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System Analysis and Design - Quick Guide

System Analysis and Design - Overview

Systems development is systematic process which includes phases such as planning,
analysis, design, deployment, and maintenance. Here, in this tutorial, we will
primarily focus on −

Systems analysis

Systems design

Systems Analysis
It is a process of collecting and interpreting facts, identifying the problems, and
decomposition of a system into its components.

System analysis is conducted for the purpose of studying a system or its parts in
order to identify its objectives. It is a problem solving technique that improves the
system and ensures that all the components of the system work efficiently to
accomplish their purpose.

Analysis specifies what the system should do.

Systems Design
It is a process of planning a new business system or replacing an existing system by
defining its components or modules to satisfy the specific requirements. Before
planning, you need to understand the old system thoroughly and determine how
computers can best be used in order to operate efficiently.

System Design focuses on how to accomplish the objective of the system.

System Analysis and Design (SAD) mainly focuses on −

Systems
Processes

Technology

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What is a System?
The word System is derived from Greek word Systema, which means an organized
relationship between any set of components to achieve some common cause or
objective.

A system is “an orderly grouping of interdependent components linked together

according to a plan to achieve a specific goal.”

Constraints of a System

A system must have three basic constraints −

A system must have some structure and behavior which is designed to

achieve a predefined objective.
Interconnectivity and interdependence must exist among the system
components.
The objectives of the organization have a higher priority than the
objectives of its subsystems.

For example, traffic management system, payroll system, automatic library system,
human resources information system.

Properties of a System
A system has the following properties −

Organization

Organization implies structure and order. It is the arrangement of components that

helps to achieve predetermined objectives.

Interaction

It is defined by the manner in which the components operate with each other.

For example, in an organization, purchasing department must interact with

production department and payroll with personnel department.

Interdependence

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Interdependence means how the components of a system depend on one another.

For proper functioning, the components are coordinated and linked together
according to a specified plan. The output of one subsystem is the required by other
subsystem as input.

Integration

Integration is concerned with how a system components are connected together. It

means that the parts of the system work together within the system even if each
part performs a unique function.

Central Objective

The objective of system must be central. It may be real or stated. It is not

uncommon for an organization to state an objective and operate to achieve another.

The users must know the main objective of a computer application early in the
analysis for a successful design and conversion.

Elements of a System
The following diagram shows the elements of a system −

Outputs and Inputs

The main aim of a system is to produce an output which is useful for its user.

Inputs are the information that enters into the system for processing.
Output is the outcome of processing.

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Processor(s)

The processor is the element of a system that involves the actual

transformation of input into output.
It is the operational component of a system. Processors may modify the input
either totally or partially, depending on the output specification.

As the output specifications change, so does the processing. In some cases,

input is also modified to enable the processor for handling the transformation.

Control

The control element guides the system.

It is the decision–making subsystem that controls the pattern of activities
governing input, processing, and output.

The behavior of a computer System is controlled by the Operating System

and software. In order to keep system in balance, what and how much input
is needed is determined by Output Specifications.

Feedback

Feedback provides the control in a dynamic system.

Positive feedback is routine in nature that encourages the performance of the
system.

Negative feedback is informational in nature that provides the controller with

information for action.

Environment

The environment is the “supersystem” within which an organization operates.

It is the source of external elements that strike on the system.

It determines how a system must function. For example, vendors and

competitors of organization’s environment, may provide constraints that
affect the actual performance of the business.

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Boundaries and Interface

A system should be defined by its boundaries. Boundaries are the limits that
identify its components, processes, and interrelationship when it interfaces
with another system.
Each system has boundaries that determine its sphere of influence and
control.

The knowledge of the boundaries of a given system is crucial in determining

the nature of its interface with other systems for successful design.

Types of Systems
The systems can be divided into the following types −

Physical or Abstract Systems

Physical systems are tangible entities. We can touch and feel them.

Physical System may be static or dynamic in nature. For example, desks and
chairs are the physical parts of computer center which are static. A
programmed computer is a dynamic system in which programs, data, and
applications can change according to the user's needs.

Abstract systems are non-physical entities or conceptual that may be

formulas, representation or model of a real system.

Open or Closed Systems

An open system must interact with its environment. It receives inputs from
and delivers outputs to the outside of the system. For example, an
information system which must adapt to the changing environmental
conditions.
A closed system does not interact with its environment. It is isolated from
environmental influences. A completely closed system is rare in reality.

Adaptive and Non Adaptive System

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Adaptive System responds to the change in the environment in a way to

improve their performance and to survive. For example, human beings,
animals.

Non Adaptive System is the system which does not respond to the
environment. For example, machines.

Permanent or Temporary System

Permanent System persists for long time. For example, business policies.
Temporary System is made for specified time and after that they are
demolished. For example, A DJ system is set up for a program and it is
dissembled after the program.

Natural and Manufactured System

Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system,
seasonal system.
Manufactured System is the man-made system. For example, Rockets, dams,
trains.

Deterministic or Probabilistic System

Deterministic system operates in a predictable manner and the interaction

between system components is known with certainty. For example, two
molecules of hydrogen and one molecule of oxygen makes water.
Probabilistic System shows uncertain behavior. The exact output is not
known. For example, Weather forecasting, mail delivery.

Social, Human-Machine, Machine System

Social System is made up of people. For example, social clubs, societies.

In Human-Machine System, both human and machines are involved to

perform a particular task. For example, Computer programming.
Machine System is where human interference is neglected. All the tasks are
performed by the machine. For example, an autonomous robot.

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Man–Made Information Systems

It is an interconnected set of information resources to manage data for

particular organization, under Direct Management Control (DMC).
This system includes hardware, software, communication, data, and
application for producing information according to the need of an
organization.
Man-made information systems are divided into three types −
Formal Information System − It is based on the flow of information in the
form of memos, instructions, etc., from top level to lower levels of
management.
Informal Information System − This is employee based system which
solves the day to day work related problems.

Computer Based System − This system is directly dependent on the

computer for managing business applications. For example, automatic library
system, railway reservation system, banking system, etc.

Systems Models

Schematic Models

A schematic model is a 2-D chart that shows system elements and their
linkages.
Different arrows are used to show information flow, material flow, and
information feedback.

Flow System Models

A flow system model shows the orderly flow of the material, energy, and
information that hold the system together.
Program Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT), for example, is used to
abstract a real world system in model form.

Static System Models

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They represent one pair of relationships such as activity–time or cost–

quantity.

The Gantt chart, for example, gives a static picture of an activity-time

relationship.

Dynamic System Models

Business organizations are dynamic systems. A dynamic model approximates

the type of organization or application that analysts deal with.
It shows an ongoing, constantly changing status of the system. It consists of
−

Inputs that enter the system

The processor through which transformation takes place
The program(s) required for processing
The output(s) that result from processing.

Categories of Information
There are three categories of information related to managerial levels and the
decision managers make.

Strategic Information

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This information is required by topmost management for long range planning

policies for next few years. For example, trends in revenues, financial
investment, and human resources, and population growth.
This type of information is achieved with the aid of Decision Support System
(DSS).

Managerial Information

This type of Information is required by middle management for short and

intermediate range planning which is in terms of months. For example, sales
analysis, cash flow projection, and annual financial statements.
It is achieved with the aid of Management Information Systems (MIS).

Operational information

This type of information is required by low management for daily and short
term planning to enforce day-to-day operational activities. For example,
keeping employee attendance records, overdue purchase orders, and current
stocks available.
It is achieved with the aid of Data Processing Systems (DPS).

System Development Life Cycle

An effective System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) should result in a high quality
system that meets customer expectations, reaches completion within time and cost
evaluations, and works effectively and efficiently in the current and planned
Information Technology infrastructure.

System Development Life Cycle (SDLC) is a conceptual model which includes policies
and procedures for developing or altering systems throughout their life cycles.

SDLC is used by analysts to develop an information system. SDLC includes the

following activities −

requirements
design

implementation
testing

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deployment
operations

maintenance

Phases of SDLC
Systems Development Life Cycle is a systematic approach which explicitly breaks
down the work into phases that are required to implement either new or modified
Information System.

Feasibility Study or Planning

Define the problem and scope of existing system.

Overview the new system and determine its objectives.

Confirm project feasibility and produce the project Schedule.

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During this phase, threats, constraints, integration and security of system are
also considered.
A feasibility report for the entire project is created at the end of this phase.

Analysis and Specification

Gather, analyze, and validate the information.

Define the requirements and prototypes for new system.
Evaluate the alternatives and prioritize the requirements.

Examine the information needs of end-user and enhances the system goal.
A Software Requirement Specification (SRS) document, which specifies the
software, hardware, functional, and network requirements of the system is
prepared at the end of this phase.

System Design

Includes the design of application, network, databases, user interfaces, and

system interfaces.

Transform the SRS document into logical structure, which contains detailed
and complete set of specifications that can be implemented in a programming
language.

Create a contingency, training, maintenance, and operation plan.

Review the proposed design. Ensure that the final design must meet the
requirements stated in SRS document.

Finally, prepare a design document which will be used during next phases.

Implementation

Implement the design into source code through coding.

Combine all the modules together into training environment that detects
errors and defects.

A test report which contains errors is prepared through test plan that includes
test related tasks such as test case generation, testing criteria, and resource
allocation for testing.

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Integrate the information system into its environment and install the new
system.

Maintenance/Support

Include all the activities such as phone support or physical on-site support for
users that is required once the system is installing.

Implement the changes that software might undergo over a period of time, or
implement any new requirements after the software is deployed at the
customer location.
It also includes handling the residual errors and resolve any issues that may
exist in the system even after the testing phase.
Maintenance and support may be needed for a longer time for large systems
and for a short time for smaller systems.

Life Cycle of System Analysis and Design

The following diagram shows the complete life cycle of the system during analysis
and design phase.

Role of System Analyst

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The system analyst is a person who is thoroughly aware of the system and guides
the system development project by giving proper directions. He is an expert having
technical and interpersonal skills to carry out development tasks required at each
phase.

He pursues to match the objectives of information system with the organization

goal.

Main Roles

Defining and understanding the requirement of user through various Fact

finding techniques.

Prioritizing the requirements by obtaining user consensus.

Gathering the facts or information and acquires the opinions of users.

Maintains analysis and evaluation to arrive at appropriate system which is

more user friendly.

Suggests many flexible alternative solutions, pick the best solution, and
quantify cost and benefits.
Draw certain specifications which are easily understood by users and
programmer in precise and detailed form.
Implemented the logical design of system which must be modular.

Plan the periodicity for evaluation after it has been used for some time, and
modify the system as needed.

Attributes of a Systems Analyst

The following figure shows the attributes a systems analyst should possess −

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Interpersonal Skills

Interface with users and programmer.

Facilitate groups and lead smaller teams.

Managing expectations.
Good understanding, communication, selling and teaching abilities.

Motivator having the confidence to solve queries.

Analytical Skills

System study and organizational knowledge

Problem identification, problem analysis, and problem solving

Sound commonsense
Ability to access trade-off

Curiosity to learn about new organization

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Management Skills

Understand users jargon and practices.

Resource & project management.

Change & risk management.

Understand the management functions thoroughly.

Technical Skills

Knowledge of computers and software.

Keep abreast of modern development.

Know of system design tools.

Breadth knowledge about new technologies.

System Analysis & Design - System Planning

What is Requirements Determination?

A requirement is a vital feature of a new system which may include processing or
capturing of data, controlling the activities of business, producing information and
supporting the management.

Requirements determination involves studying the existing system and gathering

details to find out what are the requirements, how it works, and where
improvements should be made.

Major Activities in requirement Determination

Requirements Anticipation

It predicts the characteristics of system based on previous experience which

include certain problems or features and requirements for a new system.

It can lead to analysis of areas that would otherwise go unnoticed by

inexperienced analyst. But if shortcuts are taken and bias is introduced in
conducting the investigation, then requirement Anticipation can be half-
baked.

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Requirements Investigation

It is studying the current system and documenting its features for further
analysis.

It is at the heart of system analysis where analyst documenting and

describing system features using fact-finding techniques, prototyping, and
computer assisted tools.

Requirements Specifications

It includes the analysis of data which determine the requirement

specification, description of features for new system, and specifying what
information requirements will be provided.
It includes analysis of factual data, identification of essential requirements,
and selection of Requirement-fulfillment strategies.

Information Gathering Techniques

The main aim of fact finding techniques is to determine the information
requirements of an organization used by analysts to prepare a precise SRS
understood by user.

Ideal SRS Document should −

be complete, Unambiguous, and Jargon-free.

specify operational, tactical, and strategic information requirements.

solve possible disputes between users and analyst.

use graphical aids which simplify understanding and design.

There are various information gathering techniques −

Interviewing

Systems analyst collects information from individuals or groups by interviewing. The

analyst can be formal, legalistic, play politics, or be informal; as the success of an
interview depends on the skill of analyst as interviewer.

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It can be done in two ways −

Unstructured Interview − The system analyst conducts question-answer

session to acquire basic information of the system.

Structured Interview − It has standard questions which user need to

respond in either close (objective) or open (descriptive) format.

Advantages of Interviewing

This method is frequently the best source of gathering qualitative

information.

It is useful for them, who do not communicate effectively in writing or who

may not have the time to complete questionnaire.

Information can easily be validated and cross checked immediately.

It can handle the complex subjects.

It is easy to discover key problem by seeking opinions.

It bridges the gaps in the areas of misunderstandings and minimizes future

problems.

Questionnaires

This method is used by analyst to gather information about various issues of system
from large number of persons.

There are two types of questionnaires −

Open-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that can be easily

and correctly interpreted. They can explore a problem and lead to a specific
direction of answer.

Closed-ended Questionnaires − It consists of questions that are used

when the systems analyst effectively lists all possible responses, which are
mutually exclusive.

Advantages of questionnaires

It is very effective in surveying interests, attitudes, feelings, and beliefs of

users which are not co-located.

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It is useful in situation to know what proportion of a given group approves or

disapproves of a particular feature of the proposed system.

It is useful to determine the overall opinion before giving any specific

direction to the system project.

It is more reliable and provides high confidentiality of honest responses.

It is appropriate for electing factual information and for statistical data
collection which can be emailed and sent by post.

Review of Records, Procedures, and Forms

Review of existing records, procedures, and forms helps to seek insight into a
system which describes the current system capabilities, its operations, or activities.

Advantages

It helps user to gain some knowledge about the organization or operations by

themselves before they impose upon others.
It helps in documenting current operations within short span of time as the
procedure manuals and forms describe the format and functions of present
system.

It can provide a clear understanding about the transactions that are handled
in the organization, identifying input for processing, and evaluating
performance.

It can help an analyst to understand the system in terms of the operations

that must be supported.

It describes the problem, its affected parts, and the proposed solution.

Observation

This is a method of gathering information by noticing and observing the people,

events, and objects. The analyst visits the organization to observe the working of
current system and understands the requirements of the system.

Advantages

It is a direct method for gleaning information.

It is useful in situation where authenticity of data collected is in question or
when complexity of certain aspects of system prevents clear explanation by

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end-users.

It produces more accurate and reliable data.

It produces all the aspect of documentation that are incomplete and

outdated.

Joint Application Development (JAD)

It is a new technique developed by IBM which brings owners, users, analysts,

designers, and builders to define and design the system using organized and
intensive workshops. JAD trained analyst act as facilitator for workshop who has
some specialized skills.

Advantages of JAD

It saves time and cost by replacing months of traditional interviews and

follow-up meetings.

It is useful in organizational culture which supports joint problem solving.

Fosters formal relationships among multiple levels of employees.

It can lead to development of design creatively.

It Allows rapid development and improves ownership of information system.

Secondary Research or Background Reading

This method is widely used for information gathering by accessing the gleaned
information. It includes any previously gathered information used by the marketer
from any internal or external source.

Advantages

It is more openly accessed with the availability of internet.

It provides valuable information with low cost and time.

It act as forerunner to primary research and aligns the focus of primary

research.

It is used by the researcher to conclude if the research is worth it as it is

available with procedures used and issues in collecting them.

Feasibility Study

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Feasibility Study can be considered as preliminary investigation that helps the

management to take decision about whether study of system should be feasible for
development or not.

It identifies the possibility of improving an existing system, developing a new

system, and produce refined estimates for further development of system.

It is used to obtain the outline of the problem and decide whether feasible or
appropriate solution exists or not.

The main objective of a feasibility study is to acquire problem scope instead

of solving the problem.

The output of a feasibility study is a formal system proposal act as decision

document which includes the complete nature and scope of the proposed
system.

Steps Involved in Feasibility Analysis

The following steps are to be followed while performing feasibility analysis −

Form a project team and appoint a project leader.

Develop system flowcharts.

Identify the deficiencies of current system and set goals.

Enumerate the alternative solution or potential candidate system to meet

goals.

Determine the feasibility of each alternative such as technical feasibility,

operational feasibility, etc.
Weight the performance and cost effectiveness of each candidate system.

Rank the other alternatives and select the best candidate system.
Prepare a system proposal of final project directive to management for
approval.

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Types of Feasibilities

Economic Feasibility

It is evaluating the effectiveness of candidate system by using cost/benefit

analysis method.

It demonstrates the net benefit from the candidate system in terms of

benefits and costs to the organization.

The main aim of Economic Feasibility Analysis (EFS) is to estimate the

economic requirements of candidate system before investments funds are
committed to proposal.
It prefers the alternative which will maximize the net worth of organization by
earliest and highest return of funds along with lowest level of risk involved in
developing the candidate system.

Technical Feasibility

It investigates the technical feasibility of each implementation alternative.

It analyzes and determines whether the solution can be supported by existing
technology or not.
The analyst determines whether current technical resources be upgraded or
added it that fulfill the new requirements.
It ensures that the candidate system provides appropriate responses to what
extent it can support the technical enhancement.

Operational Feasibility

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It determines whether the system is operating effectively once it is developed

and implemented.
It ensures that the management should support the proposed system and its
working feasible in the current organizational environment.
It analyzes whether the users will be affected and they accept the modified or
new business methods that affect the possible system benefits.

It also ensures that the computer resources and network architecture of

candidate system are workable.

Behavioral Feasibility

It evaluates and estimates the user attitude or behavior towards the

development of new system.

It helps in determining if the system requires special effort to educate,

retrain, transfer, and changes in employee’s job status on new ways of
conducting business.

Schedule Feasibility

It ensures that the project should be completed within given time constraint
or schedule.
It also verifies and validates whether the deadlines of project are reasonable
or not.

Structured Analysis
Analysts use various tools to understand and describe the information system. One
of the ways is using structured analysis.

What is Structured Analysis?

Structured Analysis is a development method that allows the analyst to understand
the system and its activities in a logical way.

It is a systematic approach, which uses graphical tools that analyze and refine the
objectives of an existing system and develop a new system specification which can
be easily understandable by user.

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It has following attributes −

It is graphic which specifies the presentation of application.

It divides the processes so that it gives a clear picture of system flow.
It is logical rather than physical i.e., the elements of system do not depend
on vendor or hardware.
It is an approach that works from high-level overviews to lower-level details.

Structured Analysis Tools

During Structured Analysis, various tools and techniques are used for system
development. They are −

Data Flow Diagrams

Data Dictionary
Decision Trees

Decision Tables
Structured English
Pseudocode

Data Flow Diagrams (DFD) or Bubble Chart

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It is a technique developed by Larry Constantine to express the requirements of

system in a graphical form.

It shows the flow of data between various functions of system and specifies
how the current system is implemented.
It is an initial stage of design phase that functionally divides the requirement
specifications down to the lowest level of detail.
Its graphical nature makes it a good communication tool between user and
analyst or analyst and system designer.

It gives an overview of what data a system processes, what transformations

are performed, what data are stored, what results are produced and where
they flow.

Basic Elements of DFD

DFD is easy to understand and quite effective when the required design is not clear
and the user wants a notational language for communication. However, it requires a
large number of iterations for obtaining the most accurate and complete solution.

The following table shows the symbols used in designing a DFD and their
significance −

Symbol Name Symbol Meaning

Square Source or Destination of Data

Arrow Data flow

Circle Process transforming data flow

Open Rectangle Data Store

Types of DFD

DFDs are of two types: Physical DFD and Logical DFD. The following table lists the
points that differentiate a physical DFD from a logical DFD.

Physical DFD Logical DFD

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It is implementation independent. It
It is implementation dependent. It
focuses only on the flow of data between
shows which functions are performed.
processes.

It provides low level details of It explains events of systems and data

hardware, software, files, and people. required by each event.

It depicts how the current system

It shows how business operates; not how
operates and how a system will be
the system can be implemented.
implemented.

Context Diagram

A context diagram helps in understanding the entire system by one DFD which gives
the overview of a system. It starts with mentioning major processes with little
details and then goes onto giving more details of the processes with the top-down
approach.

The context diagram of mess management is shown below.

Data Dictionary
A data dictionary is a structured repository of data elements in the system. It stores
the descriptions of all DFD data elements that is, details and definitions of data
flows, data stores, data stored in data stores, and the processes.

A data dictionary improves the communication between the analyst and the user. It
plays an important role in building a database. Most DBMSs have a data dictionary
as a standard feature. For example, refer the following table −

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Sr.No. Data Name Description No. of Characters

1 ISBN ISBN Number 10

2 TITLE title 60

3 SUB Book Subjects 80

4 ANAME Author Name 15

Decision Trees
Decision trees are a method for defining complex relationships by describing
decisions and avoiding the problems in communication. A decision tree is a diagram
that shows alternative actions and conditions within horizontal tree framework.
Thus, it depicts which conditions to consider first, second, and so on.

Decision trees depict the relationship of each condition and their permissible actions.
A square node indicates an action and a circle indicates a condition. It forces
analysts to consider the sequence of decisions and identifies the actual decision that
must be made.

The major limitation of a decision tree is that it lacks information in its format to
describe what other combinations of conditions you can take for testing. It is a single
representation of the relationships between conditions and actions.

For example, refer the following decision tree −

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Decision Tables
Decision tables are a method of describing the complex logical relationship in a
precise manner which is easily understandable.

It is useful in situations where the resulting actions depend on the occurrence

of one or several combinations of independent conditions.
It is a matrix containing row or columns for defining a problem and the
actions.

Components of a Decision Table

Condition Stub − It is in the upper left quadrant which lists all the condition
to be checked.
Action Stub − It is in the lower left quadrant which outlines all the action to
be carried out to meet such condition.
Condition Entry − It is in upper right quadrant which provides answers to
questions asked in condition stub quadrant.

Action Entry − It is in lower right quadrant which indicates the appropriate

action resulting from the answers to the conditions in the condition entry
quadrant.

The entries in decision table are given by Decision Rules which define the
relationships between combinations of conditions and courses of action. In rules
section,

Y shows the existence of a condition.

N represents the condition, which is not satisfied.
A blank - against action states it is to be ignored.

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X (or a check mark will do) against action states it is to be carried out.

For example, refer the following table −

CONDITIONS Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4

Advance
payment Y N N N
made

Purchase
amount = Rs - Y Y N
10,000/-

Regular
- Y N -
Customer

ACTIONS

Give 5%
X X - -
discount

Give no
- - X X
discount

Structured English
Structure English is derived from structured programming language which gives
more understandable and precise description of process. It is based on procedural
logic that uses construction and imperative sentences designed to perform operation
for action.

It is best used when sequences and loops in a program must be considered

and the problem needs sequences of actions with decisions.
It does not have strict syntax rule. It expresses all logic in terms of sequential
decision structures and iterations.

For example, see the following sequence of actions −

if customer pays advance

then
Give 5% Discount

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else
if purchase amount >=10,000
then
if the customer is a regular customer
then Give 5% Discount
else No Discount
end if
else No Discount
end if
end if

Pseudocode
A pseudocode does not conform to any programming language and expresses logic
in plain English.

It may specify the physical programming logic without actual coding during
and after the physical design.
It is used in conjunction with structured programming.

It replaces the flowcharts of a program.

Guidelines for Selecting Appropriate Tools

Use the following guidelines for selecting the most appropriate tool that would suit
your requirements −

Use DFD at high or low level analysis for providing good system
documentations.

Use data dictionary to simplify the structure for meeting the data requirement
of the system.
Use structured English if there are many loops and actions are complex.
Use decision tables when there are a large number of conditions to check and
logic is complex.
Use decision trees when sequencing of conditions is important and if there
are few conditions to be tested.

System Analysis & Design - System Design

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System design is the phase that bridges the gap between problem domain and the
existing system in a manageable way. This phase focuses on the solution domain,
i.e. “how to implement?”

It is the phase where the SRS document is converted into a format that can be
implemented and decides how the system will operate.

In this phase, the complex activity of system development is divided into several
smaller sub-activities, which coordinate with each other to achieve the main
objective of system development.

Inputs to System Design

System design takes the following inputs −

Statement of work
Requirement determination plan
Current situation analysis

Proposed system requirements including a conceptual data model, modified

DFDs, and Metadata (data about data).

Outputs for System Design

System design gives the following outputs −

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Infrastructure and organizational changes for the proposed system.

A data schema, often a relational schema.

Metadata to define the tables/files and columns/data-items.
A function hierarchy diagram or web page map that graphically describes the
program structure.
Actual or pseudocode for each module in the program.

A prototype for the proposed system.

Types of System Design

Logical Design

Logical design pertains to an abstract representation of the data flow, inputs, and
outputs of the system. It describes the inputs (sources), outputs (destinations),
databases (data stores), procedures (data flows) all in a format that meets the user
requirements.

While preparing the logical design of a system, the system analyst specifies the user
needs at level of detail that virtually determines the information flow into and out of
the system and the required data sources. Data flow diagram, E-R diagram modeling
are used.

Physical Design

Physical design relates to the actual input and output processes of the system. It
focuses on how data is entered into a system, verified, processed, and displayed as
output.

It produces the working system by defining the design specification that specifies
exactly what the candidate system does. It is concerned with user interface design,
process design, and data design.

It consists of the following steps −

Specifying the input/output media, designing the database, and specifying

backup procedures.
Planning system implementation.

Devising a test and implementation plan, and specifying any new hardware
and software.

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Updating costs, benefits, conversion dates, and system constraints.

Architectural Design

It is also known as high level design that focuses on the design of system
architecture. It describes the structure and behavior of the system. It defines the
structure and relationship between various modules of system development process.

Detailed Design

It follows Architectural design and focuses on development of each module.

Conceptual Data Modeling

It is representation of organizational data which includes all the major entities and
relationship. System analysts develop a conceptual data model for the current
system that supports the scope and requirement for the proposed system.

The main aim of conceptual data modeling is to capture as much meaning of data as
possible. Most organization today use conceptual data modeling using E-R model
which uses special notation to represent as much meaning about data as possible.

Entity Relationship Model

It is a technique used in database design that helps describe the relationship

between various entities of an organization.

Terms used in E-R model

ENTITY − It specifies distinct real world items in an application. For

example: vendor, item, student, course, teachers, etc.
RELATIONSHIP − They are the meaningful dependencies between entities.
For example, vendor supplies items, teacher teaches courses, then supplies
and course are relationship.

ATTRIBUTES − It specifies the properties of relationships. For example,

vendor code, student name. Symbols used in E-R model and their respective
meanings −

The following table shows the symbols used in E-R model and their significance −

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Symbol Meaning

Entity

Weak Entity

Relationship

Identity Relationship

Attributes

Key Attributes

Multivalued

Composite Attribute

Derived Attributes

Total Participation of E2 in R

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Cardinality Ratio 1:N for E1:E2 in R

Three types of relationships can exist between two sets of data: one-to-one, one-to-
many, and many-to-many.

File Organization
It describes how records are stored within a file.

There are four file organization methods −

Serial − Records are stored in chronological order (in order as they are input
or occur). Examples − Recording of telephone charges, ATM transactions,
Telephone queues.

Sequential − Records are stored in order based on a key field which contains
a value that uniquely identifies a record. Examples − Phone directories.

Direct (relative) − Each record is stored based on a physical address or

location on the device. Address is calculated from the value stored in the
record’s key field. Randomizing routine or hashing algorithm does the
conversion.
Indexed − Records can be processed both sequentially and non-sequentially
using indexes.

Comparision

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File Access
One can access a file using either Sequential Access or Random Access. File Access
methods allow computer programs read or write records in a file.

Sequential Access

Every record on the file is processed starting with the first record until End of File
(EOF) is reached. It is efficient when a large number of the records on the file need
to be accessed at any given time. Data stored on a tape (sequential access) can be
accessed only sequentially.

Direct (Random) Access

Records are located by knowing their physical locations or addresses on the device
rather than their positions relative to other records. Data stored on a CD device
(direct-access) can be accessed either sequentially or randomly.

Types of Files used in an Organization System

Following are the types of files used in an organization system −

Master file − It contains the current information for a system. For example,
customer file, student file, telephone directory.
Table file − It is a type of master file that changes infrequently and stored in
a tabular format. For example, storing Zipcode.

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Transaction file − It contains the day-to-day information generated from

business activities. It is used to update or process the master file. For
example, Addresses of the employees.
Temporary file − It is created and used whenever needed by a system.
Mirror file − They are the exact duplicates of other files. Help minimize the
risk of downtime in cases when the original becomes unusable. They must be
modified each time the original file is changed.
Log files − They contain copies of master and transaction records in order to
chronicle any changes that are made to the master file. It facilitates auditing
and provides mechanism for recovery in case of system failure.
Archive files − Backup files that contain historical versions of other files.

Documentation Control
Documentation is a process of recording the information for any reference or
operational purpose. It helps users, managers, and IT staff, who require it. It is
important that prepared document must be updated on regular basis to trace the
progress of the system easily.

After the implementation of system if the system is working improperly, then

documentation helps the administrator to understand the flow of data in the system
to correct the flaws and get the system working.

Programmers or systems analysts usually create program and system

documentation. Systems analysts usually are responsible for preparing
documentation to help users learn the system. In large companies, a technical
support team that includes technical writers might assist in the preparation of user
documentation and training materials.

Advantages

It can reduce system downtime, cut costs, and speed up maintenance tasks.
It provides the clear description of formal flow of present system and helps to
understand the type of input data and how the output can be produced.
It provides effective and efficient way of communication between technical
and nontechnical users about system.
It facilitates the training of new user so that he can easily understand the
flow of system.

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It helps the user to solve the problems such as troubleshooting and helps the
manager to take better final decisions of the organization system.
It provides better control to the internal or external working of the system.

Types of Documentations
When it comes to System Design, there are following four main documentations −

Program documentation
System documentation
Operations documentation

User documentation

Program Documentation

It describes inputs, outputs, and processing logic for all the program
modules.
The program documentation process starts in the system analysis phase and
continues during implementation.
This documentation guides programmers, who construct modules that are
well supported by internal and external comments and descriptions that can
be understood and maintained easily.

Operations Documentation

Operations documentation contains all the information needed for processing and
distributing online and printed output. Operations documentation should be clear,
concise, and available online if possible.

It includes the following information −

Program, systems analyst, programmer, and system identification.

Scheduling information for printed output, such as report, execution
frequency, and deadlines.
Input files, their source, output files, and their destinations.

E-mail and report distribution lists.

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Special forms required, including online forms.

Error and informational messages to operators and restart procedures.

Special instructions, such as security requirements.

User Documentation
It includes instructions and information to the users who will interact with the
system. For example, user manuals, help guides, and tutorials. User documentation
is valuable in training users and for reference purpose. It must be clear,
understandable, and readily accessible to users at all levels.

The users, system owners, analysts, and programmers, all put combined efforts to
develop a user’s guide.

A user documentation should include −

A system overview that clearly describes all major system features,

capabilities, and limitations.
Description of source document content, preparation, processing, and,
samples.
Overview of menu and data entry screen options, contents, and processing
instructions.
Examples of reports that are produced regularly or available at the user’s
request, including samples.
Security and audit trail information.

Explanation of responsibility for specific input, output, or processing

requirements.

Procedures for requesting changes and reporting problems.

Examples of exceptions and error situations.
Frequently asked questions (FAQs).

Explanation of how to get help and procedures for updating the user manual.

System Documentation
System documentation serves as the technical specifications for the IS and how the
objectives of the IS are accomplished. Users, managers and IS owners need never

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reference system documentation. System documentation provides the basis for

understanding the technical aspects of the IS when modifications are made.

It describes each program within the IS and the entire IS itself.

It describes the system’s functions, the way they are implemented, each
program's purpose within the entire IS with respect to the order of execution,
information passed to and from programs, and overall system flow.
It includes data dictionary entries, data flow diagrams, object models, screen
layouts, source documents, and the systems request that initiated the
project.

Most of the system documentation is prepared during the system analysis

and system design phases.
During systems implementation, an analyst must review system
documentation to verify that it is complete, accurate, and up-to-date, and
including any changes made during the implementation process.

Design Strategies

Top-Down Strategy
The top-down strategy uses the modular approach to develop the design of a
system. It is called so because it starts from the top or the highest-level module and
moves towards the lowest level modules.

In this technique, the highest-level module or main module for developing the
software is identified. The main module is divided into several smaller and simpler
submodules or segments based on the task performed by each module. Then, each
submodule is further subdivided into several submodules of next lower level. This
process of dividing each module into several submodules continues until the lowest
level modules, which cannot be further subdivided, are not identified.

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Bottom-Up Strategy
Bottom-Up Strategy follows the modular approach to develop the design of the
system. It is called so because it starts from the bottom or the most basic level
modules and moves towards the highest level modules.

In this technique,

The modules at the most basic or the lowest level are identified.
These modules are then grouped together based on the function performed
by each module to form the next higher-level modules.
Then, these modules are further combined to form the next higher-level
modules.
This process of grouping several simpler modules to form higher level
modules continues until the main module of system development process is
achieved.

Structured Design
Structured design is a data-flow based methodology that helps in identifying the
input and output of the developing system. The main objective of structured design
is to minimize the complexity and increase the modularity of a program. Structured
design also helps in describing the functional aspects of the system.

In structured designing, the system specifications act as a basis for graphically

representing the flow of data and sequence of processes involved in a software
development with the help of DFDs. After developing the DFDs for the software
system, the next step is to develop the structure chart.

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Modularization

Structured design partitions the program into small and independent modules. These
are organized in top down manner with the details shown in bottom.

Thus, structured design uses an approach called Modularization or decomposition to

minimize the complexity and to manage the problem by subdividing it into smaller
segments.

Advantages

Critical interfaces are tested first.

It provide abstraction.

It allows multiple programmers to work simultaneously.

It allows code reuse.
It provides control and improves morale.
It makes identifying structure easier.

Structured Charts

Structured charts are a recommended tool for designing a modular, top down
systems which define the various modules of system development and the
relationship between each module. It shows the system module and their
relationship between them.

It consists of diagram consisting of rectangular boxes that represent the modules,

connecting arrows, or lines.

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Control Module − It is a higher-level module that directs lower-level

modules, called subordinate modules.
Library Module − It is a reusable module and can be invoked from more
than one point in the chart.

We have two different approaches to design a structured chart −

Transform-Centered Structured Charts − They are used when all the

transactions follow same path.
Transaction–Centered Structured Charts − They are used when all the
transactions do not follow the same path.

Objectives of Using Structure Flowcharts

To encourage a top-down design.

To support the concept of modules and identify the appropriate modules.
To show the size and complexity of the system.

To identify the number of readily identifiable functions and modules within

each function.

To depict whether each identifiable function is a manageable entity or should

be broken down into smaller components.

Factors Affecting System Complexity

To develop good quality of system software, it is necessary to develop a good
design. Therefore, the main focus on while developing the design of the system is

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the quality of the software design. A good quality software design is the one, which
minimizes the complexity and cost expenditure in software development.

The two important concepts related to the system development that help in
determining the complexity of a system are coupling and cohesion.

Coupling

Coupling is the measure of the independence of components. It defines the degree

of dependency of each module of system development on the other. In practice, this
means the stronger the coupling between the modules in a system, the more
difficult it is to implement and maintain the system.

Each module should have simple, clean interface with other modules, and that the
minimum number of data elements should be shared between modules.

High Coupling

These type of systems have interconnections with program units dependent on each
other. Changes to one subsystem leads to high impact on the other subsystem.

Low Coupling

These type of systems are made up of components which are independent or almost
independent. A change in one subsystem does not affect any other subsystem.

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Coupling Measures

Content Coupling − When one component actually modifies another,then

the modified component is completely dependent on modifying one.
Common Coupling − When amount of coupling is reduced somewhat by
organizing system design so that data are accessible from a common data
store.
Control Coupling − When one component passes parameters to control the
activity of another component.
Stamp Coupling − When data structures is used to pass information from
one component to another.
Data Coupling − When only data is passed then components are connected
by this coupling.

Cohesion

Cohesion is the measure of closeness of the relationship between its components. It

defines the amount of dependency of the components of a module on one another.
In practice, this means the systems designer must ensure that −

They do not split essential processes into fragmented modules.

They do not gather together unrelated processes represented as processes on
the DFD into meaningless modules.

The best modules are those that are functionally cohesive. The worst modules are
those that are coincidentally cohesive.

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The worst degree of cohesion

Coincidental cohesion is found in a component whose parts are unrelated to another.

Logical Cohesion − It is where several logically related functions or data

elements are placed in same component.
Temporal Cohesion − It is when a component that is used to initialize a
system or set variables performs several functions in sequence, but the
functions are related by timing involved.
Procedurally Cohesion − It is when functions are grouped together in a
component just to ensure this order.
Sequential Cohesion − It is when the output from one part of a component
is the input to the next part of it.

Input / Output & Forms Design

Input Design
In an information system, input is the raw data that is processed to produce output.
During the input design, the developers must consider the input devices such as PC,
MICR, OMR, etc.

Therefore, the quality of system input determines the quality of system output.
Welldesigned input forms and screens have following properties −

It should serve specific purpose effectively such as storing, recording, and

retrieving the information.
It ensures proper completion with accuracy.

It should be easy to fill and straightforward.

It should focus on user’s attention, consistency, and simplicity.
All these objectives are obtained using the knowledge of basic design
principles regarding −

What are the inputs needed for the system?

How end users respond to different elements of forms and screens.

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Objectives for Input Design

The objectives of input design are −

To design data entry and input procedures

To reduce input volume
To design source documents for data capture or devise other data capture
methods
To design input data records, data entry screens, user interface screens, etc.
To use validation checks and develop effective input controls.

Data Input Methods

It is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent errors while

entering data. These methods depend on whether the data is entered by customers
in forms manually and later entered by data entry operators, or data is directly
entered by users on the PCs.

A system should prevent user from making mistakes by −

Clear form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly.

Clear instructions to fill form.
Clear form design.
Reducing key strokes.

Immediate error feedback.

Some of the popular data input methods are −

Batch input method (Offline data input method)

Online data input method
Computer readable forms
Interactive data input

Input Integrity Controls

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Input integrity controls include a number of methods to eliminate common input

errors by end-users. They also include checks on the value of individual fields; both
for format and the completeness of all inputs.

Audit trails for data entry and other system operations are created using transaction
logs which gives a record of all changes introduced in the database to provide
security and means of recovery in case of any failure.

Output Design
The design of output is the most important task of any system. During output
design, developers identify the type of outputs needed, and consider the necessary
output controls and prototype report layouts.

Objectives of Output Design

The objectives of input design are −

To develop output design that serves the intended purpose and eliminates the
production of unwanted output.
To develop the output design that meets the end users requirements.
To deliver the appropriate quantity of output.

To form the output in appropriate format and direct it to the right person.
To make the output available on time for making good decisions.

Let us now go through various types of outputs −

External Outputs

Manufacturers create and design external outputs for printers. External outputs
enable the system to leave the trigger actions on the part of their recipients or
confirm actions to their recipients.

Some of the external outputs are designed as turnaround outputs, which are
implemented as a form and re-enter the system as an input.

Internal outputs

Internal outputs are present inside the system, and used by end-users and
managers. They support the management in decision making and reporting.

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There are three types of reports produced by management information −

Detailed Reports − They contain present information which has almost no

filtering or restriction generated to assist management planning and control.
Summary Reports − They contain trends and potential problems which are
categorized and summarized that are generated for managers who do not
want details.
Exception Reports − They contain exceptions, filtered data to some
condition or standard before presenting it to the manager, as information.

Output Integrity Controls

Output integrity controls include routing codes to identify the receiving system, and
verification messages to confirm successful receipt of messages that are handled by
network protocol.

Printed or screen-format reports should include a date/time for report printing and
the data. Multipage reports contain report title or description, and pagination. Pre-
printed forms usually include a version number and effective date.

Forms Design
Both forms and reports are the product of input and output design and are business
document consisting of specified data. The main difference is that forms provide
fields for data input but reports are purely used for reading. For example, order
forms, employment and credit application, etc.

During form designing, the designers should know −

who will use them

where would they be delivered
the purpose of the form or report

During form design, automated design tools enhance the developer’s ability
to prototype forms and reports and present them to end users for evaluation.

Objectives of Good Form Design

A good form design is necessary to ensure the following −

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To keep the screen simple by giving proper sequence, information, and clear
captions.
To meet the intended purpose by using appropriate forms.
To ensure the completion of form with accuracy.
To keep the forms attractive by using icons, inverse video, or blinking cursors
etc.
To facilitate navigation.

Types of Forms

Flat Forms

It is a single copy form prepared manually or by a machine and printed on a

paper. For additional copies of the original, carbon papers are inserted
between copies.
It is a simplest and inexpensive form to design, print, and reproduce, which
uses less volume.

Unit Set/Snap out Forms

These are papers with one-time carbons interleaved into unit sets for either
handwritten or machine use.
Carbons may be either blue or black, standard grade medium intensity.
Generally, blue carbons are best for handwritten forms while black carbons
are best for machine use.

Continuous strip/Fanfold Forms

These are multiple unit forms joined in a continuous strip with perforations
between each pair of forms.

It is a less expensive method for large volume use.

No Carbon Required (NCR) Paper

They use carbonless papers which have two chemical coatings (capsules), one
on the face and the other on the back of a sheet of paper.

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When pressure is applied, the two capsules interact and create an image.

Testing and Quality Assurance

The software system needs to be checked for its intended behavior and direction of
progress at each development stage to avoid duplication of efforts, time and cost
overruns, and to assure completion of the system within stipulated time.The
software system needs to be checked for its intended behavior and direction of
progress at each development stage to avoid duplication of efforts, time and cost
overruns, and to assure completion of the system within stipulated time.

System testing and quality assurance come to aid for checking the system. It
includes −

Product level quality (Testing)

Process level quality.

Let us go through them briefly −

Testing
Testing is the process or activity that checks the functionality and correctness of
software according to specified user requirements in order to improve the quality
and reliability of system. It is an expensive, time consuming, and critical approach in
system development which requires proper planning of overall testing process.

A successful test is one that finds the errors. It executes the program with explicit
intention of finding error, i.e., making the program fail. It is a process of evaluating
system with an intention of creating a strong system and mainly focuses on the
weak areas of the system or software.

Characteristics of System Testing

System testing begins at the module level and proceeds towards the integration of
the entire software system. Different testing techniques are used at different times
while testing the system. It is conducted by the developer for small projects and by
independent testing groups for large projects.

Stages of System Testing

The following stages are involved in testing −

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Test Strategy

It is a statement that provides information about the various levels, methods, tools,
and techniques used for testing the system. It should satisfy all the needs of an
organization.

Test Plan

It provides a plan for testing the system and verifies that the system under testing
fulfils all the design and functional specifications. The test plan provides the
following information −

Objectives of each test phase

Approaches and tools used for testing

Responsibilities and time required for each testing activity

Availability of tools, facilities, and test libraries
Procedures and standards required for planning and conducting the tests
Factors responsible for successful completion of testing process

Test Case Design

A number of test cases are identified for each module of the system to be
tested.
Each test case will specify how the implementation of a particular
requirement or design decision is to be tested and the criteria for the success
of the test.
The test cases along with the test plan are documented as a part of a system
specification document or in a separate document called test specification
or test description.

Test Procedures

It consists of the steps that should be followed to execute each of the test cases.
These procedures are specified in a separate document called test procedure
specification. This document also specifies any special requirements and formats for
reporting the result of testing.

Test Result Documentation

Test result file contains brief information about the total number of test cases
executed, the number of errors, and nature of errors. These results are then

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assessed against criteria in the test specification to determine the overall outcome of
the test.

Types of Testing
Testing can be of various types and different types of tests are conducted depending
on the kind of bugs one seeks to discover −

Unit Testing

Also known as Program Testing, it is a type of testing where the analyst tests or
focuses on each program or module independently. It is carried out with the
intention of executing each statement of the module at least once.

In unit testing, accuracy of program cannot be assured and it is difficult to

conduct testing of various input combination in detail.
It identifies maximum errors in a program as compared to other testing
techniques.

Integration Testing

In Integration Testing, the analyst tests multiple module working together. It is used
to find discrepancies between the system and its original objective, current
specifications, and systems documentation.

Here the analysts are try to find areas where modules have been designed
with different specifications for data length, type, and data element name.
It verifies that file sizes are adequate and that indices have been built
properly.

Functional Testing

Function testing determines whether the system is functioning correctly according to

its specifications and relevant standards documentation. Functional testing typically
starts with the implementation of the system, which is very critical for the success of
the system.

Functional testing is divided into two categories −

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Positive Functional Testing − It involves testing the system with valid

inputs to verify that the outputs produced are correct.
Negative Functional Testing − It involves testing the software with invalid
inputs and undesired operating conditions.

Rules for System Testing

To carry out system testing successfully, you need to follow the given rules −

Testing should be based on the requirements of user.

Before writing testing scripts, understand the business logic should be
understood thoroughly.
Test plan should be done as soon as possible.
Testing should be done by the third party.

It should be performed on static software.

Testing should be done for valid and invalid input conditions.
Testing should be reviewed and examined to reduce the costs.
Both static and dynamic testing should be conducted on the software.
Documentation of test cases and test results should be done.

Quality Assurance
It is the review of system or software products and its documentation for assurance
that system meets the requirements and specifications.

Purpose of QA is to provide confidence to the customers by constant delivery

of product according to specification.
Software quality Assurance (SQA) is a techniques that includes procedures
and tools applied by the software professionals to ensure that software meet
the specified standard for its intended use and performance.
The main aim of SQA is to provide proper and accurate visibility of software
project and its developed product to the administration.
It reviews and audits the software product and its activities throughout the
life cycle of system development.

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Objectives of Quality Assurance

The objectives of conducting quality assurance are as follows −

To monitor the software development process and the final software

developed.
To ensure whether the software project is implementing the standards and
procedures set by the management.
To notify groups and individuals about the SQA activities and results of these
activities.
To ensure that the issues, which are not solved within the software are
addressed by the upper management.
To identify deficiencies in the product, process, or the standards, and fix
them.

Levels of Quality Assurance

There are several levels of QA and testing that need to be performed in order to
certify a software product.

Level 1 − Code Walk-through

At this level, offline software is examined or checked for any violations of the official
coding rules. In general, the emphasis is placed on examination of the
documentation and level of in-code comments.

Level 2 − Compilation and Linking

At this level, it is checked that the software can compile and link all official platforms
and operating systems.

Level 3 − Routine Running

At this level, it is checked that the software can run properly under a variety of
conditions such as certain number of events and small and large event sizes etc.

Level 4 − Performance test

At this final level, it is checked that the performance of the software satisfies the
previously specified performance level.

System Implementation and Maintenance

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Implementation is a process of ensuring that the information system is operational.

It involves −

Constructing a new system from scratch

Constructing a new system from the existing one.

Implementation allows the users to take over its operation for use and evaluation. It
involves training the users to handle the system and plan for a smooth conversion.

Training
The personnel in the system must know in detail what their roles will be, how they
can use the system, and what the system will or will not do. The success or failure of
welldesigned and technically elegant systems can depend on the way they are
operated and used.

Training Systems Operators

Systems operators must be trained properly such that they can handle all possible
operations, both routine and extraordinary. The operators should be trained in what
common malfunctions may occur, how to recognize them, and what steps to take
when they come.

Training involves creating troubleshooting lists to identify possible problems and

remedies for them, as well as the names and telephone numbers of individuals to
contact when unexpected or unusual problems arise.

Training also involves familiarization with run procedures, which involves working
through the sequence of activities needed to use a new system.

User Training

End-user training is an important part of the computer-based information

system development, which must be provided to employees to enable them
to do their own problem solving.
User training involves how to operate the equipment, troubleshooting the
system problem, determining whether a problem that arose is caused by the
equipment or software.
Most user training deals with the operation of the system itself. The training
courses must be designed to help the user with fast mobilization for the
organization.

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Training Guidelines

Establishing measurable objectives

Using appropriate training methods

Selecting suitable training sites
Employing understandable training materials

Training Methods

Instructor-led training

It involves both trainers and trainees, who have to meet at the same time, but not
necessarily at the same place. The training session could be one-on-one or
collaborative. It is of two types −

Virtual Classroom

In this training, trainers must meet the trainees at the same time, but are not
required to be at the same place. The primary tools used here are: video
conferencing, text based Internet relay chat tools, or virtual reality packages, etc.

Normal Classroom

The trainers must meet the trainees at the same time and at the same place. They
primary tools used here are blackboard, overhead projectors, LCD projector, etc.

Self-Paced Training

It involves both trainers and trainees, who do not need to meet at the same place or
at the same time. The trainees learn the skills themselves by accessing the courses
at their own convenience. It is of two types −

Multimedia Training

In this training, courses are presented in multimedia format and stored on CD-ROM.
It minimizes the cost in developing an in-house training course without assistance
from external programmers.

Web-based Training

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In this training, courses are often presented in hyper media format and developed to
support internet and intranet. It provides just–in-time training for end users and
allow organization to tailor training requirements.

Conversion
It is a process of migrating from the old system to the new one. It provides
understandable and structured approach to improve the communication between
management and project team.

Conversion Plan

It contains description of all the activities that must occur during implementation of
the new system and put it into operation. It anticipates possible problems and
solutions to deal with them.

It includes the following activities −

Name all files for conversions.

Identifying the data requirements to develop new files during conversion.
Listing all the new documents and procedures that are required.

Identifying the controls to be used in each activity.

Identifying the responsibility of person for each activity.
Verifying conversion schedules.

Conversion Methods

The four methods of conversion are −

Parallel Conversion

Direct Cutover Conversion

Pilot Approach
Phase-In Method

Method Description Advantages Disadvantages

Parallel Old and new systems Provides fallback Causes cost

Conversion are used when new system overruns.

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simultaneously. fails. New system may

Offers greatest not get fair trail.
security and
ultimately testing of
new system.

Forces users to
No fall back if
New system is make new system
Direct problems arise with
implemented and old work
Cutover new system
system is replaced Immediate benefit
Conversion Requires most
completely. from new methods
careful planning
and control.

Allows training and

installation without
Supports phased A long term phasein
unnecessary use of
Pilot approach that gradually causes a problem of
resources.
Approach implement system whether conversion
Avoid large
across all users goes well or not.
contingencies from
risk management.

Provides experience
Working version of and line test before
system implemented in implementation
Gives impression
one part of organization When preferred
Phase-In that old system is
based on feedback, it is new system
Method erroneous and it is
installed throughout the involves new
not reliable.
organization all alone or technology or
stage by stage. drastic changes in
performance.

File Conversion

It is a process of converting one file format into another. For example, file in
WordPerfect format can be converted into Microsoft Word.

For successful conversion, a conversion plan is required, which includes −

Knowledge of the target system and understanding of the present system

Teamwork
Automated methods, testing and parallel operations
Continuous support for correcting problems

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Updating systems/user documentation, etc

Many popular applications support opening and saving to other file formats of the
same type. For example, Microsoft Word can open and save files in many other word
processing formats.

Post-Implementation Evaluation Review (PIER)

PIER is a tool or standard approach for evaluating the outcome of the project and
determine whether the project is producing the expected benefits to the processes,
products or services. It enables the user to verify that the project or system has
achieved its desired outcome within specified time period and planned cost.

PIER ensures that the project has met its goals by evaluating the development and
management processes of the project.

Objectives of PIER

The objectives of having a PIER are as follows −

To determine the success of a project against the projected costs, benefits,

and timelines.
To identify the opportunities to add additional value to the project.
To determine strengths and weaknesses of the project for future reference
and appropriate action.
To make recommendations on the future of the project by refining cost
estimating techniques.

The following staff members should be included in the review process −

Project team and Management

User staff
Strategic Management Staff

External users

System Maintenance / Enhancement

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Maintenance means restoring something to its original conditions. Enhancement

means adding, modifying the code to support the changes in the user specification.
System maintenance conforms the system to its original requirements and
enhancement adds to system capability by incorporating new requirements.

Thus, maintenance changes the existing system, enhancement adds features to the
existing system, and development replaces the existing system. It is an important
part of system development that includes the activities which corrects errors in
system design and implementation, updates the documents, and tests the data.

Maintenance Types

System maintenance can be classified into three types −

Corrective Maintenance − Enables user to carry out the repairing and

correcting leftover problems.
Adaptive Maintenance − Enables user to replace the functions of the
programs.
Perfective Maintenance − Enables user to modify or enhance the programs
according to the users’ requirements and changing needs.

System Security and Audit

System Audit
It is an investigation to review the performance of an operational system. The
objectives of conducting a system audit are as follows −

To compare actual and planned performance.

To verify that the stated objectives of system are still valid in current
environment.
To evaluate the achievement of stated objectives.

To ensure the reliability of computer based financial and other information.

To ensure all records included while processing.
To ensure protection from frauds.

Audit of Computer System Usage

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Data processing auditors audits the usage of computer system in order to control it.
The auditor need control data which is obtained by computer system itself.

The System Auditor

The role of auditor begins at the initial stage of system development so that
resulting system is secure. It describes an idea of utilization of system that can be
recorded which helps in load planning and deciding on hardware and software
specifications. It gives an indication of wise use of the computer system and possible
misuse of the system.

Audit Trial
An audit trial or audit log is a security record which is comprised of who has
accessed a computer system and what operations are performed during a given
period of time. Audit trials are used to do detailed tracing of how data on the system
has changed.

It provides documentary evidence of various control techniques that a transaction is

subject to during its processing. Audit trials do not exist independently. They are
carried out as a part of accounting for recovering lost transactions.

Audit Methods
Auditing can be done in two different ways −

Auditing around the Computer

Take sample inputs and manually apply processing rules.

Compare outputs with computer outputs.

Auditing through the Computer

Establish audit trial which allows examining selected intermediate results.

Control totals provide intermediate checks.

Audit Considerations

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Audit considerations examine the results of the analysis by using both the narratives
and models to identify the problems caused due to misplaced functions, split
processes or functions, broken data flows, missing data, redundant or incomplete
processing, and nonaddressed automation opportunities.

The activities under this phase are as follows −

Identification of the current environment problems

Identification of problem causes

Identification of alternative solutions

Evaluation and feasibility analysis of each solution
Selection and recommendation of most practical and appropriate solution
Project cost estimation and cost benefit analysis

Security
System security refers to protecting the system from theft, unauthorized access and
modifications, and accidental or unintentional damage. In computerized systems,
security involves protecting all the parts of computer system which includes data,
software, and hardware. Systems security includes system privacy and system
integrity.

System privacy deals with protecting individuals systems from being

accessed and used without the permission/knowledge of the concerned
individuals.
System integrity is concerned with the quality and reliability of raw as well
as processed data in the system.

Control Measures
There are variety of control measures which can be broadly classified as follows −

Backup

Regular backup of databases daily/weekly depending on the time criticality

and size.
Incremental back up at shorter intervals.

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Backup copies kept in safe remote location particularly necessary for disaster
recovery.
Duplicate systems run and all transactions mirrored if it is a very critical
system and cannot tolerate any disruption before storing in disk.

Physical Access Control to Facilities

Physical locks and Biometric authentication. For example, finger print

ID cards or entry passes being checked by security staff.
Identification of all persons who read or modify data and logging it in a file.

Using Logical or Software Control

Password system.
Encrypting sensitive data/programs.
Training employees on data care/handling and security.
Antivirus software and Firewall protection while connected to internet.

Risk Analysis
A risk is the possibility of losing something of value. Risk analysis starts with
planning for secure system by identifying the vulnerability of system and impact of
this. The plan is then made to manage the risk and cope with disaster. It is done to
accesses the probability of possible disaster and their cost.

Risk analysis is a teamwork of experts with different backgrounds like chemicals,

human error, and process equipment.

The following steps are to be followed while conducting risk analysis −

Identification of all the components of computer system.

Identification of all the threats and hazards that each of the components
faces.
Quantify risks i.e. assessment of loss in the case threats become reality.

Risk Analysis – Main Steps

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As the risks or threats are changing and the potential loss are also changing,
management of risk should be performed on periodic basis by senior managers.

Risk management is a continuous process and it involves the following steps −

Identification of security measures.

Calculation of the cost of implementation of security measures.
Comparison of the cost of security measures with the loss and probability of
threats.
Selection and implementation of security measures.

Review of the implementation of security measures.

Object Oriented Approach

In the object-oriented approach, the focus is on capturing the structure and behavior
of information systems into small modules that combines both data and process. The
main aim of Object Oriented Design (OOD) is to improve the quality and productivity
of system analysis and design by making it more usable.

In analysis phase, OO models are used to fill the gap between problem and solution.
It performs well in situation where systems are undergoing continuous design,
adaption, and maintenance. It identifies the objects in problem domain, classifying
them in terms of data and behavior.

The OO model is beneficial in the following ways −

It facilitates changes in the system at low cost.

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It promotes the reuse of components.

It simplifies the problem of integrating components to configure large system.
It simplifies the design of distributed systems.

Elements of Object-Oriented System

Let us go through the characteristics of OO System −

Objects − An object is something that is exists within problem domain and

can be identified by data (attribute) or behavior. All tangible entities (student,
patient) and some intangible entities (bank account) are modeled as object.
Attributes − They describe information about the object.
Behavior − It specifies what the object can do. It defines the operation
performed on objects.
Class − A class encapsulates the data and its behavior. Objects with similar
meaning and purpose grouped together as class.
Methods − Methods determine the behavior of a class. They are nothing
more than an action that an object can perform.
Message − A message is a function or procedure call from one object to
another. They are information sent to objects to trigger methods. Essentially,
a message is a function or procedure call from one object to another.

Features of Object-Oriented System

An object-oriented system comes with several great features which are discussed
below.

Encapsulation

Encapsulation is a process of information hiding. It is simply the combination of

process and data into a single entity. Data of an object is hidden from the rest of the
system and available only through the services of the class. It allows improvement
or modification of methods used by objects without affecting other parts of a
system.

Abstraction

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It is a process of taking or selecting necessary method and attributes to specify the

object. It focuses on essential characteristics of an object relative to perspective of
user.

Relationships

All the classes in the system are related with each other. The objects do not exist in
isolation, they exist in relationship with other objects.

There are three types of object relationships −

Aggregation − It indicates relationship between a whole and its parts.

Association − In this, two classes are related or connected in some way
such as one class works with another to perform a task or one class acts
upon other class.
Generalization − The child class is based on parent class. It indicates that
two classes are similar but have some differences.

Inheritance

Inheritance is a great feature that allows to create sub-classes from an existing class
by inheriting the attributes and/or operations of existing classes.

Polymorphism and Dynamic Binding

Polymorphism is the ability to take on many different forms. It applies to both

objects and operations. A polymorphic object is one who true type hides within a
super or parent class.

In polymorphic operation, the operation may be carried out differently by different

classes of objects. It allows us to manipulate objects of different classes by knowing
only their common properties.

Structured Approach Vs. Object-Oriented Approach

The following table explains how the object-oriented approach differs from the
traditional structured approach −

Structured Approach Object Oriented Approach

It works with Top-down approach. It works with Bottom-up approach.

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Program is divided into number of Program is organized by having

submodules or functions. number of classes and objects.

Function call is used. Message passing is used.

Software reuse is not possible. Reusability is possible.

Structured design programming usually Object oriented design programming

left until end phases. done concurrently with other phases.

Structured Design is more suitable for

It is suitable for in-house development.
offshoring.

It shows clear transition from design to Not so clear transition from design to
implementation. implementation.

It is suitable for real time system, It is suitable for most business

embedded system and projects where applications, game development
objects are not the most useful level of projects, which are expected to
abstraction. customize or extended.

Class diagram, sequence diagram,

DFD & E-R diagram model the data. state chart diagram, and use cases all
contribute.

In this approach, projects can be

In this, projects can be managed easily
difficult to manage due to uncertain
due to clearly identifiable phases.
transitions between phase.

Unified Modeling Language (UML)

UML is a visual language that lets you to model processes, software, and systems to
express the design of system architecture. It is a standard language for designing
and documenting a system in an object oriented manner that allow technical
architects to communicate with developer.

It is defined as set of specifications created and distributed by Object Management

Group. UML is extensible and scalable.

The objective of UML is to provide a common vocabulary of object-oriented terms

and diagramming techniques that is rich enough to model any systems development
project from analysis through implementation.

UML is made up of −

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Diagrams − It is a pictorial representations of process, system, or some part

of it.

Notations − It consists of elements that work together in a diagram such as

connectors, symbols, notes, etc.

Example of UML Notation for class

Instance diagram-UML notation

Operations Performed on Objects

The following operations are performed on the objects −

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Constructor/Destructor − Creating new instances of a class and deleting

existing instances of a class. For example, adding a new employee.
Query − Accessing state without changing value, has no side effects. For
example, finding address of a particular employee.
Update − Changes value of one or more attributes & affect state of object
For example, changing the address of an employee.

Uses of UML
UML is quite useful for the following purposes −

Modeling the business process

Describing the system architecture
Showing the application structure

Capturing the system behavior

Modeling the data structure
Building the detailed specifications of the system
Sketching the ideas
Generating the program code

Static Models
Static models show the structural characteristics of a system, describe its system
structure, and emphasize on the parts that make up the system.

They are used to define class names, attributes, methods, signature, and
packages.
UML diagrams that represent static model include class diagram, object
diagram, and use case diagram.

Dynamic Models
Dynamic models show the behavioral characteristics of a system, i.e., how the
system behaves in response to external events.

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Dynamic models identify the object needed and how they work together
through methods and messages.
They are used to design the logic and behavior of system.
UML diagrams represent dynamic model include sequence diagram,
communication diagram, state diagram, activity diagram.

Object Oriented System Development Life Cycle

It consists of three macro processes −

Object Oriented Analysis (OOA)

Object oriented design (OOD)
Object oriented Implementation (OOI)

Object Oriented Systems Development Activities

Object-oriented systems development includes the following stages −

Object-oriented analysis

Object-oriented design
Prototyping
Implementation
Incremental testing

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Object-Oriented Analysis

This phase concerns with determining the system requirements and to understand
the system requirements build a use-case model. A use-case is a scenario to
describe the interaction between user and computer system. This model represents
the user needs or user view of system.

It also includes identifying the classes and their relationships to the other classes in
the problem domain, that make up an application.

Object-Oriented Design

The objective of this phase is to design and refine the classes, attributes, methods,
and structures that are identified during the analysis phase, user interface, and data
access. This phase also identifies and defines the additional classes or objects that
support implementation of the requirement.

Prototyping

Prototyping enables to fully understand how easy or difficult it will be to implement

some of the features of the system.

It can also give users a chance to comment on the usability and usefulness of the
design. It can further define a use-case and make use-case modeling much easier.

Implementation

It uses either Component-Based Development (CBD) or Rapid Application

Development (RAD).

Component-based development (CBD)

CODD is an industrialized approach to the software development process using

various range of technologies like CASE tools. Application development moves from
custom development to assembly of pre-built, pre-tested, reusable software
components that operate with each other. A CBD developer can assemble
components to construct a complete software system.

Rapid Application Development (RAD)

RAD is a set of tools and techniques that can be used to build an application faster
than typically possible with traditional methods. It does not replace SDLC but

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complements it, since it focuses more on process description and can be combined
perfectly with the object oriented approach.

Its task is to build the application quickly and incrementally implement the user
requirements design through tools such as visual basic, power builder, etc.

Incremental Testing

Software development and all of its activities including testing are an iterative
process. Therefore, it can be a costly affair if we wait to test a product only after its
complete development. Here incremental testing comes into picture wherein the
product is tested during various stages of its development.

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