ADDIS ABABA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

SCHOOL OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

BIO-ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

PROJECT ON PRODUCTION OF PULP AND PAPER FROM BANANA TREE WASTE

GROUP MEMBERS ID
ABDULAZIZ DINO UGR/8929/12
EYOB ADUGNA UGR/0294/12
DAWIT BIZUNEH UGR//12
AYIMEN JEMAL UGR//12
YOHANNES LEMI UGR//12
BINIYAM WONDWOSEN UGR//12

Submitted to:
Submission date:11/17/23
Acknowledgements

i
 Table of Contents
Title page

Acknowledgements.........................................................................................................................................i
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................iv
List of Figures................................................................................................................................................v
List of Abbreviations....................................................................................................................................vi
ABSTRACT................................................................................................................................................vii
CHAPTER ONE............................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.................................................................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the problem............................................................................................................2
1.3 Objectives....................................................................................................................................3
1.3.1 General objective..........................................................................................................................3
1.3.2 Specific objectives........................................................................................................................3
1.4 Significance of the study.............................................................................................................3
CHAPTER TWO...........................................................................................................................................6
LITERATURE REVIEW..............................................................................................................................6
2.1 Review on pulp and paper production.................................................................................................6
2.2 World production trends of paper and pulp......................................................................................... 7
2.3 Use and application of paper and pulp ……………………………………………………………....9
2.4 Market survey....................................................................................................................................11
2.5 Raw materials.....................................................................................................................................12
2.5.1 Physico-chemical properties of Banana stem............................................................................13
2.6 Production process of pulp................................................................................................................14
2.6.1 Process description......................................................................................................................14
2.6.2 Pulp Properties and Application.................................................................................................16
2.6.3 Types of pulping ........................................................................................................................18
2.7 Product quality....................................................................................................................................25
2.8 Safety and Environmental Protection..................................................................................................26

CHAPTER THREE

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iii
List of Tables

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 ABSTRACT

Now a day, the dependency of mankind on paper has grown to larger extent because of
its wide applications in our day to day activities. Wood is the primary raw material used to
manufacture pulp and paper. But it causes deforestation, So Choosing other alternatives like
banana tree waste is the best solution.
The reason behind the selection of banana tree waste as raw material is, in banana plantations,
after the fruits are harvested, the trunks or stems will be wasted. Billion tons of stem and leaves
are thrown away annually. Therefore, it makes sense to turn such waste into a useful product like
pulp by using the concept “from waste to wealth”.

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 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The origin of pulp making traces back to China, where the art was kept secret for 650 years until
Arabs acquired the knowledge from Chinese prisoners of war. Although the process reached
Europe in the 12th century, the technique of creating pulp from wood was lost, leading to the use
of rags instead. In the 1850s, a shortage of rags, coupled with a growing demand for pulp,
prompted inventors in Europe and America to explore alternative sources for pulp production.
Through their efforts, mechanical and chemical methods were developed to efficiently produce
pulp from wood, with poplar emerging as the preferred wood. New mills were established near
the source of this fiber [1].

In Ethiopia, pulp is not locally produced but rather imported. The Ethiopian Pulp and Papers
Share Company, established and officially recognized on August 29, 1955 E.C., was one of the
earliest paper manufacturing companies. Its initial shareholders included the Ministry of Finance,
Ethiopian Development Bank, Ethiopian Investment Bank, and Panser and Witmor Company,
with an initial capital of 50,000 birr. Starting production in 1962 with total expenses of 22
million birr, the company's capital was increased to 10 million birr. Presently, the Ethiopian
government holds 70% of the company's shares, with the International Finance Corporation
(IFC) holding the remaining 30%. During its establishment, the company produced 25 tons of
paper daily and 8,500 tons annually. By 1989, it had increased its production capacity to 10,000
tons per annum [5].

The advent of paper manufacturing marks the onset of the knowledge revolution. With various
technologies available for paper production, it has found applications not only in communication
but also significantly in the production of packing materials, particularly low-grade paper [6].

Industrial pulping involves the large-scale liberation of fibers from lignocellulosic plant material,
achieved through either mechanical or chemical processes. Chemical pulping primarily relies on
chemical reactants and heat energy to soften and dissolve lignin in the plant material, followed
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by mechanical refining to separate fibers [6]. Mechanical pulping encompasses the preliminary
treatment of wood with steam, and sometimes with an aqueous sulfite solution, before the
separation into fibrous material through abrasive refining or grinding. Depending on its intended
use, the material obtained from these processes, known as unbleached pulp, may undergo further
treatment through screening, washing, bleaching, and purification (removal of low molecular-
weight hemicelluloses) operations. The characteristics of the unbleached pulp for a specific type
of production are influenced by the structural and chemical composition of the raw material [3].
This thesis does not focus on paper production but on the fundamental raw material for paper
production, namely pulp derived from banana plants.

The goal of pulping is to extract cellulose fibers from plant material, typically hardwood,
softwood trees, or non-wood plants used in papermaking. Cellulose, a polysaccharide and the
most abundant component of native wood, is a sought-after material for paper production.
Lignin, a complex polymer made of aromatic units, is the second most abundant component of
native wood. There are two main approaches to pulping: mechanical pulping, which utilizes
mechanical force to separate wood fibers, and chemical pulping, which dissolves lignin from
cellulose and hemicellulose fibers using chemicals. Chemical pulping, particularly the sulfate
pulping process (commonly known as Kraft pulping), is the most widely employed. The three
primary types of chemical pulping are sulfate pulping, sulfite pulping, and soda pulping. In this
study, non-wood fibers such as banana stems will be used as raw material. The banana pseudo-
stem, often considered waste in the banana industry, presents an opportunity to convert such
waste into a valuable product like paper [6].

Arbaminch stands out as one of the leading banana producers in Ethiopia. The current banana
production in Ethiopia is approximately 800,000 tonnes, with Arbaminch contributing
significantly. It is estimated that bananas from Arba Minch hold more than 80% of the market
share in Ethiopia and 40% in Addis Ababa. Consumers in major towns, including Addis Ababa,
Hawassa, Adama, Shashemene, and Bahir Dar, prefer bananas from Arba Minch for their
excellent taste. Additionally, Arba Minch serves as a crucial source of banana suckers for various
other parts of the country [5].

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1.1 Problem Statement

The disposal of waste from banana trees results in the emission of toxic gases, including CO2,
and fosters the growth of harmful fungi. This not only negatively impacts the environment but
also poses a threat to the remaining banana trees as they become susceptible to fungal attacks.
Additionally, the conventional use of wood in pulp and paper manufacturing contributes to
deforestation, further exacerbating environmental concerns. Another pressing issue is the
reliance on imported pulp, as our country currently lacks domestic pulp production. This scarcity
of locally produced pulp, coupled with the increasing demand for paper, has led to a shortage of
paper in our country. Addressing these challenges is crucial for environmental sustainability and
meeting the growing paper demand within our borders.

1.1 Objectives

1.1.1 General objective

The general objective of this project was to produce pulp from banana tree waste.

1.1.2 Specific objectives

The specific objectives of the study were:

 To produce pulp using kraft and soda methods in laboratory scale
 Characterizing the parameters that express the quality of the pulp.
 Identifying the better process based on yield and consumption of energy.
 To do Engineering analysis (Material balance, Energy balance, Equipment sizing and
Economical Analysis).

1.2 Significance of the study

 The study is significant in that it will be used as an initial idea to do further detailed
researches regarding to decrease the environmental impacts of the waste and producing
a quality pulp
 The use of renewable agricultural by products for pulp production as non-wood
cellulosic fibers would be great advantage for countries with limited wood forests, and

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 would increase the profit of farmers in developing countries
 Saving foreign currency since the pulp is imported.
 It can be used as an alternative raw material for production of paper in Ethiopian pulp and
paper factory.

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 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1Review on pulp production

Pulp is a fibrous material resulting from complex manufacturing processes that involve the
chemical and/or mechanical treatment of various types of plant material. Today, wood provides
the basis for approximately 90% of global pulp production, while the remaining 10% originates
from annual plants. Pulp is one of the most abundant raw materials worldwide which is used
predominantly as a major component in the manufacture of paper and paperboard, and with
increasing importance also in the form of a wide variety of cellulose products in the textile, food,
and pharmaceutical industries [4].

A pulp mill is a manufacturing facility that converts wood chips or other plant fiber source into a
thick fiber board which can be shipped to a paper mill for further processing. Pulp can be
manufactured using mechanical, semi-chemical or fully chemical methods (kraft, Soda and
Sulfite processes). The finished product may be either bleached or non-bleached, depending on
the customer requirements [3].

Wood and other plant materials like banana stem waste used to make pulp contain three main
components (apart from water): cellulose fibers (desired for papermaking), lignin (a three-
dimensional polymer that binds the cellulose fibers together) and hemicelluloses, (shorter
branched carbohydrate polymers). The aim of pulping is to break down the bulk structure of the
fiber source, be it chips, stems or other plant parts, into the constituent fibers [3].

Chemical pulping achieves this by degrading the lignin and hemicellulose into small, water-
soluble molecules which can be washed away from the cellulose fibers without depolymerizing
the cellulose fibers (chemically depolymerizing the cellulose weakens the fibers) [3].

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 Table 2.1 Global pulp production by category

Pulp category Production (M ton)

Chemical 131.2

Kraft 117.0

Sulfite 7.0

Semichemical 7.2

Mechanical 37.8

Nonwood 18.0

Total virgin fibres 187.0

Recovered fibres 147.0

Total pulp 147.0

(Source: Wiley-VchVerlagGmbh and Co.KGaA,Weinheim,2006)

2.2 World production trends of paper and pulp

Global Production Volume:

The global production of pulp and paper has consistently increased. In 2020, the total global
production of paper and paperboard reached around 419 million metric tons.
Asia has been a major driver of this growth, contributing significantly to the overall increase. As
of 2020, Asia accounted for over half of the world's paper and paperboard production, with
China being the largest producer.

Shift in Production Centers:

Traditional centers like North America and Europe have experienced declines in production. In
2020, North America's share of global paper and paperboard production was around 19%, and
Europe's share was approximately 20%.
In contrast, Asia, led by China, has seen remarkable growth. China alone produced more than

7
25% of the world's paper and paperboard in 2020, making it the largest producer globally.

Market Dynamics:
Digitalization and the shift toward a more digitalized society have affected paper product
demand. The demand for certain types of paper, such as newsprint, has decreased due to
increased digital media consumption.
In 2020, the global graphic paper market declined, while packaging paper and board, driven by
e-commerce and increased demand for sustainable packaging, experienced growth.

Environmental Concerns:
Sustainable practices in the pulp and paper industry have gained prominence. As of 2020, around
58% of the world's industrial roundwood production was used for paper and paperboard,
emphasizing the importance of responsible forest management.
Recycling initiatives have also played a crucial role. In 2020, the global paper recycling rate was
approximately 64%, demonstrating a commitment to environmental sustainability.

Technological Advancements:
Technological advancements have improved production processes and energy efficiency. In
recent years, the industry has witnessed innovations such as advanced papermaking technologies
and increased use of automation.
The adoption of recycled materials has also increased. In 2020, about 53% of paper and
paperboard used in the United States was recovered for recycling.

Trade Dynamics:
Pulp and paper are indeed traded globally. In 2020, the global trade of paper and paperboard
amounted to around 191 million metric tons.
International market dynamics, including tariffs and trade agreements, have influenced the
industry. For example, changes in trade policies between major players like the United States and
China can have significant impacts on global pulp and paper trade.

Challenges:
Fluctuations in raw material prices have been a challenge. Wood fiber prices, a key raw material,
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can be influenced by factors such as weather conditions and global economic trends.
Regulatory changes, particularly in environmental regulations, can impact the industry. Ongoing
innovation is necessary for the industry to remain competitive and sustainable, addressing
challenges like emissions reduction and resource efficiency.
Paper and pulp, two fundamental materials that have been integral to human civilization for
centuries, find themselves woven into the fabric of our daily lives through a multitude of
applications. Their use extends far beyond the familiar realms of books and newspapers,
penetrating diverse industries and contributing significantly to global economic activities.

2.3Use and application of paper and pulp

Printing and Writing:

A cornerstone of paper and pulp applications lies in the realm of printing and writing. The
written word, a powerful medium of communication, is disseminated through newspapers,
magazines, and books, all reliant on the versatile qualities of paper. As of the latest available data
in 2020, the global production of paper and paperboard reached an astounding 419 million metric
tons, with Asia, particularly China, emerging as a powerhouse, accounting for over half of the
world's production. This surge in production reflects not only the enduring relevance of print
media but also the dynamic shift in production centers, with traditional strongholds in North
America and Europe experiencing relative declines.

Packaging:
The packaging industry stands as another bastion where paper and pulp assert their dominance.
Cardboard boxes, packaging papers, and paperboard materials play a pivotal role in safeguarding
and transporting goods across the globe. In 2020, the global trade of paper and paperboard
amounted to approximately 191 million metric tons, highlighting the indispensability of these
materials in the logistics and distribution networks that underpin modern commerce. The rise of
e-commerce and the growing emphasis on sustainable packaging further underscore the
significance of paper and pulp in this sector.

Environmental Concerns and Sustainability:

As our collective consciousness turns towards environmental sustainability, the pulp and paper

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industry has not remained immune to the call for responsible practices. An increased focus on
sustainable forestry management and recycling initiatives has become a hallmark of the industry.
In 2020, the global paper recycling rate stood at about 64%, showcasing a commitment to
minimizing environmental impact. Efforts to balance the demand for paper and pulp with
responsible resource management have gained prominence, reflecting an industry evolving to
meet the challenges of the present and future.

Technological Advancements:
The pulse of innovation beats strong within the paper and pulp industry. Technological
advancements have led to improvements in production processes, energy efficiency, and the
integration of recycled materials. Automation and sophisticated papermaking technologies have
become hallmarks of the modern industry. In the United States, for instance, around 53% of
paper and paperboard used in 2020 was recovered for recycling, a testament to the sector's
embrace of technological solutions for sustainability.

Challenges and the Road Ahead:

However, the industry does not tread without challenges. Fluctuations in raw material prices,
particularly wood fiber, can impact the economics of paper production. Regulatory changes,
coupled with the ever-present need for ongoing innovation, pose challenges that the industry
must navigate. Adapting to environmental regulations and continuously seeking ways to enhance
efficiency and sustainability are key imperatives for the industry to remain both competitive and
ecologically responsible.

In conclusion, the uses and applications of paper and pulp extend far beyond the written page.
They are the backbone of communication, the guardians of our goods in transit, and the vanguard
of environmental sustainability in an ever-evolving world. As technology continues to advance
and global dynamics shift, the paper and pulp industry, rooted in tradition yet open to innovation,
stands poised to script new chapters in its enduring narrative.

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2.4Market survey

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2.5 Raw materials

In the world wide, around 95% of all raw materials used by the paper industry to obtain cellulose
pulp consist of hardwood or softwood. The other raw materials used for this purpose are known
as „non wood‟ materials. Although cellulose pulps are mainly obtained from woods, several
authors report that the production of pulp from non-wood resources has several advantages such
as easy pulping capability, excellent fibers for the special types of paper and high-quality
bleached pulp[4].
In addition, considering the current increase of the concern about forests preservation and
rational use of their residues, the use of non-wood plants for obtainment of cellulose pulps
contributes to decrease the use of forest wood resources.
Non wood pulps can be used as such, or mixed with pulp from wood or recycled paper to obtain
various products such as paper, cardboard and other product derivatives. The term “non wood”
was coined to distinguish plant fibers from the two main sources of wood fibers, hardwood and
softwood. Non wood or agro-based fibers are derived from selected tissues of various mono or
dicotyledonous plants. Non wood fibers can reduce the amount of chemicals needed for pulping
as well as shorten time, thus saving energy [4].
Table 2.2: Chemical Composition of Some Common Non wood fiber Compared to Wood Fiber
Materials List of materials Cellulose (%) Lignin (%)

Wood Coniferous 40-50 26-34

Deciduous 38-49 23-30
Non woods Rice Stalk 28-48 12-16
Banana stem 32-45 15-16
Wheat straw 29-51 16-21
Barley Stalk 31-45 14-15
KenafBast 44-57 15-19
(Source: Lakhansingh and Dr.TarunKanti Bandyopadhyay,2013)

Table 2.2 shows that non wood not just rich with cellulose fibers but the composition of lignin is
also low. So, it is easy to be degraded and consumed short period of time compared to wood
fibers in chemical pulping process.
Agricultural wastes constitute one of the main alternative raw materials for the pulp and paper

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industry.

Selection criteria
Banana stem is one example of non-wood fibers and usually discarded as an agricultural waste
from banana plantation. We selected it as a raw material for the reason that it‟s easily available,
lignin separates easily (low lignin content compared to wood fibers), time and energy saving
process.

2.5.1 Physico-chemical properties of Banana stem

Banana stem has been known to be a potential cellulose source. Chemical composition of banana
stem waste is shown in table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Chemical compositions in Banana stem
Chemical composition Composition
( % w/w with respect to O.D Material)
Hemi cellulose 65.2
Lignin 12.7
Cellulose 40.2
(Source: Lakhansingh and Dr.TarunKanti Bandyopadhyay,2013)

Cellulose is a Carbohydrate composed of C, H, O with the chemical formula (C 6H10O5)n n-

values varies with the different sources of cellulose. It is a linear and high molecular weight
polymer as well as natural, renewable, and biodegradable material. The cellulose fibers are
obtained as pulp after pulping process. It determines the character of the fiber and permits its use
in paper making [4].
Hemi cellulose is made of two compounds, namely Pentosans and Hexosans. Hemicelluloses are
more easily degraded and dissolved than cellulose [4].
Lignin is highly polymerized substance. Its principal role is to form the middle lamella, the
intercellular material which cements the fibers together. The Lignin content in banana stem is
much lower than that for woods [4].

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Table2.4 Banana fiber properties
Fiber properties
Tenacity 29.98 g/denier
Fineness 17.15 denier
Moisture regain 13.0%
Elongation 6.54
Total cellulose 81.80%
Alpha cellulose 61.50%
Residual gum 41.90%
Lignin 15.00%
(Source: Lakhansingh and Dr.TarunKanti Bandyopadhyay,2013)

2.6Production process of pulp

2.6.1 Process description

Raw material Preparation-Here collection of the raw material which is non-wood (banana
steam waste) takes place. Particular measures are required during the storage period to reduce
losses caused by bio deterioration banana decay mainly depend on Storage duration, Climatic
and Storage conditions. Microbiological deterioration causes banana stem losses and quality
losses that is decreasing strength properties of the fibers and discoloration leading to draw backs
in further processing and economical losses. This occurs especially when the stem moisture
content in the range of 60-80% [3].

Chopping-The stem is chopped into small pieces 3-4 inch in sizes using a hammer mill or other
chopping devices. Here the chopped stem must be relatively uniform size, though optimum size
may vary depending on the stem. Penetration of the pulping chemicals and the cooking time is
considerably determined by the stem length [3].

Digestion-The banana stem is cooked in huge pressurized vessels called digesters. Some
digesters operate in batch manner and some in continuous processes. There are several variations
of the cooking processes both for the batch and the continuous digesters. Digesters producing
1,000tonnes of pulp per day and more are common with the largest producing more than
3,500tonnes of pulp per day. In a continuous digester the materials are fed at a rate which allows
the pulping reaction to be complete by the time the materials exit the reactor. Delignification
14
requires several hours at 130 to 180 °C (266 to 356 °F). Under these conditions lignin and
hemi cellulose degrade to give fragments that are soluble in the strongly basic liquid [5]. .

Filtering and Washing: -The softened material is Filtered Usually by Vacuum filtration
equipment for fiber recovery and washed with water to remove the black liquor. The purpose of
pulp washing is to obtain pulp that is free of unwanted soluble. Various benefits result from pulp
washing, such as minimizing the chemical loss from the cooking liquor cycle, maximizing
recovery of organic substances for further processing, reducing the environmental impact of fiber
line operations, limiting the carry-over between process stages, maximizing the re-use of

chemicals and the energy conservation within a single bleaching stage, and last but not least
obtaining a clean final pulp product [5]. .

In industries Usually Vacuum drum washers are used to separate the cooking liquors from the
cellulose fibers. In a vacuum washer, It also requires that the temperature of the filtrate does not
exceed about 80–85 °C, because above this temperature the vapor pressure of water becomes a
threat to the vacuum [5].

Bleaching: -Bleaching increase brightness as well as reduces the viscosity and yield of bleached
pulp. Bleaching sequences consist of several stages which deal with various chemicals. Today‟s
bleaching stages operate mostly under medium consistency conditions, between 10% and 12%
consistency. And is done to change the brown color into white using different kinds of
chemicals. Some chemicals used for bleaching are applied in gaseous form [3]. .
Commonly Applied Chemical treatments
• Chlorination-reaction with elemental chlorine in acidic medium
• Alkaline Extraction-Dissolution of reaction products with Sodium
Hydroxide.
• Chlorine Dioxide- reaction with Chlorine Dioxide in acidic
medium.
• Oxygen- reaction with molecular oxygen at high pressure in
alkaline medium
• Hypochlorite- reaction with Hypochlorite in alkaline medium
• Reaction With Calcium oxide
• Reaction with Activated Carbon
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 • Peroxide- reaction with peroxide in alkaline medium
• Ozone- reaction with ozone in acidic medium.

Storage:-After Filtering and washing the pulp will be molded then the desired pulp is produced
molded pulp or molded fiber, is a packaging material usually used, typically made from recycled
paperboard and/or newsprint. It is used for protective packaging or for food service trays and
beverage carriers. Other typical uses are end caps, trays, plates, bowls and clamshell containers.
For many applications, molded pulp is less expensive than expanded polystyrene (EPS),
vacuumed formed PVC, corrugation, and foams. Molded pulp is often considered a sustainable
packaging material, since it is produced from recycled materials, and can be recycled again after
its useful life-cycle. Molded pulp products can be made waterproof with a spray or dip coating of
wax. which is then stored in a storage tank[6]. .

2.6.2 Pulp Properties and Applications

• Basic Pulp Properties

Pulp Consistency: is the term used to describe solid content of pulp during pulp processing. For
pulp and paper maker this is the most important process parameters. All equipment‟s are
designed to handle pulp at and up to certain consistency. Pulp consistency is roughly divided in
to three ranges [3].
• Low Consistency: <5%
• Medium Consistency: 5 - 15%
• High Consistency: >15%

Moisture Content of Market Pulp: is important from storage, transportation and handling
point of view. Most of the market pulp are sold, stored, transported and used as air dry. The
useable part of pulp is dry fiber only, so the tendency is to minimize the moisture content of
pulp[3]. .

Viscosity of Pulp: Solution viscosity of a pulp gives an estimation of the average degree of
polymerization of the cellulose fiber. So the viscosity indicates the relative degradation of
cellulose fiber during pulping /bleaching process [3]. .

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Bursting strength: Is A property of pulp or paper that measures its resistance to rupturing,
defined as the hydrostatic pressure needed to burst a pulp sample when it is applied uniformly
across its side. Bursting strength is a function of various processes performed in the pulp making
process. The increased use of longer fibers and surface sizing increases a pulp's bursting
strength. It is measured using a Burst tester [3]. .

Tensile Strength of Pulp: Is the maximum strength of randomly oriented pulp fiber when
formed in a sheet. This tensile strength gives an indication of the maximum possible strength of
pulp beaten under ideal condition. This again an indication of what level of tensile strength can
be achieved in real paper making environment [3]. .
Table 2.5. Pulp properties

No. Parameters Standard (ASTM)

1 Burst 1.9 kg/cm2
2 Breaking length 4236 meter
3 Tear factor 108
4 Moisture content 7-9%
5 Viscosity 250-330 CP
6 Consistency >15

(Source: Wiley-VchVerlagGmbh and Co.KGaA,Weinheim,2006)

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Applications

Pulp represents the major raw material basis for two main applications: (a) for paper and board
production, where the pulp fibers are mechanically modified to give a coherent sheet; and (b) for
chemical conversion to products such as regenerated fibers and cellulose derivatives. The former
is denoted as paper grade, the latter as dissolving grade pulp. Paper-grade pulp is by far the most
dominant field of pulp production. Sulfite pulp is characterized by rather week strength
properties, and is typically used in products that require good sheet formation and moderate
strength [6].
Semi-chemical pulps with a typical residual lignin content of 10–15% represent the transition
from mechanical to chemical pulps. Its primary use is for the production of corrugating medium
as well as printing papers, greaseproof papers, and bond papers [6].
Kraft pulp is noted for its superior strength characteristics, and can be used in virtually all paper
and paperboard grades in order to improve strength properties [6].

2.6.3 Types of pulping

Mechanical pulping:
Is pulping by mechanical energy (small amount of chemicals and heat). Among the total amount
of paper pulp produced in the world, mechanical pulp accounts for about 20%. Although
mechanical pulping is a thermo mechanical process, chemical processes may also play a certain
role. The mechanical defibration of wood is carried out in two different ways, namely as a
grinding process or as a refining process [3]. .
 Disadvantages
 fibers are easily damaged
 Relatively low-cost pulp
 pulp unsuitable for many uses because of the present of lignin
 Low strength and relatively poor surface quality paper
 Short-term durability

Chemical pulping:
Chemical pulp is produced by combining wood or other lingo cellulosic material and chemicals
in large vessels known as digesters where heat and the chemicals break down the lignin, which
18
binds the cellulose fibers together, without seriously degrading the cellulose fibers.
These are of three types mainly [3]:

A. Kraft’s process:
The Kraft process (also known as Kraft pulping or sulphate process) is a process for conversion
of wood into wood pulp consisting of almost pure cellulose fibers. It entails treatment of wood
chips with a mixture of Sodium hydroxide (NaOH), Sodium carbonate(Na 2CO3) and sodium
sulphate(Na2SO4),known as white liquor, which breaks the bonds that link lignin to the cellulose.
The Kraft process is the dominant chemical pulping method. It involves following operations [4]:

Impregnation
Common wood chips used in pulp production are 12–25 millimeters (0.47–0.98 in) long and 2–
10 millimeters (0.079–0.39 in) thick.

19
The chips normally first enter the pre-steaming where they are wetted and preheated with steam.
Cavities inside fresh wood chips are partly filled with liquid and partly with air. The steam
treatment causes the air to expand and about 25% of the air to be expelled from the chips. The
next step is to impregnate the chips with black and white liquor. Air remaining in chips at the
beginning of liquor impregnation is trapped within the chips. The impregnation can be done
before or after the chips enters the digester and is normally done below 100°C (212 °F). The
cooking liquors consist of a mixture of white liquor, water in chips, condensed steam
and weak black liquor. In the impregnation, cooking liquor penetrates into the capillary
structure of the chips and low temperature chemical reactions with the wood begin. A good
impregnation is important to get a homogeneous cook and low rejects. About 40–60% of all
alkali consumption in the continuous process occurs in the impregnation zone [4].

Cooking
The wood chips are then cooked in huge pressurized vessels called digesters. Some digesters
operate in batch manner and some in continuous processes. There are several variations of the
cooking processes both for the batch and the continuous digesters. Digesters Producing 1,000
tonnes of pulp per day and more are common with the largest producing more than 3,500 tonnes
of pulp per day. In a continuous digester the materials are fed at a rate which allows the pulping
reaction to be complete by the time the materials exit the reactor. Delignification requires
several hours at 130 to 180 °C (266 to 356 °F). Under these conditions lignin and hemi
cellulose degrade to give fragments that are soluble in the strongly basic liquid. The solid pulp
(about 50% by weight based on the dry wood chips) is collected and washed. At this point the
pulp is quite brown and is known as brown stock. The combined liquids, known as black liquor
(so called because of its color), contain lignin fragments, carbohydrates from the breakdown of
hemi cellulose, sodium carbonate, sodium sulphate and other inorganic salts [4].

Recovery process
The excess black liquor is at about 15% solids and is concentrated in a multiple effect
evaporator. After the first step the black liquor is about 20 - 30% solids. At this concentration
the rosin soap rises to the surface and is skimmed off. The collected soap is further processed to
tall oil. Removal of the soap improves the evaporation operation of the later effects. The weak

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black liquor is further evaporated to 65% or even 80% solids ("heavy black liquor") and burned
in the recovery boiler to recover the inorganic chemicals for reuse in the pulping process. Higher
solids in the concentrated black liquor increases the energy and chemical efficiency of the
recovery cycle, but also gives higher viscosity and precipitation of solids (plugging and
fouling of equipment)[4].

Blowing
The finished cooked wood chips are blown by reducing the pressure to atmospheric pressure.
This releases a lot of steam and volatiles. The steam produced can then be used to heat the pulp
mill and any excess used in district heating schemes or to drive a steam turbine to generate
electrical power [4].

Screening
Screening of the pulp after pulping is a process where by the pulp is separated from large
Shives, knots, dirt and other debris. The accept is the pulp. The material separated from the
pulp is called reject. The screening section consists of different types of sieves (screens) and
centrifugal cleaning. The sieves are normally set up in a multistage cascade operation
because considerable amounts of good fibers can go to the reject stream when trying to
achieve maximum purity in the accept flow[4].
The fiber containing shives and knots are separated from the rest of the reject and reprocessed
either in a refiner and/or is sent back to the digester. The content of knots is typically 0.5 - 3.0%
of the digester output, while the shives content is about 0.1- 1.0% [4].

Washing
The brown stock from the blowing goes to the washing stages where the used cooking liquors are
separated from the cellulose fibers.
Normally a pulp mill has 3-5 washing stages in series. Washing stages are also placed after
oxygen delignification and between the bleaching stages as well. Pulp washers use counter
current flow between the stages such that the pulp moves in the opposite direction to the flow of
washing waters. Several processes are involved: thickening / dilution, displacement and
diffusion. The dilution factor is the measure of the amount of water used in washing

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compared with the theoretical amount required to displace the liquor from the thickened pulp.
Lower dilution factor reduces energy consumption, while higher dilution factor normally gives
cleaner pulp. Thorough washing of the pulp reduces the chemical oxygen demand (COD) [4].
Several types of washing equipment are in use [4]:
 Pressure diffusers
 Atmospheric diffusers
 Vacuum drum washers
 Drum displacers
 Wash presses

Bleaching
In a modern mill, brown stock (cellulose fibers containing approximately 5% residual lignin)
produced by the pulping is first washed to remove some of the dissolved organic material and
then further delignified by a variety of bleaching stages. The pulp produced up to this point is
still in brown color due in the process can be bleached to produce a white paper product. The
chemicals used to bleach pulp have been a source of environmental concern, and recently the
pulp industry has been using alternatives to chlorine, such as chlorine dioxide, oxygen, ozone
and hydrogen peroxide. In the case of a plant designed to produce pulp to make brown sack
paper or linerboard for boxes and packaging, the pulp does not always need to be bleached to a
high brightness. Bleaching decreases the mass of pulp produced by about 5%, decreases the
strength of the fibers and adds to the cost of manufacture [3].

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Fig 2.3: Bleaching of pulp ( Source: Gary A.smook, 1992)

Semi chemical pulping

Semi chemical pulping combines chemical and mechanical methods. Essentially, the wood chips
are partially softened or digested with chemicals; the reminder of the pulping action the supplied
mechanically, most often in disc refiners [3].

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 Table 2.6 General Classification of pulping processes

Mechanical Hybrid Chemical

Pulping by mechanical Pulping with combination of Pulping with chemicals

energy chemical and mechanical and heat (little or no
(small of chemicals and treatments mechanical energy)
heat)
High yield(85-95%) Intermediate yield (55-85%) Low yield (40-55%)
Short, impurefibers “intermediate” pulp Long, strong fibers
 Weak properties (some unique  Strong
 Unstable properties)  Stable
Good print quality Poor print quality
Examples: Examples : Examples:
 Stone ground wood  Neutral sulphite semi  Kraft
 Refinery chemical  Sulphite
mechanical pulp  High-yield kraft  soda
 Thermo mechanical  High-yield sulphite
pulp

(Source:Gary A.smook, 1992)

B. Sulphite process:
In the sulfite process, a mixture of sulfurous acid (H 2SO3) bisulfite ion (HSO3-) is used to attack
and solubilizes the lignin. The sulphites combine with the lignin to form salts of lingo sulfonic
acid which are soluble in the cooking liquor, and the chemical structure of the lignin isleft
largely intact. The chemical base for the bisulfite can be ionic calcium, magnesium sodium or
ammonium. Sulphite pulping can be carried out over a wide range of pH. “Acid sulphite”
denotes pulping with an excess of free sulfurous acid (pH 1-2),while “bisulfite” cooks are carried
out under less acid conditions (pH 3-5) [3].

Sulfite pulps are light in color than kraft pulps and can be bleached more easily, but the paper
sheets are weaker than equivalent kraft sheets. The sulphite process works well for such soft
woods as spruce, fir and hemlock, and for such hardwoods are more difficult to handle. This
sensitivity to wood species, along with weaker strength and the greater difficulty in chemical
recovery are the major reasons for the decline of sulphite pulping relative to kraft the trend

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toward whole-tree chipping puts sulphite at further disadvantage because of its intolerance to
bark. The relative advantages of the kraft and sulfite process [3].

Advantages of kraft process

 Produces highest strength pulp.

 Utilize proven technology for efficient chemical recovery.
 Handles wide variety of wood species

Advantages of sulphite process

 Produces brighter unbleached pulp

 Pulp is easier to bleach to full brightness.
 Produces high yield of bleached pulp.
 Pulp is easier to refine.

In general the sulphite process is acidic and one of the drawbacks is that the acidic conditions
hydrolyze some of the cellulose, which means that sulphite pulp fibers are not as strong as Kraft
pulp fibers. The yield of pulp (based on wood used) is higher than for Kraft pulping and sulphite
pulp is easier to bleach [3].

C. Soda pulping:

This pulping process is entirely similar to Kraft‟s process. The only difference exists is the
cooking chemicals used. In soda pulping process only NaOH or combination of NaOH and
Na2CO3 are used. The quality of pulp obtained in soda pulping is low and used for
manufacturing low grade paper. The amount of bleaching agent required is large as the lignin
content is not effectively removed [4].

2.7 Product Quality

In assessing the final quality of paper derived from banana tree fibers, two key parameters play a
pivotal role: cellulose content and paper strength. The cellulose content indicates the proportion

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of the raw material that consists of the primary fibers responsible for paper formation. Paper
strength, on the other hand, is determined by factors such as fiber length, bonding efficiency, and
resistance to tearing.
Process conditions that enhance paper quality and production efficiency:
First, it is imperative to ensure proper drying of the banana tree fibers to preserve their integrity
and facilitate efficient pulping. Milling the dried fibers enhances their surface area, crucial for
effective pulp extraction and subsequent papermaking processes.
Secondly, utilizing a steam distillation method for essential oils extraction is preferred, as it
selectively extracts valuable substances without compromising the integrity of the fibers. In
contrast, hydrodistillation, involving direct contact with hot water, may lead to partial fiber
hydrolysis and the degradation of cellulose, resulting in lower paper yields. Additionally, if
hydrodistillation is employed, acidification of ethanol during precipitation becomes necessary.
Thirdly, the pulping process can involve alkaline or acidic conditions, with the choice of
chemicals affecting the properties of the obtained paper. Alkaline pulping is favored for
maintaining fiber strength, while acidic conditions may be employed based on specific paper
requirements.
It is essential to emphasize that thorough separation and purification processes are crucial in the
final steps of paper production to ensure high yields and purity. The concluding stage involves
precipitation using ethanol at 96% (v/v) and subsequent washes with ethanol and acetone to
remove impurities, including sugars and bioactive compounds. Centrifugation is then employed
for proper solvent separation, allowing for solvent recovery and reuse. The final step includes
vacuum drying to prevent the degradation of the paper product. Additionally, it is worth noting
that valuable by-products can be obtained from the bioactive compounds extracted during the
process, providing opportunities for further applications. The solid residues after pulping are rich
in lignocellulose, opening avenues for additional value extraction.
This adapted example provides a framework for discussing the quality and production conditions
of paper made from banana tree fibers.

2.8 Safety and Environmental Protection

Safety and environmental protection are fundamental considerations in the production of paper
from banana tree fibers. Here are key aspects to prioritize:

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 Worker Safety: Ensure that all personnel engaged in the production process undergo thorough
training in safety measures, equipment handling, and chemical use. Provide essential personal
protective equipment (PPE) such as gloves, goggles, and masks to mitigate potential hazards and
ensure the well-being of workers.
Chemical Handling and Storage: Adhere to stringent protocols for the proper handling,
storage, and labeling of chemicals employed in the paper production process. Strictly follow
safety guidelines and regulations for the storage and disposal of chemicals to prevent leaks,
spills, or environmental contamination.
Waste Management: Establish an effective waste management system to handle residues from
banana tree fibers, process by-products, and chemical waste. Segregate and appropriately dispose
of different types of waste in accordance with local regulations. Explore opportunities for
recycling or reusing waste materials to minimize environmental impact.
Water and Energy Conservation: Incorporate measures to conserve water and energy
throughout the paper production process. Implement closed-loop water systems, recycle water,
and leverage water-efficient technologies to optimize water usage. Similarly, deploy energy-
efficient equipment and processes to minimize energy consumption and contribute to
sustainability goals.
Environmental Compliance: Ensure strict compliance with local environmental regulations and
standards. Obtain the necessary permits and licenses for paper production from banana tree
fibers. Monitor and control emissions to air, water, and soil, and adhere to regulations related to
wastewater discharge.
Sustainable Sourcing: Promote sustainable sourcing of banana tree fibers by collaborating with
local farmers or suppliers committed to responsible agricultural practices. Advocate for the
utilization of agricultural by-products, such as banana tree fibers, to minimize waste and align
with circular economy principles.
Research and Development: Invest in research and development initiatives aimed at exploring
sustainable and eco-friendly paper production techniques. Consider alternative solvents or
extraction methods with lower environmental impact compared to traditional approaches.
Continuous innovation is crucial for the development of environmentally friendly practices in
paper production from banana tree fibers.
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