rains,
dangers posed by leaded fuels, oil spills, gas leaks and explosions, air pollution and
water pollution caused by poorly managed coal mines.
6. Global warming refers to the gradual increase in the average temperature of the earth's
surface and its atmosphere which has been attributed to the accumulation of greenhouse
gases.
7. The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), water vapour,
oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs).
8. CFCs also destroy the earth's protective ozone layer which shields the earth from
harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun.
9. Acid rains are caused mainly by the release of sulphur dioxide (SO2) and oxides of
nitrogen (NOx) when fossil fuels burn.
10. The oxides combine with water vapour in the air to form acids, which return to the
ground as acid rain.
11. Because carbonic acid is a relatively weak acid, the ability of carbon dioxide alone to
generate true acid rain is very limited.
12. Acidified clouds could travel great distances before releasing the acid rain.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 107

13. The problems posed by acid rains include corrosion of the built environment, soil
degradation, water pollution and depletion of forests.

[Figure Causes and processes of acid rain]

14. The oil industry adds lead (Pb) to petrol (gasoline) to help engines run more smoothly.
15. Vehicles that burn leaded gasoline pour out leaded fumes
that contaminate the air.
16. The World Health Organisation (WHO) has established
that smoke from the combustion of leaded fuels in vehicles
causes cancer and high blood pressure in adults; and in
children, it impairs mental development, reduces
intelligence thus hindering learning ability and causes
behavioural disorders.
[Figure Leaded fuel]
108 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

17. The leakage of fuel oil from storage vessels, oil

tankers, pipelines and tanker trucks is
unavoidable.
18. Oil spills seriously damage the land, vegetation,
and water bodies, including the oceans.
19. In addition, spilled oil can damage the ecosystem
and its habitats.
20. Gas leaks and explosions sometimes accompany [Figure Bird in spilled oil]
the harnessing and utilization of fossil fuels
especially in the coal mines and storage plants.
21. The explosions are sometimes accompanied by fire outbreaks.
22. Excavated areas that have been strip mined for coal but are not filled and revegetated
cause water pollution as surface water runoff from the mined area can flush sediments
and sulphur-bearing compounds into nearby streams and rivers.

[Figure Water pollution]

Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 109

23. This could endanger human life, plant and wildlife communities.
24. Emissions from vehicles, thermal power plants and factories contain unburned
hydrocarbons, particulates, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide and oxides of nitrogen
and sulphur that contribute to the lowering of the quality of air.
25. These substances in the air could irritate the eyes, throat and the lungs.

Figure 4.14 (a) Deforestation in Tesso Nilo, Sumatra

Figure 4.14 (b) Burned areas of the Amazon

Figure 4.14 Environmental impacts of conventional sources
110 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.5.2 Environmental Impact of Non-Conventional Sources.

Environmental Impacts of Solar Power
26. Photovoltaics is now a proven technology which is inherently safe, as opposed to some
dangerous electricity generating technologies.
27. Over its estimated life, a photovoltaic module will produce much more electricity than
was used in its production.
28. A solar module will prevent the emission of CO2 produced by other conventional
energy sources.
29. Photovoltaic systems make no noise and cause no pollution while in operation.
30. PV cell technologies have relatively lower environmental risks compared to other types
of electric sources.
31. However, chemicals used in PV cells in the manufacturing facility, the installation site,
and the disposal or recycling facility could be released to air, surface water, and
groundwater.
Environmental Impacts of Wind Power
32. A wind farm, when installed on agricultural land, has one of the lowest environmental
impacts of all energy sources.
33. It occupies less land area per kilowatt hour (kWh) of electricity generated than any
other energy conversion system.
34. Greenhouse gas emissions and air pollution produced by its construction are very tiny
and declining.
35. Modern wind turbine designs have significantly reduced the noise from turbines.
36. Low frequency sound and infrasound (i.e. usually beneath the threshold of human
hearing) are everywhere in the environment.
37. Modern turbine designs which locate the blades upwind instead of downwind have
significantly reduced the level of infrasound.
38. Wind turbines may create shadow flicker on nearby residences when the sun passes
behind the turbine.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 111

39. However, this can easily be avoided by locating the wind farm to avoid unacceptable
shadow flicker, or turning the turbine off for a few minutes of the day when the sun is
at the angle that causes flicker.

[Figure Shadow flicker caused by wind turbine]

Environmental Impacts of Hydroelectric Power
40. Although hydropower has no air quality impacts, construction and operation of
hydropower dams can significantly affect natural river systems as well as fish and
wildlife populations.
41. It has major effect on river transportation, agriculture, fertile lands, etc.
42. Assessment of the environmental impacts of a specific hydropower facility requires
case-by-case review.
Negative Impacts of Dams are as Follows:
 in flat basins large dams cause flooding of large tracts of land, destroying local
animals and habitats,
 villages and people have to be displaced causing change in life style,
 large amounts of plant life are submerged and decay anaerobically,
 the migratory pattern of river animals are affected,
112 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

 dams restrict sediments that are responsible for the fertile lands downstream,
 large dams are breeding grounds for mosquitoes and cause the spread of disease,
 dams serve as a heat sink, water in dams is hotter than the normal river water and
when this warm water released into the river downstream can affect animal life.
Environmental Impacts of Geothermal Energy
43. Geothermal power is a relatively benign (less harmful) source of energy.
44. For the most part, the impacts of development are positive.
45. Worldwide geothermal energy utilization increases yearly because it is an attractive
alternative to burning fossil fuels.
46. Electricity generation from geothermal resources involves much lower greenhouse gas
emission rates than that from fossil fuels.
47. However, geothermal development could have certain negative impacts if appropriate
mitigation actions and monitoring plants are not in place.
48. Any large-scale construction and drilling operation will produce visual impacts on the
landscape, create noise and wastes and affect local economies.
Environmental Impacts of Biomass
49. Biomass power plants share some similarities with fossil fuel power plants: both
involve the combustion of a feedstock to generate electricity.
50. Thus, biomass plants raise similar, but not identical, concerns about air emissions and
water use as fossil fuel plants.
51. Biomass power plants, like coal and natural gas-fired power plants, require water for
cooling.
52. Land use impacts from biomass power production are driven primarily by the type of
feedstock: either a waste stream or an energy crop that is grown specifically for
generating electricity.
53. There are global warming emissions associated with growing and harvesting biomass
feedstock, transporting feedstock to the power plant and burning or gasifying the
feedstock.
Dr Vince Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes 113

54. Transportation and combustion emissions are roughly equivalent for all types of
biomass.
55. It is understood that some biomass feedstock sources are associated with substantial
global warming emissions.
56. However, global warming emissions from the sourcing of biomass feedstock vary
widely.
57. The energy transfers which occur in each type of energy resource.
Fossil fuels: chemical energy  thermal energy  kinetic energy  electrical
energy
Solar energy: light & thermal energy  electrical energy
Nuclear: nuclear energy  thermal energy  kinetic energy  electrical energy
Wind: kinetic energy  electrical energy
Bio-fuel: chemical energy  thermal energy  mechanical energy  electrical energy
Hydroelectricity: gravitational potential energy  kinetic energy  electrical energy
Geothermal: thermal energy  kinetic energy  electrical energy
Tidal: kinetic energy  electrical energy
114 Grade 12 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.5

R060:What are consequences of development on the environment?
Ans:  global warming
 acid rains
 dangers posed by leaded fuels
 oil spills
 gas leaks and explosions
 air pollution and water pollution
 chemicals used in PV cells in the manufacturing facility may cause pollutions
 low frequency sound and infrasound produced from wind farms
 shadow flicker caused by wind turbines
 effect on river transportation, agriculture, fertile lands by hydropower dams
 impacts on the landscape, and noise by geothermal development
 global warming emissions associated with development of biomass
Q13: Why is it better to use more renewable energy resources rather than non-renewable
resources?
Ans:  Renewable energy resources are safe, abundant, and clean to use when
compared to fossil fuels.
 Renewable energy will never run out.
 Renewable energy is reliable.
 The maintenance requirements of renewable energy are lower.
 Renewable energy has numerous health and environmental benefits.