CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW:

2.1 Historical Background

The development of personal

computers, including the PC, spans
hundreds of years, from simple
machines that don't require
electricity to complex ones that do.
This section highlights key events in
computer development, focusing on
major milestones rather than
providing an exhaustive account.

2.1.1 Charles Babbage

After the first mass-produced

calculator (1820), Charles Babbage
pursued a programmable machine,
developing the Difference Engine in
1842. Ada Lovelace
used it to mechanically translate a
short written work. Babbage
received government funding,
making him the first scientist to do
so. He began working on the
Analytical Engine, a general-
purpose computer, but unfortunately
didn't complete it before his death.
The Analytical Engine was designed
to perform any calculation using
punched cards and a central
processing unit, a concept that
wouldn't be realized for over a
century.

2.1.2 John Napier

In 1614, John Napier, a Scottish

mathematician, invented logarithm
tables to simplify manual division
and multiplication. He carved
logarithm values onto ivory sticks,
known as Napier's bones, for
calculation. This innovation
significantly reduced the time
required for complex calculations,
making it an essential tool for
scientists and mathematicians.

2.1.3 George Boole

George Boole, with limited formal

education, wrote papers in 1847
and 1854 that laid the foundation for
modern logic. He developed
Boolean algebra, which applies to
numbers, statements, or objects,
using AND, OR, and NOT
operations. These "logic gates" are
still used in computers today,
enabling them to make decisions
and perform calculations.

2.1.4 ENIAC
The Electronic Numerical Integrator
and Computer (ENIAC) was
developed at the
University of Pennsylvania in 1945,
with John W. Mauchly and J.
Prosper Eckert as staff members. It
was the first digital, general-purpose
electronic computer, built to
calculate artillery firing tables for the
United States Army. ENIAC used
vacuum tubes, was enormous, and
required manual rewiring for
different calculations.

2.1.5 EDVAC

The Electronic Discrete Variable

Automatic Computer (EDVAC) was
an improved version of ENIAC,
developed for military purposes. It
was faster and had expanded
internal memory and binary
operation, making it more efficient
and versatile.
2.1.6 John von Neumann
In 1945, John von Neumann wrote
a memorandum outlining the design
plans for a new machine. He
proposed a stored-program
concept, where instructions are
stored with data, making computers
more efficient and general-purpose.
This idea revolutionized computer
design and led to the development
of modern computers.

2.2 GENERATIONS OF
COMPUTERS

Each generation of computers is

characterized by significant
technological advancements,
leading to smaller, cheaper, more
powerful, and efficient devices.
2.2.1 First Generation (1940-1956) -
Vacuum Tubes
The first computers used vacuum
tubes and magnetic drums, were
enormous, expensive, and
generated heat, leading to
malfunctions. Examples include
ENIAC and UNIVAC.

2.2.2 Second Generation (1956-

1963) - Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes,

making computers smaller, faster,
cheaper, and more reliable. They
also introduced stored-program
concept and magnetic core
technology, enabling computers to
perform multiple tasks
simultaneously.

2.2.3 Third Generation (1964-1971)

- Integrated Circuits
The development of integrated
circuits
(ICs) led to a significant increase in
speed and efficiency. Users
interacted with computers through
keyboards and monitors, and
operating systems enabled multiple
applications to run simultaneously.

2.2.4 Fourth Generation (1970-

Present) - Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the

fourth generation, miniaturizing
thousands of integrated circuits onto
a silicon chip. This led to smaller,
more affordable computers,
including the first home computer
introduced by IBM in 1981.

2.2.5 Fifth Generation (Present and

Beyond) - Artificial Intelligence
The fifth generation, expected in the
1990s, is characterized by artificial
intelligence, large-scale integration,
and parallel processing, enabling
computers to work more efficiently
and effectively. This generation
focuses on natural language
processing, expert systems, and
machine learning.

2.3 ELEMENTS OF COMPUTER

SYSTEM

A computer system consists of

seven elements:

i. Hardware
ii. Software
iii. Humanware
iv. Procedure
v. Data/Information
vi. Communication
2.3.1 Hardware
Hardware comprises the physical
parts of a computer system,
including all tangible components
such as central processing units,
memory devices, input/output
devices, and storage devices.
2.3.2 The Fundamentals of
Computer Systems

A computer system comprises

various components that work
together to process, store, and
communicate information. The
physical components of a computer
system, known as hardware, can be
seen, touched, and handled.
Examples of hardware include the
central processing unit (CPU),
memory, input/output devices, and
storage devices.
The CPU, also known as the brain
of the
computer, executes instructions and
performs calculations. It consists of
two main components: the Control
Unit and the Arithmetic/Logic Unit
(ALU). The Control Unit coordinates
and controls the computer's
operations, while the ALU performs
arithmetic and logical operations.

Input devices, such as keyboards

and mice, allow users to enter data
and instructions into the computer.
Output devices, like monitors and
printers, display the results of
processing. Storage devices,
including hard drives and solid-state
drives, hold programs and data.

Software, on the other hand, refers

to the set of instructions that tells
the computer what to do and when
to do it. It's a logical sequence of
steps that solves a problem or
performs a specific task. Software
can be categorized into two main
types: system software and
application software.

System software manages and

controls the computer's hardware
and provides a platform for running
application software. Examples of
system software include operating
systems, language translators, and
utility programs. Application
software, such as word processors
and spreadsheet programs, is
designed to meet the needs of
users and solve specific problems.

The people who use computers to

achieve specific tasks are known as
humanware. They write instructions
in a language that the computer can
understand and include information
technology managers, system
analysts, programmers,
and operators.

Data refers to raw facts and figures

that need to be processed to
become meaningful. Information, on
the other hand, is the result of
processing data and can be thought
of as data that has undergone
transformation to become useful.

Communication refers to the

transfer of data or information from
the computer system to the outside
world. This can be achieved through
network connections and interface
systems.

The motherboard is the main circuit

board of the computer, containing
the CPU, memory, and basic
controllers. It has connections for
IDE, power supply, and expansion
slots like PCI and AGP. The
power supply converts AC power to
DC power for system components,
and AGP and PCI cards are
expansion cards that allow users to
connect additional components.