CHAPTER 6

SET THEORY

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

 Set Theory: Definitions and the Element
6.1
Method of Proof

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Set Theory: Definitions and the Element Method of Proof (1/3)

The words set and element are undefined terms of set

theory just as sentence, true, and false are undefined terms
of logic.
The founder of set theory, Georg Cantor, suggested
imagining a set as a “collection into a whole M of definite
and separate objects of our intuition or our thought.
These objects are called the elements of M.” Cantor used
the letter M because it is the first letter of the German word
for set: Menge.

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Set Theory: Definitions and the Element Method of Proof (2/3)

Following the spirit of Cantor’s notation (though not the

letter), let S denote a set and a an element of S.

Then, as indicated in Section 1.2, a ∈ S means that a is an

element of S, a ∉ S means that a is not an element of S, {1,
2, 3} refers to the set whose elements are 1, 2, and 3, and
{1, 2, 3, … } refers to the set of all positive integers.

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Set Theory: Definitions and the Element Method of Proof (3/3)

If S is a set and P(x) is a property that elements of S may or

may not satisfy, then a set A may be defined by writing

which is read “A is the set of all x in S such that P of x.”

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Subsets: Proof and Disproof

6
Subsets: Proof and Disproof (1/3)
We defined what it means for a set A to be a subset of the
set B. Here we rewrite the definition as a formal universal
conditional statement:

The negation is, therefore, existential:

7
Subsets: Proof and Disproof (2/3)
We know that a proper subset of a set is a subset that is not
equal to its containing set. That is:

8
Example 6.1.1 – Testing Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another

Let A = {1} and B = {1, {1}}.

a. Is A ⊆ B?

b. If so, is A a proper subset of B?

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Example 6.1.1 – Solution
a. Because A = {1}, A has only one element—namely, the
symbol 1. This element is also one of the elements in set
B. Hence every element in A is in B, and so A ⊆ B.

Note A set like {1}, with just one element, is called

a singleton set.

b. B has two distinct elements, the symbol 1 and the set {1}
whose only element is 1. Since 1 ≠ {1}, the set {1} is not
an element of A, and so there is an element of B that is
not an element of A. Hence A is a proper subset of B.

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Subsets: Proof and Disproof (3/3)

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Example 6.1.2 – Proving and Disproving Subset Relations

Define sets A and B as follows:

a. Outline a proof that A ⊆ B.

b. Prove that A ⊆ B.

c. Disprove that B ⊆ A.

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Example 6.1.2 – Solution (1/6)
a. Proof Outline:
Starting Point: Suppose x is a particular but arbitrarily
chosen element of A.
To Show: Therefore, x is an element of B.
b. Proof:
Suppose x is a particular but arbitrarily chosen element
of A.
[We must show that x ∈ B. By definition of B, this
means we must show that x = 3 · (some integer).]

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Example 6.1.2 – Solution (2/6) continued

By definition of A, there is an integer, say r, such that

x = 6r + 12.
[Given that x = 6r + 12, can we express x as 3 ·
(some integer)? That is, does 6r + 12 = 3 · (some
integer)? Yes, 6r + 12 = 3 · (2r + 4).]
Let s = 2r + 4.
[We must check that s is an integer.]

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Example 6.1.2 – Solution (3/6) continued

Then s is an integer because products and sums of

integers are integers, and so 3s ∈ B by definition of B.

[Now we must check that x = 3s.]

Also 3s = 3(2r + 4) = 6r + 12 = x,
Thus, by definition of B, x is an element of B,
[as was to be shown].

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Example 6.1.2 – Solution (4/6) continued

c. To disprove a statement means to show that it is false.

And to show that B ⊆ A is false, you must find an
element of B that is not an element of A.

By the definitions of A and B, this means that you must

find an integer x of the form 3 · (some integer) that
cannot be written in the form 6 · (some integer) + 12.

A little experimentation reveals that various numbers

work. For instance, you could let x = 3.

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Example 6.1.2 – Solution (5/6) continued

Then x ∈ B because 3 = 3 · 1, but x ∉ A because there

is no integer r such that 3 = 6r + 12. For if there were
such an integer, then

6r + 12 = 3 by assumption

2r + 4 = 1 by dividing both sides by 3

2r = −3 by subtracting 4 from both sides

r = −3 ⁄ 2 by dividing both sides by 2.

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Example 6.1.2 – Solution (6/6) continued

But −3 ⁄ 2 is not an integer. Thus 3 ∈ B whereas 3 ∉ A, and

so B ⊈ A.

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Set Equality

19
Set Equality (1/1)

This version of the definition of equality implies the

following:
To know that a set A equals a set B, you must know
that A ⊆ B and you must also know that B ⊆ A.

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Example 6.1.3 – Set Equality
Define sets A and B as follows:

Is A = B?

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Example 6.1.3 – Solution (1/5)
Yes. To prove this, both subset relations A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A
must be proved.

Part 1, Proof That A ⊆ B:

Suppose x is a particular but arbitrarily chosen element of A.

[We must show that x ∈ B. By definition of B, this

means we must show that x = 2 · (some integer) − 2.]

By definition of A, there is an integer, say a, such that x = 2a.

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Example 6.1.3 – Solution (2/5)
[Given that x = 2a, can x also be expressed as 2 · (some
integer) − 2? In other words, is there an integer—say, b—
such that 2a = 2b − 2? Solve for b to obtain b = (2a + 2) ⁄ 2 =
a + 1. Check to see if this works.]
Let b = a + 1.
[First check that b is an integer.]
Then b is an integer because it is a sum of integers.
[Then check that x = 2b − 2.]
Also, 2b − 2 = 2(a + 1) − 2 = 2a + 2 − 2 = 2a = x.

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Example 6.1.3 – Solution (3/5) continued

Thus, by definition of B, x is an element of B

[as was to be shown].

Part 2, Proof That B ⊆ A:

Suppose x is a particular but arbitrarily chosen element of B.

[We must show that x ∈ A. By definition of A, this

means we must show that x = 2 · (some integer).]

By definition of B, there is an integer b such that x = 2b − 2.

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Example 6.1.3 – Solution (4/5) continued

[Given that x = 2b − 2, can x also be expressed as 2 ·

(some integer)? That is, is there an integer— say, a—such
that 2b − 2 = 2a? Solve for a to obtain a = b − 1. Check to
see if this works.]

Let a = b − 1.
[First check that a is an integer.]

We know that a is an integer because it is a difference

of integers.
[Then check that x = 2a.]

25
Example 6.1.3 – Solution (5/5) continued

By substitution, 2a = 2(b − 1) = 2b − 2 = x.

Thus, by definition of A, x is an element of A,

[as was to be shown].

26
Venn Diagrams

27
Venn Diagrams (1/2)
If sets A and B are represented as regions in the plane,
relationships between A and B can be represented by
pictures called Venn diagrams.
For instance, the relationship A ⊆ B can be pictured in one
of two ways, as shown in Figure 6.1.1.

A⊆B
Figure 6.1.1

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Venn Diagrams (2/2)
The relationship A ⊄ B can be represented in three different
ways, as shown in Figure 6.1.2.

A⊄B

Figure 6.1.2

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Example 6.1.4 – Relations among Sets of Numbers (1/2)

Since Z, Q, and R denote the sets of integers, rational

numbers, and real numbers, respectively, then Z is a subset
of Q because every integer is rational (any integer n can be
written in the form ), and Q is a subset of R because every
rational number is real (any rational number can be
represented as a length on the number line).

Z is a proper subset of Q because there are rational

numbers that are not integers (for example, ), and Q is a
proper subset of R because there are real numbers that are
not rational (for example, ).

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Example 6.1.4 – Relations among Sets of Numbers (2/2)

These relationships are shown diagrammatically in Figure

6.1.3.

Figure 6.1.3

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Operations on Sets

32
Operations on Sets (1/4)

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Operations on Sets (2/4)
Venn diagram representations for union, intersection,
difference, and complement are shown in Figure 6.1.4.

Shaded region Shaded region Shaded region Shaded region

represents A ∪ B. represents A ∩ B. represents B − A. represents

Figure 6.1.4

34
Example 6.1.5 – Unions, Intersections, Differences, and Complements

Let the universal set be the set U = {a, b, c, d, e, f, g}, and let
A = {a, c, e, g} and B = {d, e, f, g}.

Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, B − A, and

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Example 6.1.5 – Solution
A ∪ B = {a, c, d, e, f, g}

A ∩ B = {e, g}

B − A = {d, f}

= {b, d, f }

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Operations on Sets (3/4)
There is a convenient notation for subsets of real numbers
that are intervals.

37
Example 6.1.6 – An Example with Intervals

Let the universal set be R, the set of all real numbers, and let

These sets are shown on the number lines below.

Find A ∪ B, A ∩ B, B − A, and

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Example 6.1.6 – Solution (1/2)

39
Example 6.1.6 – Solution (2/2) continued

by definition of the
double inequality

by De Morgan’s
law

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Operations on Sets (4/4)

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Example 6.1.7 – Finding Unions and Intersections of More than Two Sets

For each positive integer i , let

a. Find A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 and A1 ∩ A2 ∩ A3.

b. Find

42
Example 6.1.7 – Solution (1/3)
a.

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Example 6.1.7 – Solution (2/3) continued

44
Example 6.1.7 – Solution (3/3) continued

b.

because all the elements in every interval

= (−1, 1) are in (−1, 1)

= {0} because the only element in every interval is 0

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The Empty Set

46
The Empty Set (1/1)
There is only one set with no elements. Because it is
unique, we can give it a special name. We call it the empty
set (or null set) and denote it by the symbol

Thus

47
Example 6.1.8 – A Set with No Elements
Describe the following sets.

a.

b.

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Example 6.1.8 – Solution
a. We know that a < x < b means that a < x and x < b. So D
consists of all real numbers that are both greater than 3
and less than 2.

Since there are no such numbers, D has no elements and

thus D =

b. E is the set of all integers that are both greater than 2 and
less than 3. Since no integers satisfy this condition, E has
no elements, and so E =

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Partitions of Sets

50
Partitions of Sets (1/4)
In many applications of set theory, sets are divided into
nonoverlapping (or disjoint) pieces. Such a division is called a
partition.

51
Example 6.1.9 – Disjoint Sets
Let A = {1, 3, 5} and B = {2, 4, 6}. Are A and B disjoint?

52
Example 6.1.9 – Solution
Yes. By inspection A and B have no elements in common, or,
in other words, {1, 3, 5} ∩ {2, 4, 6} =

53
Partitions of Sets (2/4)

54
Example 6.1.10 – Mutually Disjoint Sets
a. Let A1 = {3, 5}, A2 = {1, 4, 6}, and A3 = {2}. Are A1, A2, and
A3 mutually disjoint?

b. Let B1 = {2, 4, 6}, B2 = {3, 7}, and B3 = {4, 5}. Are B1, B2,
and B3 mutually disjoint?

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Example 6.1.10 – Solution
a. Yes. A1 and A2 have no elements in common, A1 and A3
have no elements in common, and A2 and A3 have no
elements in common.

b. No. B1 and B3 both contain 4.

56
Partitions of Sets (3/4)
Suppose A, A1, A2, A3, and A4 are the sets of points
represented by the regions shown in Figure 6.1.5.

A Partition of a Set
Figure 6.1.5

57
Partitions of Sets (4/4)
Then A1, A2, A3, and A4 are subsets of A, and A = A1 ∪ A2 ∪
A3 ∪ A4. Suppose further that boundaries are assigned to the
regions representing A1, A2, A3, and A4 in such a way that
these sets are mutually disjoint. Then A is called a union of
mutually disjoint subsets, and the collection of sets {A1, A2,
A3, A4} is said to be a partition of A.

58
Example 6.1.11 – Partitions of Sets
a. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, A1 = {1, 2}, A2 = {3, 4}, and A3 = {5,
6}. Is {A1, A2, A3} a partition of A?

b. Let Z be the set of all integers and let

Is {T0, T1, T2} a partition of Z?

59
Example 6.1.11 – Solution
a. Yes. By inspection, A = A1 ∪ A2 ∪ A3 and the sets A1, A2,
and A3 are mutually disjoint.
b. Yes. By the quotient-remainder theorem, every integer n
can be represented in exactly one of the three forms
n = 3k or n = 3k + 1 or n = 3k + 2,
for some integer k. This implies that no integer can be in any
two of the sets T0, T1, or T2. So T0, T1, and T2 are mutually
disjoint. The theorem also implies that every integer is in one
of the sets T0, T1, or T2. So Z = T0 ∪ T1 ∪ T2.

60
Power Sets

61
Power Sets (1/1)
There are various situations in which it is useful to consider
the set of all subsets of a particular set. The power set
axiom guarantees that this is a set.

62
Example 6.1.12 – Power Set of a Set
Find the power set of the set {x, y}. That is, find

63
Example 6.1.12 – Solution
is the set of all subsets of {x, y}. In the next section we
will show that is a subset of every set, and so
Also any set is a subset of itself, so

The only other subsets of {x, y} are {x} and {y}, so

64
An Algorithm to Check Whether One
Set Is a Subset of Another (Optional)

65
An Algorithm to Check Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another (Optional)
(1/2)

Order the elements of both sets and successively compare

each element of the first set with each element of the second
set. If some element of the first set is not found to equal any
element of the second, then the first set is not a subset of the
second.

But if each element of the first set is found to equal an

element of the second set, then the first set is a subset of the
second. The following algorithm formalizes this reasoning.

66
An Algorithm to Check Whether One Set Is a Subset of Another (Optional)
(2/2)

67
Example 6.1.13 – Tracing Algorithm 6.1.1
Trace the action of Algorithm 6.1.1 on the variables i, j, found,
and answer for m = 3, n = 4, and sets A and B represented as
the arrays a[1] = u, a[2] = v, a[3] = w, b[1] = w, b[2] = x, b[3] =
y, and b[4] = u.

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Example 6.1.13 – Solution

69