1.

Confidence Interval:
 Definition: A range of values that is likely to contain the true population parameter with a certain level of confidence.
 Example: If a study reports a 95% confidence interval for the mean age of a population as 25 to 30 years, it means
that we are 95% confident that the true mean age falls within this range.
2. Odds Ratio:
 Definition: The odds of an event occurring in one group compared to the odds of it occurring in another group.
 Example: In a study comparing the odds of developing a disease between smokers and non-smokers, an odds ratio of
2 means that smokers are twice as likely to develop the disease compared to non-smokers.
3. Levels of Significance:
 Definition: The probability of making a Type I error (rejecting a true null hypothesis).
 Example: A significance level (α) of 0.05 means that there's a 5% chance of wrongly rejecting the null hypothesis when
it's actually true.
4. Types 1 & 2 Errors:
 Type I Error: Incorrectly rejecting a true null hypothesis (false positive).
 Type II Error: Failing to reject a false null hypothesis (false negative).
 Example: In a criminal trial, convicting an innocent person (Type I error) or failing to convict a guilty person (Type II
error).
5. One and Two Tailed Tests:
 One-Tailed Test: Tests whether a parameter is significantly greater or less than a specific value.
 Two-Tailed Test: Tests whether a parameter is significantly different from a specific value.
 Example: A one-tailed test might investigate whether a new drug increases heart rate, while a two-tailed test might
examine whether the drug has any effect on heart rate.
6. Parametric and Non-Parametric Tests:
 Parametric Tests: Assume that data follows a specific distribution (e.g., normal distribution).
 Non-Parametric Tests: Do not make assumptions about the distribution of data.
 Example: t-test (parametric) vs. Mann-Whitney U test (non-parametric).
7. Types of Correlation:
 Examples: Product Moment (Pearson) correlation, Point Biserial correlation, Phi coefficient, Biserial correlation,
Tetrachoric correlation, Spearman's rank correlation.
 Reporting Correlation: Report the coefficient value along with its significance level.
8. Types of Regression:
 Simple Linear Regression: Predicts the relationship between one independent and one dependent variable.
 Multiple Linear Regression: Predicts the relationship between multiple independent variables and one dependent
variable.
 Reporting Regression: Report coefficients, significance levels, and goodness-of-fit measures such as R-squared.
9. Mediation and Moderation Analysis:
 Mediation Analysis: Examines the mechanism through which one variable affects another.
 Moderation Analysis: Investigates whether the relationship between two variables depends on the level of a third
variable.
 Reporting: Report the mediation or moderation effect along with statistical significance.
10. Non-Parametric Equivalent of Independent Sample t-test:
 Example: Mann-Whitney U test.
11. Dependent Sample t-test:
 Example: Paired t-test.
12. Non-Parametric Equivalent of Dependent Sample t-test:
 Example: Wilcoxon signed-rank test.
13. One-Way ANOVA:
 Compares means of three or more groups.
 Example: Comparing the effectiveness of three different teaching methods on student performance.
14. Non-Parametric Equivalent of One-Way ANOVA:
 Example: Kruskal-Wallis test.
15. Post Hoc Tests:
 Conducted after ANOVA to determine which groups differ significantly from each other.
 Example: Tukey's HSD test.
16. Two-Way ANOVA:
 Examines the effects of two independent variables on a dependent variable.
 Example: Investigating the effects of both gender and treatment type on patient outcomes.
17. ANCOVA (Analysis of Covariance):
 Extends ANOVA by including one or more continuous covariates.
 Example: Examining the effect of a treatment on patient outcomes while controlling for baseline characteristics like age or BMI.
18. MANOVA (Multivariate Analysis of Variance):
 Tests the difference between group means of two or more dependent variables.
 Example: Comparing the effect of different diets on multiple health outcomes simultaneously.

1. Scales of Measurement:
 Nominal Scale: Categorical data with no inherent order or magnitude. Example: Gender (Male, Female).
 Ordinal Scale: Categories with a meaningful order but no consistent difference between them. Example: Educational level (High
School, College, Graduate).
 Interval Scale: Ordered categories with consistent intervals between them, but no true zero point. Example: Temperature in
Celsius.
 Ratio Scale: Same as interval scale, but with a true zero point indicating absence of the attribute. Example: Height, Weight.

2. Definition and Purpose of Psychological Statistics:

 Definition: Psychological statistics involves the application of statistical methods to psychological research and data.
 Purpose: To summarize, analyze, and interpret data collected in psychological research, helping researchers draw valid
conclusions and make informed decisions.

1. Probability Distribution and Normal Curve:

 Probability Distribution: Describes the likelihood of each possible outcome in a statistical experiment.
 Normal Curve: A bell-shaped symmetrical distribution where most values cluster around the mean, following the empirical rule
(68-95-99.7%).
 Example: IQ scores often follow a normal distribution, with the majority of people clustered around the average IQ of 100.

2. Measures of Central Tendency & Variability:

 Central Tendency: Describes the center or midpoint of a distribution.
 Examples: Mean, Median, Mode.
 Variability: Measures the spread or dispersion of data points around the central tendency.
 Examples: Range, Variance, Standard Deviation.

3. Graphical Representation of Data:

 Visual representations of data to provide insights and facilitate understanding.
 Examples: Histograms, Box plots, Scatter plots, Pie charts.
 Example: A psychologist might use a histogram to visually represent the distribution of anxiety scores among a group of
participants.

1. Introducing Excel, SPSS, & Jamovi:

 Excel: Spreadsheet software widely used for data entry, manipulation, and basic statistical analysis.
 SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences): Statistical software for advanced data analysis and manipulation.
 Jamovi: Free and open-source statistical software with a user-friendly interface, suitable for beginners and experts alike.

2. Data Entry & Descriptive Statistical Analysis:

 Data Entry: Inputting raw data into a statistical software or spreadsheet for analysis.
 Descriptive Statistical Analysis: Summarizing and describing the main features of a dataset.
 Examples: Calculating measures of central tendency, variability, and creating graphical representations.
 Example: After entering survey responses into Excel, a psychologist might use descriptive statistics to calculate the
mean, median, and standard deviation of participants' anxiety levels.

These topics form the foundational knowledge necessary for conducting and interpreting psychological research using
statistical methods.