jctive components active component is an electroni ommon examples of active comp. © component which suppli onents include: ipplies energy to a circuit. » Voltage sources «Current sources « Generators (such as altemators and DC generators) . All different types of trans ; tnd IFET) insistors (such as bipolar junction transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, + Diodes (such as Zener diodes, photodiodes, Schottky diodes, and LEDs) Voltage Sources eee aaa cere of an active component in a circuit. When current leaves from the positive terminal of the voltage source, energy is being supplied to the circuit. As per the definition of an active element, a battery can also be considered as an active element, as it continuously delivers energy to the circuit during discharging. AC VOLTAGE bc VOLTAGE Dependent SOURCE SOURCE voltage source Current Sources ‘Acurrent source is also considered an active component. The current supplied to the circuit by an ideal current source is independent of circuit voltage. As a current source is controlling the flow of charge in a circuit, it is classified as an active element. b > 1 Independent Dependent Indepercece current SOUrc®Transistors oe Although not as obvious as a current or voltage source ~ ieee are ibe an active circuit component. This is because transistors are able to amplify the power of a signa : There are different types of transistors (such as bipolar junction transistors, MOSFETS, FETs, and JFET). The symbols of BIT, FET and MOSFET are shown below- Draw) Orato) c E B B wo atu . c NPN PN Soutes) Sources Freneisior teenie N-channel JFET P-channel JFET Galen aes z MOSFET: P-Channel MOSFET: P-Channel ae La Depletion Type Enhancement Type Passive components Passive component is an electronic component which can only receive energy, which it can dissipate, absorb or store it in an electric field or a magnetic field. Passive elements do not need any form of electrical power to operate As the name ‘passive’ suggests ~ passive devices do not provide gain or amplification. Passive components cannot amplify, oscillate, or generate an electrical signal. Common examples of passive components include: + Resistors © Inductors © Capacitors © Transformersnce it cannot deliver any energy to a circuit. Instead dissipate as heat as long as current flows through Inductors An inductor is also considered as passive element of circuit, because it can store energy in it as a sagnetc field, and can deliver that energy to the circuit, but not in continuous basis. The energy absorbing and delivering capacity of an inductor is limited and transient in nature. That is why an inductor is taken as a passive element of a circuit inductor] Fixed Variable | Pre-set Shape Air Core Iron Core | \ Ferrite Corert because it can store energy in it as electric field, The itors ive eleme! : ee is considered as eal Timited and transient ~ it is not actually supplying energy Ling capacity of @ r } energy dealt energy is being supplied or amplified, ter Use Fc ey Iie gered an active component sitce NO “ aa a Normal Normal Electrolytic Variable itis storing i! As such itis no Transformers ; ie |A transformer is also a passive electronic component. Although this can seem surprising since transformers are often used to raise voltage levels — remember that power is kept constant. When transformers step up (or step down) voltage, power and energy remain the same on the primary and secondary side, As energy is not actually being amplified — a transformer is classified as a passive element. The symbols of Air core and Iron core transformer is as follows- Iron core ae on: Result: The study of (a) Active components such as Current source, voltage source, Transistors and (b) Passive components such as Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors and capacitors have completed. -EXPERIMENT NO: ___gudy the characteristics of fol ‘ an catiode Ray Oscilloscopes(CRO) me +t pital Multimeter (DMM) ®, power Supply $} Function Generator Bread board. ratus Required: Millimeters/ wn ammeter Bread board and Power supply, Function generator, Theory? : Uinode Ray Oscilloscope production: The cathode-ray oscilloscope (CRO) is a common laboratory instrument that provides accurate time and amplitude measurements of voltage signals over a wide range of frequencies. Its reliability, stability, and ease of operation make it suitable as a general ‘¢ laboratory instrument. The heart of the CRO is a cathode-ray tube shown schematically in Fig. 1 Deflection plates Cathods wrode — So Se Heater Intensity grid ] | Focus grid Accelerating anode wo G “eo matic, (b) detail of the deflection plates. Fluorescent screen Figure 1, Cathode-ray tube: (@) schet re emitted by the heated cathode (negative electrode) ascent sereen, The assembly of the cathode, intensity grid, focus tue electrode) is called an electron gun. Its purpose is f0 generate ty and focus. Between the The cathode ray is a beam of electrons which at And accelerated toward the fluore Bid, and accelerating anode (pos! the electron beam and control its intensiacest ett ‘are two pair of metal plates - one oriented to Provide se Rar Ga pair pitta to give vertical deflection to the beam, to as the horizontal and vertical deflection plates. The combination ¢ beam to reach any portion of the fluorescent screen, Wherever he phosphor is excited and light is emitted from that point. This light allows us to write with points or lines of light on an Electron gun and the fluor horizontal deflection of the bi These plates are thus referred of these two deflections allows thi the electron beam hits the sereen, t conversion of electron energy into otherwise darkened screen. AC line signal wigger Horizontal eats Fig-2: CONNECTIONS FOR THE OSCILLOSCOPE Vertical Input: A pair of jacks for connecting the signal under study to the Y (or vertical) amplifier. The lower jack is grounded to the case. Horizontal Input: A pair of jacks for connecting an external signal to the horizontal amplifier. The lower terminal is grounded to the case of the oscilloscope. External Tigger Input: Input connector for external trigger signal. Cal. Out: Provides amplitude calibrated square waves of 25 and 500 millivolts for use in calibrating the gain of the amplifiers Accuracy of the vertical deflection is + 3%. Sensitivity is variable. Horizontal sweep should be accurate to within 3%. Range of sweep is variable. PROCEDURE: 1. Set the signal generator toa frequency of 1000 cycles per second. Connect the output from the generator tothe vertical input of the oscilloscope, Establish a steady trace of this input signal on the scope. Adjust (play with) all of the scope and signal generator controls until you become familiar with the function of each.(a) (b) relationship between the magnitude of the peak voltage (Vm) displayed on the oscilloscope ithe effective voltage (Vrms) is SS voltage (VRMS) read on the AC voltmeter is Yims = 0.707 Vm (for a sine or cosine wave). | Frequency Measurements: When the horizontal sweep voltage is applied, voltage measurements can still be taken from the vertical deflection. Moreover, the signal is displayed 8 a function of time. If the time base (i.e. sweep) is calibrated, such measurements as pulse duration or signal period can be made. Frequencies can then be determined as reciprocal of the W.tiselus Figures: When sine-wave signals of different frequencies are input to the horizontal ) 2d vertical amplifiers a stationary pattern is formed on the CRT when the ratio of the two frequencies is an integral fraction such as 1/2, 2/3, 4/3, 1/5, ete. These stationary patterns are known as Lissajous figures and can be used for comparison measurement of frequencies ee i erate some simple Lissajous figures like those shown in Fig. 5. You will $e oscillators to ae reine Lissajous figures ina fixed configuration because the two oscillators a ce to mai locked. Their frequencies and phase drift slowly causing the two and fre P feent signals to change slightly with respect to each other.@ , © Figure 5. Li issajous figures for frequency ratios of: (a) 1:1, (b) 2: “ con 1:2, ana etal Forward current; Jy > Reverse saturati Vi Rociard walters oo Vcpennemnl Ng ae 11> 1 for Ge diode and 2 for Si diode "ee Biased Condition:: -Ve potential to the P : ? by applying the A reversed biased conditions creer | ae shown in figure 1(b). y ‘material and +Ve potential to the N-tyP\ junction diode will pull the electrons i biased potential to the PN juncl Qn a ea ail holes of the P-type material away from the Vest It wit ee eae ions in P side and Positive ions in N side, hence it ee width of depletion region, Thus no majority charge cartier can ef0®8 ths ee junction, dee Sore reverse saturation current is only due to minority charge carrier 2n it is very smal} in magnitude. ‘The curent that exist under reverse biased condition is called the reverse saturation curren represented by Is. The V I characteristics of P N diode is shown below- Forward Bias, Barrier Voltage Reverse Bias Fig:2- V I characteristics of PN junction diode Diode, DC and ac resistance Jima) Jo oe Q-point ie Vo 0 Vo (Vv) NN AV, “ Fig:3- DC and AC resistance of PN junction diode Procedure: Forward Bias:Make the all connection as shown fig 1(a) using patch cords. jj, Switch ON the trainer and set voltage to OV. ii Inerease the voltage slowly and note down the corresponding current. iv. Plot the graph between voltage and current, Biased: j, Make all the connection as shown in fig 1(b) using patch cords. j, Switch ON the trainer and set voltage to OV. i, Increase voltage slowly and note down the corresponding current. iv. Plot a graph between voltage and current. onservation Table: Forward Biased Reverse Biased ENo. | Voltage (V) | Current (mA) | S.No. | Voltage (V) Current (WA) 1 1 2 2 3 3 ml 4 5 3 6 6 7 7 t 8 9 9 10 a0) Statics (DC) Resistance Rs= Dynamic (AC) Resistance Rd = Conclusion: The values of Statics (DC) Resistance, Ae Q and Dynamic (AC) Resistance, Rd=__ ‘Qwas calculated. of P-N Junction diode Characteristics have completed, also the static and Result: The study calculated. e . dynamic resistance have bee!EXPERIMENT NO.-04 a: Application of P-N junct i vems, Vde and Reis ra acre hes Wave and Full wave Rectifier: Measurement ss Required: Experiment Ki : apparatus Required: Experiment Kit, Connecting Lead, CRO and Probes. reory: Rectifiers ‘The Rectifier circuit convert the AC si refers: |, Half Wave Rectifier, 2 Fall wave Rectifier i, Centre tapped rectifier ii, Bridge rectifier ignal into pulsating DC, There are mainly two types of Half Wave Rectifier: Aalf wave rectifier is a circuit which pass the AC signal’s +Ve half cycle and blocks -Ve halfeyele as shown in figure 3.1(a). The Capacitor is used as AC component filter of the retifier output. The input and output waveforms of half wave rectifier is shown in figure 3.1 (b). (a) Half Wave Rectifier circuit Input singnal to rectiier sess 4 Your Halt wave rectitier output (ethout titer) Ver | FON t Hatt wave recttier output (oth fiter) Vout — capacitor capacitor Gareee A Siochartees Vee bo —_ > — 2 t Fig: 3.1(b) Input and Output waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier Calewtation: Shown in Figure 3.1(b) > = Vin — Vp here, Voy = Output Voltage, Vin °' Hatt wave rectifier RMS value and Average DC value of the output voltage is given by = input signal, Vr= drop across diode ing formula:_ Ve = 0.318 Yop V, Ven 05 Ve A oiyms) = 2 C value Vou = Average D anes ofoutput and Vo) 7 ve tifier: 13 att Wave Recife: () Come Full-Wave Rectifier. pring +Ve half cycle lt er en eo ces & 8 CAIN aso ied a de ae DI is forward biased & 2 ig reverse ated ui ih ab ross ; sed & Tcycle diode DI is reve forward biased. Output will be ob i ——_p— aaa ee Sh a ee ie, DC output is obtained. ee Tae Figs 3.2(a) Circuit diagram of Centre-tap Full Wave Rectifier (2) Bridge Rectifier Borges it contains four diodes connected to form a bridge. In this an ordinary aoe iar is used, During +Ve half cycle of secondary voltage, diodes D) & Deare forward Biased & diodes Ds & Dy are reverse biased & vice versa. = IE Transformer RLEC cro Fig: 3.2(b) Circuit diagram of Bridge Rectifier Yin Input singnal to rectifier sce drm be Fig: 3.2(c) Input and Output war Tie game veforms of Full Wave Rectifierueation: cf pon in Figure 3.2(c) VaZ Vin Vy wwe, Ven = Output Vol Mell wave rectifier RMS JL = input signal, Vi= drop across dl joing formula: ue and Average DC vale of he ouput 4 ize DC value of the output voltage is given by v, Yo ‘o(rms) = 2 = where, Vocrms) = TMS Rais 9.707 Vay and Vai) = 2% = 0.636, of output and Voge) = Average DC value of cuit Form factor Form factor (FF) measures the sh i TO shape ofthe waveform andi defined as the rato of root mean Form factor (FF) = Vrms = !rms Ripple Factor (RF) Vac Mac Ripple factor (RF) is a measure of th Bek i ae pple content ofthe waveform and is defined as the ratio Ripple factor (RF) = Vac _ ae Vac Tae = VGrms)* = Wac)* Lins) = Vac - (ie) -ca) “le = rnin figure 3.1(a) with patch cords. +t Coumtet the probes across input terminals to channel 1 of CRO for input signal. Fe enmest the probe across output terminals to channel 2 of ‘CRO for output signal iv. Adjust the display on CRO for both channel. Foie esre dae parameter wit gives in the oslculatio. in theory section. Va Ripple Factor (RF) = Half wave Rectifier i. Connect the cireuit as show! I Wave Rectifier eircom the circuit as shown in figure 3 2(b) with patch cords. Conmeet the probes across input termina's 19 channel 1 of CRO for input signal, i. Connect the probe across Oulu terminals to channel 2 of CRO for output signal. adjust the display on CRO for both channel. Se acsuce the parainetes BiCnEDY a= the calculation in theory section. Centre tapped FulFull Wave Bridge Rectifier i. Connect the circuit as shown in figure 3.2(c) with patch cords. Connect the probes across input terminals to channel 1 of CRO for input signal. iii, Connect the probe across output terminals to channel 2 of CRO for output signal, iv, Adjust the display on CRO for both channel. y. Measure the parameter which gives in the calculation in theory section. pservation Table for Half Wave Rect s. V Vrms No | Vin | Ven] Vin Vy | Vocwmsy = Viren = =e | Porm Lora gr 1 Sea 2 - 1. servation Table for Centre-tap Full Wave Rectifier T Ss. Vop 2Vo, Vrms, S| Vn | Von] Vin Vr | Voormn = Fe | Verte = 2? | Form Factor = 37 : pes 2 roservation Table for Full Wave Bridge Rectifier Ss. Vo 2Vo — Yims No | Ven | Ver] Vin Ve | Votrmey = Ra Voie = Form Factor = 7 z sth 2 1 Conclusion: ‘The Values of RMS voltage, Average DC voltage and Ripple factor for output voltage of alculated and given as follows: Half wave, Centre-tap full wave and Bridge rectifier was ¢ (1) For Half Wave Rectifier, Vien (2) For Centre-tap Full Wave Rectifier, Vrms (3) For Full Wave Bridge Rectifier, Vrms Result: ier using PN junction diode and the Measurement of Vrms, Vde, To design and study of Rectifi Form Factor (FF) and Ripple F: rectifier is completed. ‘actor (RF) for half wave, Centre-tap full wave and bridgeEXPERIMENT NO, 05 UM: V-l characterist ‘ Cosine ties of Zener diode, graphical measurement of forward and reverse Apparatus Required: s.No. | Component Requ 1 [Zener Diode 2S —| Specification unt | 2__| Variable DC power suppl 3 Malas wupply | (0-30) V aL 4 | Breadboard 3 3__| Resistance x at 6 | Connecting wire a Theory: Zener Diode A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage (Vz). High current through the diode can permanently damage the device. Break down current is limited by power dissipation capacity of the Zener diode. If power capacity of the Zener is 1 W and Zener voltage is 10 V, highest reverse current is limited to 0.1A or 100 mA. If current crosses this limit diode can be damaged permanently. To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts conducting (in reverse bias) it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the current (less than rated value) through it, ic, it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators. A forward characteristic of the Zener diode is similar to normal PN junction diode. Circuit diagram (reverse bias): 1K A Dc POWER SUPPY DiodeReverse Bias 1 Y-I characteristics of Zener diode Experiment Procedure: * Connect the circuit components on breadboard as shown in fig 1 for reverse bias characteristics. ‘ Increase voltage with the help of power supply from OV to 20V in step as shown in the observation table. * Measure voltage across diode and current through diode. Note down readings in the observation table. Similarly repeat this step for the forward bias circuit. © Draw VI characteristics for reverse bias and forward bias in one graph. Observation table: (Reverse bias) Supply voltage | Diode voltage | Diode current bai (Volt) W dy oo] afor} cn} al ew} 0] =|Observation table: (Forwarg bias) ee ps8] Supply voltage _] Diode voltage | Diode current oe ee aR in (Wolt ) (va) (id) eS E 20|a}ox|un| | us Conclusion: (1) The Zener Voltage was found to be Vz (2) The forward resistance of the Zener diode was found to be, Rr= (3) The reverse resistance of the Zener diode was found to be, Rr V. Result: The VI characteristics of Zener diode is plotted. The measurement of Zener voltage (Vz), forward resistance (Re) and reverse resistance (Rr) with the help of graph is completed. Precautions: i yawn All the connections should be correct. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog meters. . The terminals of the Zener diode should be properly identified. . While determined the load regulation, load should not be immediately shorted. It should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the ratings of the diode.EXPERIMENT NO. 06 AIM: Characteristics of a) Common Emitte Bipolar Junction Transistor as Common Emitter Configuration b) Common Emitte; t Input Characteri: tT Output Characteristics Apparatus Required: BIT age et) Bread board, resi tor (IKQ, 100KQ), connecting wires, Ammeters (0-10mA, 0100p A), Power supply (0-30V) and multimeter. Theory: BJT in CE Configuration ‘The transistor is a two junction, three terminal semiconductor device which has three regions namely the emitter region, the base region, and the collector region. There are two types of transistors. An npn transistor has an n type emitter, a p type base and an n type collector while pnp transistor has a p type emitter, an n type base and a p type collector. The emitter is heavily doped, base region is thin and lightly doped and collector is moderately doped and is the largest. ‘The current conduction in transistors takes place due to both charge carriers- that is electrons and holes and hence they are named Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT). fe ,Yec_ Ie had io Th \f this part of th ensively used in all types of electronic circuits. The aim of this part of the eae ae ee you with the basic modes of operation and features of a BIT. The Breen vill be using in this experiment is BC 547 (the pin diagram is shown in Fig.1), a es aie current rating of 100 mA (maximum). Two of the most pivots appl Tani transistor are (1) as an amplifier in analog electronic systems, and 2) asa pplications f Besie Concepts The operation of the BIT is based on the principles of inh a . BIT, electrons are injected from the forward-biased emitter into the the pn junetion. In o es ‘minority carriers, they diffuse toward the reverse-biased collector. thin base region where, 38 Tre with holes in the base region, thus producing a small base Some of these electrons res" rons reach the collector where they provide the main source of current, IB. The remaining © °° "IC. Thus, if there are no electrons injected from the emitter, carriers for the collector Cann or current and, therefore, the emitter current controls the ‘here (ence ee rarrents, the total emitter current is given as IE = IB + IC, For oer current. Com he polarity of both voltage sources must be reversed normal pnp operation, PROCEDURE: hown in fig 6(a). Keep the meter selector switch on. In it ircuit as sl a, 2% Coma cee Se Blas + yell as base bias are positive with respect to emitter. the connections collec’Input Characteristics: ae sore abs Hal adjust collector to emitter voltage Vce (using VR2) 1 (Say a it constant. ; Saar input supply set the base to emitter voltage, so that base current sh mai = 20A. Note down base to emitter voltage Vie, Increase Vee in small steps note down he corresponding base current Is. 3. Repeat step no | and 2 for other values of Vee (Say 6V, 8V). 4. Plot a graph by taking base voltage Var along X-axis and base current Ip along Y-axiy as shown in fig (2). a : 5. Draw a tangent to Var - Ip curve and determine its slope. The reciprocal of the slope gives the value of input resistance of transistor. Output Characteristics: 6. Adjust the base current Ip to 20 A using VRi. 7. Set collector voltage Vce to 0.5 V and note down the corresponding collector current Io, Gradually increase the collector voltage in small steps (2V, 2.5V, 3V -—— , 10V) and note the corresponding values of collector current Ic keeping the base current Ip constant, 8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for other values on base current Ip (say 30 WA, 40 1A, 60 WA etc). 9. Plot graph by taking collector voltage Vce along X-axis and collector current Ic along Y ~axis as shown in fig 6 (c). 10. Draw the tangent on a Vcr - Ic curve and deten mine its slope, reciprocal of the slope gives the value of output resistance of transistor. Circuit diagram: {,(ma) a)Base current © 02 04 06 08 1.0 voe(v) Base-emitter voltage Fig 6(b): Input characteristics +——— Active Region 6 Saturation 5 Region 4 Cut off Region Fig 6 (c): Output characteristics Experiment Procedure: OBSERVATIONS (Common Emitter Characteristics) table for Input Characteristics Base current IB in pA Base voltage Peet) Vor=2V Ver=6V Ver=8V| sa}en| nf te] A nmerracoen 8h, Caorecsers Base corrent IB in pA ‘ = Va=8v-4 sm | Neen) fo Veet) ee ae a = aa: =o i 2 3 4 s 6 7 = (3) Te reverse resistance of the Zener diode was found to be, Rr = Result: The V I characteristics of Zener diode is plotted. The measurement of Zener voltage| Sorwasd resistance (Re znd reverse resistance (Rr) with the help of graph is completed Precautions: 1. All the connections should be correct. 2. Parallax exvor should be avoided while taking the readings from the the diode.Applications of 0, ERIMENT NO. 07 ps 741 as Summing amplifier, Difference amplifi aPaRATUS REQUIRED plifier, (1) Operational Amplifier Kit- 01 (0) Digital Multimeter aK (3) Comnecting Wires -10 THEORY: SUMMING AMPLIFIER: ae =o summing Amplifier circuit using Op-amp in inverting mode ee eee {and Vi is shown in fig. This circuit acts as a summing ;put is directly proportional to the sum of the two inputs. From the circuit given in figure 1, the output equation is derived as follows- From virtual ground concept Va= Va =0V Va Me ee 2 vie mR Pe =" new Using KCL. Fon RERUVEND) te Hith Fig. 1: Summing Amplifier > This isthe required output for Summing amplifier. > This is the expression for Ader PROCEDURE - (1) Connect all the components of the COp-amp kit as shown in fi (2) Connect two Digital Multimeter in ‘pth the input voltages @) Connect one Digital Multimeter for measur" ‘output voltage. (4) Note the Output voltage for 5'° 10 combinations of input voltages: ote theObservation table for adder circuit SuNGS | SeVi V2 VitV2 Vo salen un] a |oses DIFFERENCE AMPLIFIER: Difference Amplifier circuit using Op-amp is shown in This circuit acts as a difference Amplifier. That means when the input Va and Vp is give at terminals as shown in the circuit then the output at output terminals is the amplified version difference of the two input. As we know that the op-amp follows superposition principle, therefore- (1) Taking Vi as voltage source When we take only V1 as source, the circuit is given by- Fig: Difference Amplifier (2) Taking V2 as voltage source- When we take only V2 as source, the circuit becomes Non inverting Amplifier and its ‘output is given by - Vor=(1+72)Ve = =~ ~ lil) Putting this value of Vs in equation (i) We get, Veo = (93 (GE V,RitRay)_Ry Ry Mea) Vor = ( === (ii) Applying superposition theorem Vo = VortVo2 Vor Gt V2 —Vi > This i f is is the required output for differential amplifier. IfR:=R2=R Vo = V2-Vi ——> This is the expression for Subtractor. PROCEDURE (1) Connect all the components of the Op-amp kit as shown in fig 2. (2) Connect two Digital Multimeter in both the input voltages. (3) Connect one Digital Multimeter for measuring output voltage. (4) Note the reading for Output voltage for 5 to 10 combinations of input voltages. Observation table for Subtractor circui S.No. | Vi V2 ViVi Vo 1 2 3 4 5 me a a d Adder circuit using 741 Op-Amp was verified. (1) The Summing amplifier an Op-At as verified. (2) The Differential amplifier and Subtrac 1g 741 Op-Amp w: stor circuit usin} Precaution: (1) Verify the reading properly. ; 2) All the connections should be tight. (3) Take out the IC careful (4) Supply voltage should ™ ily from the breadboard. ‘ot exceed 415V and -15V.EXPERIMENT No.08 Aim: Introductions to qi concept of Vec & ital electroni ; Ground, Vers ab digital ICs, specification, study of Data sheet ation of Truth Table of logic Gate using TTL ICs. Speci 7400 (NAND pute) | 7402 (NOR gate) 7 7404 (NOT gate) 1 7408 (AND gate) 1 1 1 [Quantity | 1 __| 7432 (OR gate) EEE [Digital Trainerikn [oe SOR ame) 1 connecting wires ‘As required | ee pe Se are the circuits that electronically perform log operations on ee, ocean Tea brmision is paar by high and low voltage levels, which the serps AND, OR, NAND, etc.) are ee csi the imp lest of the logic operations For example, an AND gate electronically computes the AND of the voltage coded binary signals appearing at its inputs and presents the voltage encoded result at its output, The digital logic circuits used in this laboratory are contained in integrated circuit (IC) packages. Each IC is labeled {usually with an SN74xx or SNS4xx number) to identify the logic it performs, The transisior- transistor logic (TTL) IC’s used in this laboratory require a 5.0 volt power supply for operation TTL inputs require a voltage greater than 2 volts to represent a binary I and a voltage less than 0.8 volts to represent a binary 0. 1C 7400 Quadruple 2-input NAND Gates: itisa combination of AND Gate and NOT gate. It has two inputs A.B and single output Y. Output ycan be represented as Y~ A B All input signals must be high to get a low output. This is a TTL, Quad 2 input NAND gate IC. It contains four NAND gates inside a 14 pin DIP .ff AND Gate and NOT gate, s Y= A+B All input signals te IC. It contains four NOR ates: It is a combination 0! n be represented a id 2 input NOR gat NOR Gi ty, Output y can is a TTL, Qua IC 7402 Quadruple 24nput two inputs a,b and single outpul be low to get a high output. Thi inside a 14 pin DIP (Dual inline IC 7404 Hex Inverters: z Ithas only one input signal and one output signal. Output y can be represented as Y= A . Output always opposite of input. This is a TTL, Hex inverter NOT gate IC, It contains Six NOT gates insi a 14 pin DIP. Butter In_| Out ojo hal IC 7408 Quadruple 2-input AND Gates: It has two inputs A,B and siC7432 Quadruple 2 jn thas (Wo inputs AB PUt OR Gat, jow output is also tow Thee Output Y, Oy gate IC. Teeontains four Got the input ig "Dut y can be represented a leat4 Bates inside a 1 ei Dro, high. This is 8 Y= A+B fall inputs are i a TTL, Quad 2 input AND al inline package), Procedure: 1. Connections are given as per the logic circuit. 2. Logic level voltage (Low Level)-5V(High Level) is applied to the inputs. 3. Apply voltage OV or Sv by using toggle switch and verify the truth table in the output LED indicator i" 4. When LED is ON its binary representation is I representation is 0(Low Level). 5. Repeat the above steps and veri (High Level) and when LED is OFF its binary fy the truth table forall logic gates.Result The given gates behavior are verified using its truth table. Precaution: 1 Switch on the bread board after making the connections, 2. Verify the reading properly. 3 Take out the IC carefully from the breadboard, 4 Supply should not exceed +5V.