CHAPTER 8

PROPERTIES OF RELATIONS

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 Reflexivity, Symmetry, and
8.2
Transitivity

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (1/8)

Let A = {2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9} and define a relation R on A as

follows: For every x, y ∈ A,

Then 2 R 2 because 2 − 2 = 0, and Similarly, 3 R 3,

4 R 4, 6 R 6, 7 R 7, and 9 R 9.

Also 6 R 3 because 6 − 3 = 3, and And 3 R 6 because

3 − 6 = −(6 − 3) = −3, and Similarly, 3 R 9, 9 R 3,
6 R 9, 9 R 6, 4 R 7, and 7 R 4.

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Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (2/8)

Thus the directed graph for R has the appearance shown

below.

4
Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (3/8)

This graph has three important properties:

1. Each point of the graph has an arrow looping around
from it and going back to it.
2. In each case where there is an arrow going from one
point to a second, there is an arrow going from the
second point back to the first.
3. In each case where there is an arrow going from one
point to a second and from the second point to a third,
there is an arrow going from the first point to the third.
That is, there are no “incomplete directed triangles” in
the graph.

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Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (4/8)

Properties (1), (2), and (3) correspond to properties of

general relations called reflexivity, symmetry, and
transitivity.

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Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (5/8)

The equivalence of the expressions x R y and (x, y) ∈ R for

every x and y in A, the reflexive, symmetric, and transitive
properties can also be written as follows:

7
Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (6/8)

In informal terms, properties (1)–(3) say the following:

1. Reflexive: Each element is related to itself.
2. Symmetric: If any one element is related to any other
element, then the second element is related to the first.
3. Transitive: If any one element is related to a second
and that second element is related to a third, then the
first element is related to the third.

Note that the definitions of reflexivity, symmetry, and

transitivity are universal statements.

8
Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (7/8)

This means that to prove a relation has one of the

properties, you use either the method of exhaustion or the
method of generalizing from the generic particular.

Recall that the negation of a universal statement is

existential. Hence if R is a relation on a set A, then

1. R is not reflexive ⇔ there is an element x in A such that

[that is, such that (x, x) ∉ R].

9
Reflexivity, Symmetry, and Transitivity (8/8)

2. R is not symmetric ⇔ there are elements x and y in A

such that x R y but [that is,
such that (x, y) ∈ R but (y, x) ∉
R].

3. R is not transitive ⇔ there are elements x, y, and z in

A such[that
thatis,
xR y and
such yR
that ∈R
(x,zy)but
and (y, z) ∈ R but (x, z) ∉ R].

It follows that you can show that a relation does not have
one of the properties by finding a counterexample.

10
Example 8.2.1 – Properties of Relations on Finite Sets

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and define relations R, S, and T on A as

follows:
R = {(0, 0), (0, 1), (0, 3), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 0), (3, 3)},
S = {(0, 0), (0, 2), (0, 3), (2, 3)},
T = {(0, 1), (2, 3)}.

a. Is R reflexive? symmetric? transitive?

b. Is S reflexive? symmetric? transitive?
c. Is T reflexive? symmetric? transitive?

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Example 8.2.1 – Solution (1/9)
a. The directed graph of R has the appearance shown
below.

R is reflexive: There is a loop at each point of the

directed graph. This means that each element of A is
related to itself, so R is reflexive.

12
Example 8.2.1 – Solution (2/9) continued

R is symmetric: In each case where there is an arrow

going from one point of the graph to a second, there is
an arrow going from the second point back to the first.

This means that whenever one element of A is related by

R to a second, then the second is related to the first.
Hence R is symmetric.

R is not transitive: There is an arrow going from 1 to 0

and an arrow going from 0 to 3, but there is no arrow
going from 1 to 3.

13
Example 8.2.1 – Solution (3/9) continued

This means that there are elements of A—0, 1, and

3—such that 1 R 0 and 0 R 3 but Hence R is not
transitive.

b. The directed graph of S has the appearance shown

below.

14
Example 8.2.1 – Solution (4/9) continued

S is not reflexive: There is no loop at 1, for example.

Thus (1, 1) ∉ S, and so S is not reflexive.

S is not symmetric: There is an arrow from 0 to 2 but

not from 2 to 0. Hence (0, 2) ∈ S but (2, 0) ∉ S, and so S
is not symmetric.

S is transitive: There are three cases for which there is

an arrow going from one point of the graph to a second
and from the second point to a third.

15
Example 8.2.1 – Solution (5/9) continued

In particular, there are arrows going from 0 to 2 and from

2 to 3; there are arrows going from 0 to 0 and from 0 to
2; and there are arrows going from 0 to 0 and from 0 to
3.
In each case there is an arrow going from the first point
to the third. (Note again that the “first,” “second,” and
“third” points need not be distinct.)
This means that whenever (x, y) ∈ S and (y, z) ∈ S, then
(x, z) ∈ S, for every x, y, z ∈ {0, 1, 2, 3}, and so S is
transitive.

16
Example 8.2.1 – Solution (6/9) continued

c. The directed graph of T has the appearance shown

below.

T is not reflexive: There is no loop at 0, for example.

Thus (0, 0) ∉ T, so T is not reflexive.

T is not symmetric: There is an arrow from 0 to 1 but

not from 1 to 0. Thus (0, 1) ∈ T but (1, 0) ∉ T, and so T
is not symmetric.

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Example 8.2.1 – Solution (7/9) continued

T is transitive: The transitivity condition is vacuously

true for T. To see this, observe that the transitivity
condition says that

For every x, y, z ∈ A, if (x, y) ∈ T and (y, z) ∈ T

then (x, z) ∈ T.

The only way for this to be false would be for there to

exist elements of A that make the hypothesis true and
the conclusion false.

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Example 8.2.1 – Solution (8/9) continued

That is, there would have to be elements x, y, and z in A

such that
(x, y) ∈ T and (y, z) ∈ T and (x, z) ∉ T.

In other words, there would have to be two ordered pairs

in T that have the potential to “link up” by having the
second element of one pair be the first element of the
other pair.

But the only elements in T are (0, 1) and (2, 3), and
these do not have the potential to link up.

19
Example 8.2.1 – Solution (9/9) continued

Hence the hypothesis is never true. It follows that it is

impossible for T not to be transitive, and thus T is
transitive.

20
Properties of Relations on Infinite
Sets

21
Example 8.2.2 – Properties of Equality
Define a relation R on R as follows: For all real numbers x
and y,

a. Is R reflexive? b. Is R symmetric? c. Is R transitive?

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Example 8.2.2 – Solution (1/4)
a. R is reflexive: R is reflexive if, and only if, the following
statement is true:
For every x ∈ R, x R x.

Since x R x just means that x = x, this is the same as

saying
For every x ∈ R, x = x.

But this statement is certainly true; every real number is

equal to itself.

23
Example 8.2.2 – Solution (2/4) continued

b. R is symmetric: R is symmetric if, and only if, the

following statement is true:
For every x, y ∈ R, if x R y then y R x.

By definition of R, x R y means that x = y and y R x

means that y = x. Hence R is symmetric if, and only if,
For every x, y ∈ R, if x = y then y = x.

But this statement is certainly true; if one number is

equal to a second, then the second is equal to the first.

24
Example 8.2.2 – Solution (3/4) continued

c. R is transitive: R is transitive if, and only if, the following

statement is true:
For every x, y, z ∈ R, if x R y and y R z then x R z.

By definition of R, x R y means that x = y, y R z means

that y = z, and x R z means that x = z.

Hence R is transitive if, and only if, the following

statement is true:
For every x, y, z ∈ R, if x = y and y = z then x = z.

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Example 8.2.2 – Solution (4/4) continued

But this statement is certainly true: If one real number

equals a second and the second equals a third, then the
first equals the third.

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Example 8.2.3 – Properties of “Less Than”

Define a relation R on R as follows: For all real numbers x

and y,

a. Is R reflexive? b. Is R symmetric? c. Is R transitive?

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Example 8.2.3 – Solution (1/2)
a. R is not reflexive: R is reflexive if, and only if, ∀x ∈ R,
x R x. By definition of R, this means that ∀x ∈ R, x < x.
But this is false: ∃x ∈ R such that x ≮ x.

As a counterexample, let x = 0 and note that 0 ≮ 0.

Hence R is not reflexive.

b. R is not symmetric: R is symmetric if, and only if, ∀x,

y ∈ R, if x R y then y R x. By definition of R, this means
that ∀x, y ∈ R, if x < y then y < x.

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Example 8.2.3 – Solution (2/2) continued

But this is false: ∃x, y ∈ R such that x < y and y ≮ x. As a

counterexample, let x = 0 and y = 1 and note that 0 < 1
but 1 ≮ 0. Hence R is not symmetric.

c. R is transitive: R is transitive if, and only if, ∀x, y, z ∈ R,

if x R y and y R z then x R z. By definition of R, this
means that ∀x, y, z ∈ R, if x < y and y < z, then x < z.
But this statement is true by the transitive law of order for
real numbers. Hence R is transitive.

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Example 8.2.4 – Properties of Congruence Modulo 3

Define a relation T on Z (the set of all integers) as follows:

For all integers m and n,

This relation is called congruence modulo 3.

a. Is T reflexive? b. Is T symmetric? c. Is T transitive?

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Example 8.2.4 – Solution (1/6)
a. T is reflexive: To show that T is reflexive, it is necessary
to show that For every m ∈ Z, m T m.
By definition of T, this means that

which is true because m − m = 0 and (since 0 = 3 · 0).

Hence T is reflexive.
b. T is symmetric: To show that T is symmetric, it is
necessary to show that
For every m, n ∈ Z, if m T n then n T m.

31
Example 8.2.4 – Solution (2/6) continued

By definition of T this means that

Is this true? Suppose m and n are particular but

arbitrarily chosen integers such that
Must it follow that [In other words, can we find
an integer so that n − m = 3 · (that integer)?] By
definition of “divides,” since

then m − n = 3k for some integer k.

32
Example 8.2.4 – Solution (3/6) continued

The crucial observation is that n − m = −(m − n). Hence,

you can multiply both sides of this equation by −1 to
obtain
−(m − n) = −3k,
which is equivalent to
n − m = 3(−k).

[Thus we have found an integer, −k, so that

n − m = 3 · (that integer).]

33
Example 8.2.4 – Solution (4/6) continued

Since −k is an integer, this equation shows that

It follows that T is symmetric.

c. T is transitive: To show that T is transitive, it is

necessary to show that
For every m, n, p ∈ Z, if m T n and n T p then m T
p.

By definition of T this means that

34
Example 8.2.4 – Solution (5/6) continued

Is this true? Suppose m, n, and p are particular but

arbitrarily chosen integers such that
Must it follow that [In other words, can we find
an integer so that m − p = 3 · (that integer)?] By
definition of “divides,” since

then
m − n = 3r for some integer r,
and
n − p = 3s for some integer s.

35
Example 8.2.4 – Solution (6/6) continued

The crucial observation is that (m − n) + (n − p) = m − p.

Add these two equations together to obtain
(m − n) + (n − p) = 3r + 3s,
which is equivalent to
m − p = 3(r + s).
[Thus we have found an integer so that m − p = 3 · (that
integer).] Since r and s are integers, r + s is an integer.
So this equation shows that

It follows that T is transitive.

36
The Transitive Closure of a Relation

37
The Transitive Closure of a Relation (1/1)

The relation obtained by adding the least number of

ordered pairs to ensure transitivity is called the transitive
closure of the relation. More precisely, the transitive closure
of a relation is the smallest transitive relation that contains
the relation.

38
Example 8.2.5 – Transitive Closure of a Relation

Let A = {0, 1, 2, 3} and consider the relation R defined on A

as follows:

R = {(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}.

Find the transitive closure of R.

39
Example 8.2.5 – Solution (1/2)
Every ordered pair in R is in so

Thus the directed graph of R contains the arrows shown

below.

Since there are arrows going from 0 to 1 and from 1 to 2,

must have an arrow going from 0 to 2.

40
Example 8.2.5 – Solution (2/2) continued

Hence so since
is transitive, Also, since
contains at least the following
ordered pairs:
{(0, 1), (0, 2), (0, 3), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3)}.
But this relation is transitive; hence it equals . The
directed graph of is shown below.

41