Engleski HANDBOOK

EXPRES
S YOUR
English
SELF
Handbook
ALEXANDRA MALIVUK
EXPRESS YOUR English SELF - Handbook
“Mark (Van Doren) would come into the room, and, without any fuss, would start
talking about whatever was to be talked about. Most of the time he asked
questions. His questions were very good, and if you tried to answer them
intelligently, you found yourself saying excellent things that you did not know you
knew, and that you had not, in fact, known before. He had “educed” them from you
by his questions. His classes were literally “education” - they brought things out of
you, they made your mind produce its own explicit ideas ...what he did have was
the gift of communicating something of his own vital interest in things, something of
his manner of approach; but the results were sometimes quite unexpected - and by
that I mean good in a way that he had not anticipated, casting lights that he had
not himself foreseen.” (Thomas Merton, The Seven Storey Mountain, 1948, p.139)
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CONTENT
1. Introduction .......................................................... 11 2.
Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
(CEFR) ................................................. 15 3. Reading – Are
You an Intelligent Reader? ............. 21 3.1 Why do We Read?
............................................ 22 3.2 What do We Read? -
Fiction & Non-Fiction ........... 23 3.3 What is
Reading? ............................................. 25 3.4 Rates of
Reading .............................................. 26 3.5 Reading
Efficiently by Reading Intelligently ................ 27 3.5.1 Skimming
..................................................... 27 3.5.2
Scanning ...................................................... 28 3.5.3
Extensive Reading ......................................... 28 3.5.4
Intensive Reading ......................................... 29 3.5.5
Contextual Clues ........................................... 29 4. Listening
– Can You Lend Me Your Ear? ................. 31 4.1 Listening vs.
Hearing ........................................ 32 4.2 Triple A-
Listening ............................................. 33 4.3 What Happens
When We Do Not Listen? .............. 33 4.4 Types of
Listening ............................................ 34 4.5 Listening as a
Form of Language Comprehension .. 36 4.5.1 Types of Knowledge
................................ 36 4.5.2 Speech Uses Different
Language ............... 37 4.5.3 Speech Vs.
Writing .................................. 38 4.5.4 Speech is
Fast ........................................ 39 4.6 Listen for Keywords and
Context ............................ 40 5. Speaking – Speak Up and
Stay Alive! .................... 41 5.1 What is
Speaking? ........................................... 42
5
5.2 English is not Phonetic ...................................... 42 5.3

English is a Time-Stressed Language .................. 43 5.3.1
What is Word Stress? ............................... 43 5.3.2
Sentence Stress in English ........................ 46 5.3.3 Linking
in English .................................... 49 5.4 Oral
Communication ........................................ 52 5.4.1 Forms
of Oral Communication ................... 53 5.4.2 Types of
Speeches ................................... 56 5.4.3 Speaking
Functions .................................. 58 5.4.4
Debate ................................................... 68 5.4.5
Discussion .............................................. 75 6. Writing –
Art or Craft? ............................................ 81 6.1
Speaking vs. Writing ........................................ 82 6.2 High
School Writing vs. University Writing ........... 84 6.3 Writing
Process ................................................ 87 6.3.1
Overcoming Writer`s Block ....................... 87 6.3.2 Free-
writing ............................................ 89 6.3.3
Clustering .............................................. 92 6.3.4 Outlining
................................................ 93 6.3.5 Writing With a
Sense of Purpose ................ 98 6.3.6 Tone: A Matter of
Attitude ....................... 99 6.3.7 Maintaining
Objectivity ........................... 101
6.3.8 Abstract, Concrete, General, and Specific
Terms .................................................. 102 6.3.9 Using
Unbiased Language ....................... 106 6.3.10 Referring
to Groups of People .................. 108 6.3.11 The Deadly
Sins Checklist ....................... 110 6.4 Structural
Considerations ................................ 128 6.4.1 The
Thesis Statement ............................ 128 6.4.2
Coherence: Transitions Between Ideas ..... 130 6.4.3 The
Five-Paragraph Essay ...................... 133 6.4.4 Principles
of Organization ....................... 144 6.5 Patterns of
Composition .................................. 144 6.5.1 The
Personal Essay ................................ 145 6.5.2 Narrative
and Descriptive ........................ 145 6.5.3 The Process
Essay ................................. 146
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6.5.4 Comparison and Contrast ........................ 148

6.5.5 Using Examples ..................................... 149
6.5.6 Classification and Analysis ...................... 149
6.5.7 Developing a Definition .......................... 150
6.5.8 Evaluative Essays (Reviews) .................... 152
6.5.9 Cause and Effect ................................... 154
6.5.10 Developing an Argument ........................ 155
7. Grammar – Communicate What You Mean ........... 157
7.1 The English System of Tenses .......................... 158
7.1.1 Tense and Time Are Not the Same ........... 158 7.1.2
The Structure of English Tenses ............... 161 7.1.3 The Use
of English Tenses ....................... 163 7.2 Direct & Indirect
Speech ................................. 170 7.3 Passive
Voice ................................................. 175
7.3.1 Relationship Between Active and Passive – Sentence
Structure ................................ 175 7.3.2 An
Agent .............................................. 177 7.3.3 The Use
of Passive Voice ......................... 177 7.4 Conditional
Sentences .................................... 179 7.4.1 Types of
Conditional Sentences (Real, Predictive,
Imaginative) .......................... 179 7.4.2 Inversion in
Conditional Sentences ........... 184 7.5 Verbals: Gerunds &
Infinitives .......................... 186 7.5.1
Gerunds ............................................... 187 7.5.2
Infinitives ............................................. 187 7.5.3 How
to Choose Between a Gerund and an
Infinitive .............................................. 188 7.5.4 Verbs
Followed by Gerunds ..................... 189 7.5.5 Verbs
Followed by Infinitives ................... 189 7.5.6 Verbs
Followed by Either a Gerund or an
Infinitive .............................................. 190 7.5.7 Go,
Go, Go! .......................................... 190 7.5.8 Not
Always Exactly the Same (Similar & Different
Meaning) ................................. 191
7.5.9 Gerund & Possessive Forms ..................... 193
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7.5.10 Verbs Followed by a Noun + an Infinitive .. 193

7.5.11 Verbs followed by a Gerund or a Noun +
Infinitive .............................................. 194
7.5.12 Gerunds after Prepositions! ..................... 194
7.5.13 Be + Adjective Combinations Followed by
Infinitives ............................................. 195
7.5.14 Nouns Followed by Infinitives .................. 195
7.5.15 Infinitives - “in order to do something” ..... 195
7.5.16 Expressions Followed by Verb+ “ING”
forms .................................................. 196
7.5.17 Location Verbs Followed by Verb+ “ING” .. 197
7.5.18 Progressive, Passive and Perfect Gerund &
Infinitive Forms . .................................... 197 8.
Vocabulary – English is a Silly Language ............. 199 8.1
The Origin of English Words ............................. 200 8.2
Derivation ..................................................... 203 8.2.1
Prefixation ............................................ 205 8.2.2
Suffixation ............................................ 206 8.2.3 Some
Useful Latin Words ........................ 208 8.3 Compound Words
........................................... 211 8.3.1 Classification
According to the Type of
Composition .......................................... 211
8.3.2 Semantic Classification ........................... 212
8.3.3 Classification According to the
Word-Class ........................................... 213 8.4
Conversion .................................................... 215 8.4.1
Verbs ................................................... 217 8.4.2
Nouns .................................................. 218
8.4.3 Occasional Formations (nonce-words or joking
words) ....................................... 220 8.4.4 Partial
Conversion .................................. 220 8.4.5 Marginal
Cases of Conversion .................. 220 8.5 Quantitative
Changes ..................................... 220 8.5.1
Clipping ................................................ 221 8.5.2
Blending ............................................... 221
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8.5.3 Graphical Abbreviations .......................... 222

8.5.4 Back-Formation ..................................... 223
8.5.5 Other ................................................... 223
8.6 Semantic Changes ......................................... 227
8.7 Synonymy, Antonymy, Homonymy ................... 229
8.7.1 Synonymy ............................................ 229 8.7.2
Antonymy ............................................. 231 8.7.3
Homonymy ........................................... 232 8.8 Set
Expressions & Collocations ......................... 233 8.8.1 Set
Expressions – Idioms ........................ 233 8.8.2
Collocations .......................................... 235 8.9
Newspaper Language ..................................... 236 8.10
Formal Vocabulary, Colloquialisms & Slang ........ 238 8.11
American & British English ............................... 239 8.12
The Internet & English .................................... 241
9. Translation and Interpreting – Down the Rabbit
Hole ........................................................ 243 9.1
Interpreting vs. Translation ............................. 244 9.2 The
Difference Between the Concepts of
Linguistic Meaning and Sense .......................... 248
9.3 Fidelity vs. Transparency ................................. 250
9.4 Translation Techniques .................................... 253
9.4.1 Direct Translation Techniques .................. 253 9.4.2
Oblique Translation Techniques ................ 254 9.5 Types
of Translation and Interpretation ............. 257 9.5.1.
Types of Translations ............................... 258 9.5.2
Types of Interpretation ............................ 260 9.6 Types
of Dictionaries ...................................... 267 9.7
Translation Terminology and Concepts .............. 272 9.8
Translation is a Process ................................... 273
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Appendix 1 ............................................................... 287

1.1 Latin & Greek Roots, Prefixes, and Suffixes ........ 287 1.2
Medical Terms Built from Latin and Greek Prefixes and
Suffixes .................................................. 287 1.3
Vocabulary Workshop ...................................... 287
Appendix 2 .............................................................. 347
2.1 Verbs Followed by Gerunds .............................. 347
2.2 Verbs Followed by Infinitives ............................ 347
2.3 Go + Gerund List ........................................... 347
2.4 Verbs Followed by Gerunds or Infinitives (Similar
Meaning) ...................................................... 347
2.5 Verbs Followed by Gerunds or Infinitives (Different
Meaning) ...................................................... 347 2.6
Verbs Followed by Nouns + Infinitives ............... 347 2.7
Verbs Followed by Either Gerunds OR Nouns +
Infinitives ..................................................... 347 2.8
Adjective + Preposition Combinations Followed by Gerunds
....................................................... 347 2.9 Noun+
Preposition Combinations Followed by
Gerunds ................................................... 347 2.10 Be
+ Adjective Combinations Followed
by Infinitives ................................................. 347 2.11
Nouns Followed by Infinitives ........................... 347 2.12
Expressions Followed by VERB+ing ................... 347 2.13
Location Verbs Followed by VERB+ing ................ 347
Bibliography ...........................................................373
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1. Introduction
There are different kinds of knowledge and different ways of
acquiring each kind. On one side is theory and on the other side
is the practical application of theory. Both types of knowledge are
important and both are valuable.
Over the years of teaching I’ve noticed, however, that most

English learners feel that they need more practice. In fact, they
have the accumulated theoretical knowledge but they still feel
insecure when they have to put it into practice. It seems as if
they do not know what to do with that knowledge, as if they are
not aware of the trees through the forest. When thinking about
English classes, many students immediately think about
grammar. And they think of grammar as a set of rules per se.
They perfectly know the rules for tense building and when to use
particular tense but, when they need to apply the rules in
conversation or in writing they stumble and stutter. This is so
because, in our elementary and secondary schools, grammar is,
more often than not, taught as if preparing the students to be
grammarians of the second language rather than users.
Communicative and grammatical methods exist alongside each
other. Even more, they go hand in hand.
The main goal of this handbook is to “create” users of English

language who are able to engage in communicative situations
employing appropriate language and patterns. It needs to
encourage students to become more effective, self-confident, and
self-conscious English language users and, therefore, to
communicate more smoothly in English.
In addition, this handbook is intended to make students more

aware of the progress and growth they are making. The results of
several hundred research studies demonstrate that the major
reason most students do not achieve to their potential is that they
really do not believe they can succeed. They need to learn to set
their goals of learning, to assess their capabilities and to evaluate
their progress. Each student brings unique experiences, abilities
and objectives. It is important to provide each individual with
equal opportunity to achieve his or her goals and to maximize the
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potential of each individual. When students believe they can learn
and achieve, teaching becomes much easier. Since the course
lasts only one semester, the author will be satisfied should her
students become aware of the collection of techniques that can
enhance their learning. She will be more than satisfied if they
adopt and apply at least half of these techniques and if they
continue self
education in all language activities.
Both handbook and workbook provide a number of practical tips
and contextual and open-ended exercises allowing for several
correct responses and forcing the students to make appropriate
semantic and structural decisions. Furthermore, they are
designed to force students think and help them express what they
really think and want to say, rather than merely to fill in a blank.
It is important to study a balance of the four major skills one

needs to communicate in any language: Listening, Speaking,
Reading and Writing. More often than not, students practice and
develop reading, listening, writing and speaking with no clear
instructions how to do that, what is expected of them, and why it
is important. Once they have mastered the basics of reading,
writing and speaking they are mostly left to themselves, without
further instructions on how to improve these skills. And although
we use listening skills more than any other communication skill,
listening is rarely taught. Therefore, the author finds it helpful to
focus on developing and mastering both receptive (reading,
listening) and productive (writing, speaking) language skills,
trying to eliminate some of the barriers and tensions that might
be in the way of their development. Some students want to know
which skill is the most important. Since all of the skills rely on one
another, they are all important. Being very good at only one of
these skills is not enough for good communication to take place.
Chapter 3 describes strategies within the reading process to help

students increase their understanding of reading materials.
Special attention is given to skimming, scanning, intensive and
extensive reading, reading speed and comprehension techniques.
Chapter 4 deals with listening as a form of language

comprehension. It shows types of listening, listening skills and
strategies, difference between speech and writing. The emphasis
is put on listening for keywords and context, shadowing,
contractions and fillers.
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Chapter 5 focuses on improving fluency in English and increasing

the accuracy of students’ speech production. Its main purpose is
to raise awareness among students about the necessary
components of a successful speech communication (fluency in
expression, grammar precision, authentic pronunciation,
developed and properly used vocabulary differences among styles
and registers, giving and receiving instructions, disagreeing
politely, giving a broader explanation, etc.) During the course,
students will have the opportunity to participate in debates, group
presentations, role-plays or mini-performance on topics related to
culture, contemporary life and the English language. The special
emphasis is given to debate and discussion. Teaching by
discussion involves asking questions that engage students’ critical
thinking. Furthermore, their seminar paper presentations create
opportunities to practice communicating ideas orally and visually,
skills necessary to succeed in English class and in the workforce.
Chapter 6 introduces students to the basics of academic writing

and critical thinking. It deals with adequacy of style and register,
the basics of writing different types of essays, organization of the
text, structure and linking of paragraphs, connectives. It guides
students to choose words to avoid clichés, wordiness, informality,
and confusion and emphasizes clear, consistent and direct writing
for a variety of tasks, especially for academic purposes. Through
the writing process, students refine topics; develop and support
ideas; investigate, evaluate, and incorporate appropriate
resources; edit for effective style and usage; and determine
appropriate approaches for a variety of contexts, audiences, and
purposes. Writing activities will include exposition and
argumentation with one researched seminar paper which includes
extraction of key words, writing of abstract or summary,
adequate using of literature and using visuals as supporting
documentation.
The purpose of Chapter 7 is to make students use the grammar

as the real thing that helps them express their feelings and ideas.
It has to raise students’ awareness that, on one hand, the
grammatical rules are there to help them to respond correctly but
that, on the other hand, they will not tell them what to say.
Chapter 8 is dedicated to vocabulary building and

comprehension; how studying the most prominent prefixes, roots,
and suffixes increases our vocabulary; compounding, conversion,
quantitative and semantic changes, idioms, collocations,
differences between formal vocabulary, colloquialisms and slang.
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Chapter 9 deals with the basic techniques of translation, types

and methods of use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, and
various language manuals, the Internet, encyclopedias and the
like.
Various texts and materials from a variety of sources are used to

provide the student with interesting, contemporary and relevant
topics for reading, listening, discussion, role plays, debates,
writing and translation.
Language may be our most powerful tool. We use it to understand

our world through listening and reading, and to communicate our
own feelings, needs and desires through speaking and writing.
With strong language skills, we have a much better chance of
understanding and being understood.
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2. Common European
Framework of Reference
for Languages (CEFR)
Common reference levels
The Common European Framework divides learners into three
broad divisions which can be divided into six levels:
A Basic User
A1 Breakthrough or Beginner (Preliminary)
A2 Elementary (Access)
B Independent User
B1 Threshold or Intermediate (Achiever)
B2 Vantage or Upper- intermediate
(Communicator) C Proficient
User
C1 Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced (Expert)

C2 Mastery or Proficiency
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The CEFR describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in

reading, listening, speaking and writing at each level. These
descriptors can apply to any of the languages spoken in Europe.
Level description
A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday

expressions and very basic phrases aimed at the
satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can
introduce him/ herself and others and can ask and
answer questions about personal details such as
where he/she lives, people he/she knows and
things he/she has. Can interact in a simple way
provided the other person talks slowly and clearly
and is prepared to help.
A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used

expressions related to areas of most immediate
relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family
information, shopping, local geography,
employment). Can communicate in simple and
routine tasks requiring a simple and direct
exchange of information on familiar and routine
matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of
his/her background, immediate environment and
matters in areas of immediate need.
B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard

input on familiar matters regularly encountered in
work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with most
situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area
where the language is spoken. Can produce simple
connected text on topics which are familiar or of
personal interest. Can describe experiences and
events, dreams, hopes & ambitions and briefly give
reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.
16
B2 Can understand the main ideas of complex text on
both concrete and abstract topics, including
technical discussions in his/her field of
specialization. Can interact with a degree of fluency
and spontaneity that makes regular interaction
with native speakers quite possible without strain
for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on
a wide range of subjects and explain a viewpoint
on a topical issue giving the advantages and
disadvantages of various options.
C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer

texts, and recognise implicit meaning. Can express
him/herself fluently and spontaneously without
much obvious searching for expressions. Can use
language flexibly and effectively for social,
academic and professional purposes. Can produce
clear, well structured, detailed text on complex
subjects, showing controlled use of organisational
patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard

or read. Can summarise information from different
spoken and written sources, reconstructing
arguments and accounts in a coherent
presentation. Can express him/herself
spontaneously, very fluently and precisely,
differentiating finer shades of meaning even in the
most complex situations.
Cambridge ESOL said that each level is reached with the following
guided learning hours:
A2:180-200;
B1: 350-400;
B2: 500-600;
C1: 700-800
C2: 1,000-1,200
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Cambridge ESOL diplomas
The Certificate of Proficiency in English or

CPE 1. Reading (1 hour and 30 minutes)
2. Writing (1 hour and 30 minutes)
3. Listening (approx. 40 minutes)
4. Speaking (approx. 16 minutes)
The Certificate in Advanced English

(CAE) 1. Reading (1 hour and 15 minutes)
2. Writing (1 hour and 30 minutes)
3. Use of English (1 hour)
4. Listening (40 minutes)
5. Speaking (15 minutes)
The First Certificate in English (FCE)
1. Reading (1 hour)
2. Writing (80 minutes)
3. Use of English (45 minutes)
4. Listening (40 minutes)
5. Speaking (15 minutes)
The Preliminary English Test (PET)
The Key English Test (KET)
18
The ‘Test of English as a Foreign Language’, or

TOEFL Internet-based Test (IBT)
Task Description Approx.

time
Reading 3–4 passages, each containing 12– 60–80

14 questions minutes
Listenin 6–9 passages, each containing 5– 60–90

g 6 questions minutes
Break 10 minutes
Speakin 6 tasks and 6 questions 20 minutes

g
Writing 2 tasks and 2 questions 50 minutes
Paper-based Test
1. Listening (30 – 40 minutes)
2. Structure and Written Expression (25 minutes)
3. Reading Comprehension (55 minutes)
4. Writing (30 minutes)

The Test of English for International Communication
(TOEIC) is “an English language test designed specifically to
measure the everyday English skills of people working in an
international environment.”
The TOEIC certificate exists in five colors, corresponding to
achieved results:
• orange (10–215)
• brown (220–465)
• green (470–725)
• blue (730–855)
• gold (860–990)
19
BEC (Business English Certificates)
BULATS (Business Language Testing Service)
ILEC (International Legal English Certificate)

IELTS (International English Language Testing System)- English
for academic purposes.
20
3. Reading –
Are You an Intelligent
Reader?
“Reading has made me who I am. To read is to learn and grow,

to experience, to understand, to marvel, to wonder, to laugh and
to cry. To live other lives in other places and times, to deepen a
connection with place. Reading is immensely important to me. It
shapes my personality and identity. I am a fuller, more rounded
person because I read. I learn things that help me in my daily life
and I experience joy, sorrow and relaxation when I read.” (taken
from a student`s essay)
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3.1 Why do People Read?

There are different reasons why people read. A number have
intimate affairs with reading while some read simply because they
are required to do so. Some start reading very young and stop
when they find other activities that are more enjoyable. Others
discover the pleasure of reading and continue to delight in such
past times.
People read with a purpose or for pleasure.

● reading with a purpose:
for memorization
for learning
for comprehension
for information
● reading for pleasure
The act of reading can be a form of pleasurable escape from the

hustle and bustle of real life. Getting caught up in the stories of
great authors will help one forget problems temporarily.
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3.2 What do We Read?
Fiction & Non-Fiction
Fiction
- writings that describe imaginary events and people •
Classics
• Crime and Mystery
• Fantasy
• Horror
• Literary Fiction
• Popular Fiction
• Romance
• Science Fiction
• Short Stories
• Women’s Fiction
• Young / Adult Fiction
• Poetry
• Drama
Non-Fiction
- writings about facts, real events and real people
• Arts and Crafts
• Autobiography
• Biography
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• Cooking
• Gardening
• History
• How To
• Memoir
• Science
• Self-Help
• Technology
• Travel
All reading is reading no matter the format!
• recipes
• manuals
• tweets
• blogs
• signs
• maps
• information to get stuff done
• information for fun
• facts and figures
• letters, e-mails
• hints
• bills
• SMS
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Reading can be
• fun, sad, traumatic, confusing, fast, slow, episodic,

continual …
3.3 What is Reading?
Reading is an ability to understand the meaning of a written text

at word, phrase, sentence, paragraph and whole text level. It
includes understanding of text content, organization and
structure, and the development of ideas, opinions and attitudes.
It requires:
• word recognition
• comprehension
• fluency
Sometimes you can make meaning without being able to identify

all the words (e.g. messy handwriting). You may have understood
it, even though you couldn’t decipher all the scribbles.
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Sometimes you can identify words without being able to construct

much meaning from them. Read the opening lines of Lewis
Carroll’s poem “Jabberwocky”:
‘Twas brillig, and the slithy toves

Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
Finally, sometimes you can identify words and comprehend them,

but if the processes do not come together smoothly, reading will
still be a labored process. For example, try reading the following
sentence:
It isn’t as if the words are

difficult to identify or
understand, but the spaces make you pause
between
words which means your reading is less fluent.
3.4 Rates of Reading

Rates of reading include:
● reading for memorization (fewer than 100 words per minute

[wpm]);
● reading for learning (100–200 wpm);
● reading for comprehension (200–400 wpm);
● skimming(400–700 wpm).
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3.5 Reading Efficiently by

Reading Intelligently
Or Know How Deeply to Study the Material
3.5.1 Skimming
Skimming is used to quickly gather the most important

information, the brief idea, the overview or ‘gist’. Run your eyes
over the text, noting important information. Read only chapter
headings, introductions, and summaries. It is not essential to
understand each word when skimming.
Examples of Skimming:
● The Newspaper (quickly to get the general news of the day)
● Magazines (quickly to discover which articles you would like to read in more
detail
● Business and Travel Brochures (quickly to get informed)
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3.5.2 Scanning
Scanning is used to find a particular piece of information. Run

your eyes over the text looking for the specific piece of
information you need. If you see words or phrases that you do
not understand, do not worry when scanning.
Examples of Scanning
• The “What’s on TV” section of your newspaper.
• A train / airplane schedule
• A conference guide
• A meeting plan
3.5.3 Extensive Reading
Extensive reading is used to obtain a general understanding of a

subject and includes reading longer texts for pleasure, as well as
business books. Do not worry if you do not understand each word.
Examples of Extensive Reading
• The latest marketing strategy book
• A novel you read before going to bed
• Magazine articles that interest you

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3.5.4 Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is used on shorter texts in order to extract

specific information. It includes very close accurate reading for
detail. Use intensive reading skills to grasp the details of a
specific situation. In this case, it is important to understand each
word, number or fact.
Examples of Intensive Reading
• A bookkeeping report
• An insurance claim
• A contract
3.5.5 Contextual Clues
Use context clues to find out a word’s meaning!
The use of contextual clues can be one of the best ways to

improve your reading skills and increase your existing vocabulary
base. This will help you understand text in general sense and
cope with increasingly difficult text. By using contextual clues you
can arrive at a much fuller understanding of difficult texts - even
if you do not understand each word.
Context clue is an information (such as a definition, synonym,

antonym, or example) that appears near a word or phrase and
offers direct or indirect suggestions about its meaning. For
example, you were reading the following sentence and wanted to
know what ‘pessimist’ means:
My mother is always happy and optimistic, the total opposite of

my brother, the pessimist.
So from the sentence, you can gather that ‘pessimist’ means the
opposite of happy, so pessimist means being moody and angry.
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Good, experienced readers always use context clues! If you find a

word that you’re totally stumped on, use the dictionary!
Reading Clues
Vocabulary Activation - When quickly skimming through the

text, what does the text seem to concern? Does the layout
(design) of the text give any clues? Does the publication or type
of book give any clues to what the text might be about? Which
words can you think of that belong to this vocabulary category?
Part of Speech - Which part of speech is the unknown word?

Is it a verb, noun, preposition, adjective, time expression or
something else?
Logical Deduction - What does the sentence concern? Which

words does the unknown word seem to relate to?
Chunking - What do the words around the unknown word(s)

mean? How could the unknown word(s) relate to those words? -
This is basically deduction on a more local level.
30
4. Listening Can
You Lend Me Your Ear?
“Listening is an attitude of the heart, a
genuine desire to be with another which both
attracts and heals.”
J. Isham
31
4.1 Hearing vs. Listening
“To listen is an effort, and just to hear is no merit. A duck hears
also.„
Igor Stravinsky
When we hear we do it using our auditory system. Hearing is

physical. When we listen we involve our auditory system plus our
cognitive functions: paying attention, remembering, thinking and
reasoning. Listening is hearing with a purpose. Listening goes
beyond hearing the words that are being spoken. Listening
means: thinking about the message to understand it clearly and
completely.
HEARING LISTENING
Perceiving words and sounds Perceiving and understanding the

words
Making sense of sounds Noticing tone of voice, inflexion,
volume
Noticing mood of the speaker
Keeping mind clear of distractions
Noticing nonverbal cues, including
body language, facial expressions,
distance between people
Perception (and sorting out) of Applied cognition (Perceiving,

sounds and voices paying attention, reasoning and
remembering messages)
”I hear it” ”I get it”
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4.2 Triple-A Listening

Good listening is built on three basic skills:
Attitude
Attention
Adjustment
4.3 What
Happens When
We Don’t Listen?
When we don’t listen, the
speaker may feel invalidated
and frustrated. The speaker may
conclude that we do not care or
that we do not have the capacity
to understand him. Either
conclusion may be inaccurate and
lead the speaker to take actions
we did not intend or desire.
Additionally, when we don’t
listen, we may get the wrong
message, if we get any message
at all. We may interpret the
message the wrong way. We may
get to the wrong conclusions; we
may misunderstand the speaker
and miss important information.
33
Why does this matter? - Because we may make decisions or take

actions based on inaccurate information.
4.4 Types of Listening

There are many names for different types of listening. Here is a
collection of types and the different names that get ascribed to
them, along with a brief description of each.
Name Description
Active listening Listening in a way that demonstrates interest

and encourages continued speaking. Engaging
fully in what is going on around you.
Appreciative listening Looking for ways to accept and appreciate

the other person through what they say.
Seeking opportunity to praise.
Alternatively listening to something for

pleasure, such as to music.
Attentive listening Listening obviously and carefully,

showing attention.
Biased listening Listening through the filter of personal bias.
Casual listening Listening without obviously showing

attention. Actual attention may vary a lot.
Comprehension listening Listening to understand. Seeking meaning (but

little more).
Content listening Listening to understand. Seeking meaning (but

little more).
Critical/evaluative/ Listening in order to evaluate, criticize or

judgmental listening otherwise pass judgment on what someone else
says.
Deep listening Seeking to understand the person, their

personality and their real and unspoken
meanings and motivators.
34
Dialogic listening Finding meaning through conversational
exchange, asking for clarity and testing
understanding.
Discriminative listening Listening for something specific but nothing

else (eg. a baby crying).
Empathetic listening Seeking to understand what the other person

is feeling.
False listening Pretending to listen but actually spending
more time thinking.
Full listening Listening to understand. Seeking meaning.
High-integrity listening Listening from a position of integrity and concern.
Inactive listening Pretending to listen but actually spending

more time thinking.
nformative listening Listening to understand. Seeking meaning (but

little more).
nitial listening Listening at first then thinking about response

and looking to interrupt.
Partial listening Listening most of the time but also spending

some time day-dreaming or thinking of a
response.
Reflective listening Listening, then reflecting back to the other

person what they have said.
Relationship listening Listening in order to support and

develop a relationship with the other
person.
Sympathetic listening Listening with concern for the well-being of

the other person.
Therapeutic listening Seeking to understand what the other person

is feeling. Demonstrating this empathy.
Total listening Paying very close attention in active listening to

what is said (the content) and the deeper
meaning found through how it is said (the
underlying emotions). Watching for the non-
verbal messages.
Whole-person listening Seeking to understand the person, their

personality and their real and unspoken
meanings and motivators.
35
4.5 Listening as a Form of

Language Comprehension
Listening is the ability to understand the meaning of spoken
English, to extract information from a spoken text and to
understand speakers’ attitudes and opinions. Listening is
considered to be the one of the most important part of the oral
communication. For most language learners comprehension
listening is probably the most difficult task. Listening is usually
the slowest skill to improve and, more often than not, it is the
weakest skill.
4.5.1 Types of Knowledge
To understand the meaning, both listeners and readers use four

important types of knowledge:
• knowledge of the language: knowledge of the sound system

for listening and the writing system for reading, knowledge
of the vocabulary, the grammar, and the way longer
discourse is structured
• knowledge about what has already been said
• knowledge about the situation in which the speech is taking

place: it gives us expectations about what might come next
• knowledge about the world
There is no fixed way in which this knowledge is applied.

Comprehension is basically a guessing game. We use our
knowledge
36
to make inferences about the meaning. Inferences are the core of

comprehension. The meaning is constructed by the
listener/reader. Therefore, different people might make different
inferences and get different understanding of the same passage.
• Different people have different knowledge and different ideas
about the world. A person with more knowledge about
something may understand more than a person with less
knowledge.
• Different people have different purposes for listening. Some

people may want all the details, and others may only want
to get the general idea. And so they will get a different
understanding.
• Different people have different interests. If something is

interesting, people pay more attention and will understand
more.
• So different listeners, who hear the same thing, may have

different ideas about what the speaker means. And that is
ok, because these different ideas about the speaker’s
meaning may all be reasonable. Now here’s the important
thing: there is often no single correct understanding of a
piece of language, but a number of possible understandings.
The purpose of listening is to get a reasonable
understanding of what the speaker said, not the ‘correct’
understanding.
4.5.2 Speech Uses Different Language
Both listening and reading are a form of language comprehension.

In both cases we are trying to get some meaning from the
language. However, listening skills are different from reading
skills because speech is different from writing. The biggest
difference between speech and writing is that speech consists of
sounds. This is very important, because processing the sound
adds a whole new set of skills that are not necessary for reading.
• if you don’t know the sound system, you cannot understand

the speech
37
• there are many different elements to English pronunciation,

for example: word stress, stressed and unstressed words
within a sentence, linking sounds, intonation and rhythm;
English rhythm speeds up and slows down - there are fast
beats and slow beats
• you must know how the sounds change in fast speech

because fast pronunciation is very different from the
dictionary form of the word
• the English sound system varies from place to place, and

from speaker to speaker
4.5.3 Speech Vs. Writing
Written English consists of neat, correct sentences; speech does

not. Speech usually consists of idea units. Sometimes idea units
are complete sentences, but sometimes they are not. The main
differences between spoken idea units and written sentences are:
• Spoken idea units are usually shorter than written sentences

(usually about two seconds long, consisting of just a few
words -on average about 7 words)
• Speech usually has simpler grammar - idea units are usually

just strung together - but writing usually has more complex
grammar.
38
• Speech contains many mistakes, including grammar

mistakes; so it also has corrections and repairs. Speakers
change their mind, repeat themselves or repair what they
have said. The words are not carefully pronounced. Written
language is usually more correct and polished.
• Speech contains many pauses and hesitations. Ideas are

often disorganized. There are also fillers, meaningless words
that give the speaker thinking time. Examples of fillers are
um, well now, uh, let me see. Written language has none of
those.
• Spoken language is more modern and up to date; there are

more nonstandard expressions and slang words, swear
words, new expressions, figures of speech, and humor.
Written language tends to be more conservative and old
fashioned.
• In speech a lot of things are not actually stated. Speakers

often use their tone of voice, or stress and intonation to
express important information. For example, emotions such
as pleasure and anger, attitudes such as disbelief or
sarcasm, and so on, are often not clearly stated in words.
• More often than not, there may be some background noise

(most places are a little noisy: birds sing, children laugh,
radios play music, airplanes fly overhead, fridges hum
etc.).
4.5.4 Speech is Fast
Speakers decide how fast they will speak, and most speakers
speak very fast. Therefore, listeners have to listen fast. When
reading, the reader can choose a comfortable reading speed, but
the listener cannot choose the listening speed. Listeners must
listen at the speaker’s speed.
• The speed of the speech is called the “speech rate” (usually,

as the speech rate increases, comprehension decreases; if
the speech rate is too fast, comprehension stops).
39
• Because speech is generally fast, the listener must get the

meaning very quickly and very efficiently. There is no time
to stop and wonder about the language used (e.g. the
vocabulary or grammar). That means that listening must be
automatic.
4.6 Listen for Keywords and Context

You may have a good vocabulary and you may understand English
grammar, but you have trouble understanding what people are
saying, and it is impossible for you to watch English movies or TV
shows without subtitles. Successful listening skills are acquired
over time and with lots of practice. It is frustrating for students
because there are no rules as in grammar teaching. One of the
largest inhibitors for students is often mental block. Some
students convince themselves that they are not able to
understand spoken English well and create problems for
themselves.
While listening, a student suddenly decides that he or she does
not understand what is being said. At this point, many students
just tune out or get caught up in an internal dialogue trying to
translate a specific word. Translating, however, creates a barrier
between yourself and the person who is speaking. This situation
obviously leads to less -not more- understanding. Translation
leads to a kind of block in brain which sometimes doesn’t allow
you to understand anything at all!
Keywords or key phrases will help you understand the general
idea. Understanding the general idea will help you understand the
detail as the person continues to speak. Think in context and
focus on the words you do understand, not on the word/s that
you do not understand.
“Listen to the mustn’ts, child.
Listen to the don’ts.
Listen to the shouldn’ts,
the impossibles, the won’ts.
Listen to the never haves,
then listen close to me...
Anything can happen, child.
Anything can be.”
SheL Silverstein
40
5. Speaking- Speak Up
and Stay Alive!
I speak two languages,

Body and English.
Mae West
41
5.1 What is speaking?

Speaking is the productive skill in the oral mode. It is the ability
in communicating, the ability to interact in conversational English
in a range of contexts. It is more complicated than it seems at
first and involves more than just pronouncing words. Speaking is
the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected
sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts, and to do so
using acceptable (that is, comprehensible) pronunciation.
5.2 English is Not Phonetic

What does it mean?
Some words can have the same spelling but different

pronunciation, for example:
• I like to read [ri:d].
• I have read [red] that book.
Some words have different spelling but the same

pronunciation, for example:
• I have read [red] that book.
• My favourite colour is red [red].
The English language may have 26 letters of the alphabet, but it

has double that number of sounds: 52. Knowing and recognizing
the 52 sounds will help to give you good pronunciation. Of course,
everybody knows that good pronunciation helps our speaking. But
do you know that good pronunciation also helps our listening?
42
5.3 English is a Time-Stressed

Language
5.3.1 What is Word Stress?
In English, one does not say each syllable with the same force or
strength. Only ONE syllable is accentuated. One syllable is said
very loudly (big, strong, important) and all the other syllables
very quietly.
The shape of each word is different.

shape total stressed
syllables syllable
PHO TO GRAPH 3 #1
PHO TO GRAPH ER 4 #2
PHO TO GRAPH IC 4 #3
This happens in ALL words with 2 or more syllables: TEACHer,

JaPAN, CHINa, aBOVE, converSAtion, INteresting, imPORtant,
deMAND, etCETera, etCETera, etCETera
The syllables that are not stressed are weak or small or quiet.
Native speakers of English listen for the STRESSED syllables, not
the weak syllables. If you use word stress in your speech, you will
instantly and automatically improve your pronunciation and your
comprehension.
Try to hear the stress in individual words each time you listen to
English - on the radio, or in films, for example. Your first step is to
HEAR and recognize it. After that, you can USE it!
43
Rules of Word Stress in English

There are two very important rules about word stress:
1. One word, one stress. (One word cannot have two

stresses. So if you hear two stresses, you have heard two
words, not one word. It is true that there can be a
“secondary” stress in some words. But a secondary stress
is much smaller than the main [primary] stress, and is only
used in long words.)
2. The stress is always on a vowel, not consonants
Here are some more, rather complicated, rules that can help you
understand where to put the stress. But do not rely on them too
much, because there are many exceptions. It is better to try to
“feel” the music of the language and to add the stress naturally.
1 Stress on first syllable
rule example
Most 2-syllable nouns PRESent, EXport, CHIna, TAble
Most 2-syllable adjectives PRESent, SLENder, CLEVer,

HAPpy
2 Stress on last syllable

rule example
Most 2-syllable verbs to preSENT, to exPORT, to
deCIDE, to beGIN
There are many two-syllable words in English whose meaning and

class change with a change in stress. The word present, for
example is a two-syllable word. If we stress the first syllable, it is
a noun (gift) or an adjective (opposite of absent). But if we stress
the second syllable, it becomes a verb (to offer). More examples:
the words export, import, contract and object can all be nouns
or verbs depending on whether the stress is on the first or second
syllable.
44
3 Stress on penultimate syllable (penultimate = second from

end)
rule example
Words ending in -ic GRAPHic, geoGRAPHic, geoLOGic
Words ending in -sion teleVIsion, reveLAtion

and -tion
For a few words, native English speakers don’t always “agree” on

where to put the stress. For example, some people say
teleVIsion and others say TELevision. Another example is:
CONtroversy and conTROversy.
4 Stress on ante-penultimate syllable (ante-penultimate =
third from end)
rule example
Words ending in -cy, - deMOcracy,

ty, -phy and -gy dependaBIlity,
phoTOgraphy, geOLogy
Words ending in -al CRItical, geoLOGical
5 Compound words (words with two parts)

rule example
For compound nouns, BLACKbird, GREENhouse

the stress is on the
first part
For compound adjectives, bad-TEMpered, old-FASHioned

the stress is on the second
part
For compound verbs, the to underSTAND, to overFLOW

stress is on the second
part
45
5.3.2 Sentence Stress in English
Say this sentence aloud and count how many seconds it takes.
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.

Time required?
Now, try speaking this sentence aloud.
He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn’t have to do any

homework in the evening. Time required?
The shorter sentences can often take longer to speak than longer
sentences with many function words.
The beautiful Mountain appeared transfixed in the distance.

He can come on Sundays as long as he doesn’t have to do any
homework in the evening.
In English, the stress is given to certain words while other words
(less important) are quickly spoken = eaten! In other languages
(such as French or Italian = syllabic languages) each syllable
receives equal importance (there is stress, but each syllable has
its own length). In English, pronouncing every word correctly
leads to poor pronunciation. Good pronunciation comes from
stressing the right words - this is because English is a time-
stressed language. Stressed words are the key to excellent
pronunciation and understanding of English.
Which words do we generally stress?
Sentence stress is the music of spoken English. Like word stress,

sentence stress can help you to understand spoken English,
especially when spoken fast.
Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or “beat”. The
word stress is accent on one syllable within a word. Sentence
stress is accent on certain words within a sentence.
Most sentences have two types of word:
46
• content words
• function or structure words
Content words are the key words of a sentence. They are the
important words that carry the meaning or sense. Function words
are not very important words. They are small, simple words that
make the sentence correct grammatically. They give the sentence
its correct form or “structure”. If you remove the structure words
from a sentence, you will probably still understand the sentence.
If you remove the content words from a sentence, you will not
understand the sentence. The sentence has no sense or meaning
without content words.
We stress CONTENT WORDS such as:
Nouns e.g. kitchen, Peter, music
(most) Principal verbs e.g. visit, construct , sell

Adjectives e.g. beautiful, interesting , big
Adverbs e.g. often, carefully, never
Negative auxiliaries e.g. don’t, aren’t, can’t
We do not stress FUNCTION WORDS such as:
Determiners e.g. the, a, some, a few
Auxiliary verbs e.g. do, be, have, can, must
Prepositions e.g. before, next to, opposite
Conjunctionse.g. but, while, as
Pronouns e.g. they, she, us
The above rules are for what is called “neutral” or normal stress.
But sometimes we can stress a word that would normally be only
a function or structure word, for example to correct information.
Look at the following dialogue:
47
“They’ve been to Mongolia, haven’t they?”

“No, THEY haven’t, but WE have.
Note also that when “be” is used as a main verb, it is usually

unstressed (even though in this case it is a content word).
Imagine that you receive this telegram message:

Will you SELL my CAR because I’ve GONE to FRANCE
This sentence is not complete. It is not a “grammatically correct”

sentence. But you probably understand it. These 4 words
communicate very well. Somebody wants you to sell their car for
them because they have gone to France. We can add a few
words:
Will you SELL my CAR because I’ve GONE to FRANCE
The new words do not really add any more information. But they
make the message more correct grammatically. We can add even
more words to make one complete, grammatically correct
sentence. But the information is basically the same:
Content Words
Will you SELL my CAR because I’ve GONE to FRANCE.
Structure Words
In our sentence, the 4 key words (sell, car, gone, France) are
accentuated or stressed.
Why is this important for pronunciation? It is important because it

adds “music” to the language. It is the rhythm of the English
language. It changes the speed at which we speak (and listen to)
the language. The time between each stressed word is the
same.
In our sentence, there is 1 syllable between SELL and CAR and 3

syllables between CAR and GONE. But the time (t) between SELL
and CAR and between CAR and GONE is the same. We maintain a
48
constant beat on the stressed words. To do this, we say “my”

more slowly, and “because I’ve” more quickly. We change the
speed of the small structure words so that the rhythm of the key
content words stays the same.
syllables
2 1 3 1
Will you SELL my CAR because I’ve GON to FRANC

E E.
t1 beat t1 beat t1 beat t1 beat
5.3.3 Linking in English
When we say a sentence in English, we join or “link” words to

each other. Because of this linking, the words in a sentence do not
always sound the same as when we say them individually. Linking
is very important in English. If you recognize and use linking, two
things will happen:
1. you will understand other people more easily
2. other people will understand you more easily
There are basically two types of linking:
• consonant > vowel

We link words ending with a consonant sound to words
beginning with a vowel sound
• vowel > vowel

We link words ending with a vowel sound to words
beginning with a vowel sound
To understand linking, it is important to know the difference

between vowel sounds and consonant sounds. Here is a table of
English vowels and consonants:
49
vowels a e i o u
consonant b c d f g h j k l m p q r s t v w x z
s n y
The table shows the letters that are vowels and consonants. But
the important thing in linking is the sound, not the letter. Often
the letter and the sound are the same, but not always.
For example, the word “pay” ends with:
• the consonant letter “y”
• the vowel sound “a”
Here are some more examples:

though know
ends with the letter h w
ends with the sound o o

uniform honest
begins with the letter u h
begins with the sound y o
Linking Consonant to Vowel
When a word ends in a consonant sound, we often move the

consonant sound to the beginning of the next word if it starts with
a vowel sound.
For example, in the phrase “turn off”:

We write it like this: turn off
We say it like this: tur noff
Remember that it’s the sound that matters. In the next example,
“have” ends with:
50
• the letter “e” (vowel)
• the sound “v” (consonant)
So we link “have” to the next word “a” which begins with a vowel
sound:
We write it like this: Can I have a bit of egg?
We say it like this: Ca-nI-ha-va-bi-to-fegg?
Linking Vowel to Vowel

When one word ends with a vowel sound and the next word
begins with a vowel sound, we link the words with a sort of W or
Y sound.
If our lips are round at the end of the first word, we insert a
W sound:
o We write it like this:
o| too often
who is
o
so I
do all
We say it like this:

tooWoften
whoWis
soWI
doWall
51
If our lips are wide at the end of the first word, we insert a
Y sound:
o We write it like this:
o| Kay is
I am
--
the end
she asked
We say it like this:

KayYis
IYam
theYend
sheYasked
5.4 Oral Communication

Man is the only species gifted with language. And the usage of
language is primarily in speech. Writing comes afterwards. In any
organization, as in everyday life, both formally and informally, we
communicate more orally than in writing. It is primarily oral
communication that builds human relationships.
Oral communication, also known as verbal communication, is the

interchange of verbal messages between sender and receiver. Oral
communication is the ability to explain and present your ideas in
clear English, to diverse audiences. This includes the ability to
tailor your delivery to a given audience, using appropriate styles
and approaches, and an understanding of the importance of non
verbal cues in oral communication. Oral communication requires
the background skills of presenting, audience awareness, critical
listening and body language.
52
5.4.1 Forms of Oral Communication

Oral communication usually takes place in any of the following
forms:
Conversations: As a starter we can think of it as two or more

people talking and listening. They may be doing this either face-to
face or at a distance. It can be done via the spoken word or via
sign or symbol (the most obvious case here is the use of chat
rooms on the internet). This may sound a bit obvious, but as soon
as we begin to think about conversation we can see it is a
sophisticated activity that we often take for granted.
To stay on topic is not enough. One must stay in tune with the
conversation.
Milton Wright
Conversation is a social activity. If two or more people are to

communicate, then they must: co-operate, think about others’
feelings and experiences, give each other room to talk. In other
words, talking - conversation - is a reciprocal process. It is a form
of interactive, spontaneous communication between two or more
people who are following rules of etiquette.
Silence plays an important part in effective

conversation just as it does in music.
Milton Wright
Many conversations can be divided into four categories according
to their major subject content:
• Conversations about subjective ideas, which often serve

to extend understanding and awareness.
• Conversations about objective facts, which may serve to

consolidate a widely held view.
• Conversations about other people (usually absent), which

may be critical, competitive, or supportive. This includes
gossip.
53
• Conversations about oneself, which sometimes indicate

attention-seeking behavior or can provide relevant
information about oneself to the participants in the
conversation.
Practically, few conversations fall exclusively into one category.

Nevertheless, the proportional distribution of any given
conversation between the categories can offer useful
psychological insights into the mind-set of the participants. This is
the reason that the majority of conversations are difficult to
categorize.
Most conversations may be classified by their goal. Conversational

ends may, however, shift over the life of the conversation.
• Functional conversation is designed to convey information

in order to help achieve an individual or group goal.
• Small talk is a type of conversation where the topic is less

important than the social purpose of achieving
bondingbetween people or managing personal distance.
• Banter is a non-serious conversation, usually between

friends, which may rely on humour or in-jokes at the
expense of those taking part. The purpose of banter may at
first appear to be an offensive affront to the other person’s
face. However, people engaging in such a conversation are
often signaling that they are comfortable enough in each
others’ company to be able to say such things without
causing harm. Banter is particularly difficult for those on
the autism spectrum and those with semantic pragmatic
disorder.
Interviews: The word ‘interview’ means ‘view between’ or ‘sight

between’. It suggests a meeting between two persons for the
purpose of getting a view of each other, or for knowing each
other. Face to face conversation is more informal, casual and
spontaneous. But interview is more formal, serious and
structured.
Types of interview:
• Informal, conversational interview - no predetermined

questions are asked, in order to remain as open and
adaptable as possible to the interviewee’s nature and
priorities; during the interview the interviewer “goes with
the flow”.
54
• General interview guide approach - intended to ensure that

the same general areas of information are collected from
each interviewee; this provides more focus than the
conversational approach, but still allows a degree of
freedom and adaptability in getting the information from
the interviewee.
• Standardized, open-ended interview - the same open ended

questions are asked to all interviewees; this approach
facilitates faster interviews that can be more easily analyzed
and compared.
• Closed, fixed-response interview - all interviewees are asked

the same questions and asked to choose answers from
among the same set of alternatives. This format is useful
for those not practiced in interviewing.
Group Communication: Oral communication also assumes the

form of group communication. Group is a gathering of two or
more persons interacting and influencing each other through the
process of communication. These groups may be formal groups –
explicitly designed as part of the organizational structure – such
as committees, task forces, quality circles, etc. It may also be
informal groups which emerge spontaneously without deliberate
design in the organizational hierarchy.
Speeches and Presentations: Speeches and presentations
involve the oral communication by one speaker to the large
number of audience members. They involve the same principles
of oral communication and provide the advantage of influencing
people with enthusiasm and confidence. Speeches are more
formal and are delivered on formal occasional whereas
presentations are usually short and less formal and are delivered
with demonstrations of audio-visual aids followed by answers to
questions from the audience.
A public speech is just talking. No visual aids or props can be
used. A speech can be informative or persuasive with the purpose
to stimulate thought or present a point of view. Speeches should
not simply entertain. They need to persuade the audience to
agree with you, educate the audience, or get an emotional
reaction from the audience. Speeches often have a personal tie-
in, a way the topic relates to something that happened in your
life.
55
A speech may be the most difficult type of presentation. It

requires careful planning and effective delivery. Since no visual
aids are allowed, gestures and voice variety are very important.
There also needs to be a clear theme or thesis and
understandable points to follow. A speech is not an effective way
to teach a difficult concept.
“The mind is a wonderful thing. It starts working the minute

you’re born and never stops working until you get up to speak in
public.”
Ball, Patricia Ann
5.4.2 Types of Speeches
At some point in life you will be called upon to deliver a speech,

some formally, others quite informally; yet, as long as you
possess an understanding of the different types of speeches and
have the objective clearly in mind, you will be capable of
delivering a speech
that the audience will remember for a long time to come.
An Informative Speech is like teaching. The purpose of an

informative speech is to try to teach something to the audience.
The success of your speech depends on whether the audience
learns what you wanted to teach them. You need to tell the
audience why the information is useful and valuable. You need to
make sure that the audience understands and remembers the
essential information.
A Layout Speech is like giving someone directions, or explaining

the location of a place. It is not very common as a formal speech.
A layout speech tells the audience where things are. It may also
describe their size and shape. Gestures are very important in a
layout speech. In fact, this is a good chance to practice your
gestures. The success of your speech depends on whether the
audience can find their way round the place you have described.
Will they get lost?
A Demonstration Speech is like an informative speech because

you have to teach the audience about something. However, in a
demonstration speech you will not just tell the audience about
something, you will also tell them how to do something. Your
speech will be successful if at the end of your speech the
audience can do what you showed them to do.
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A Persuasive Speech contains information to help people make a

decision. The purpose of a persuasive speech is to persuade
people to change in some way. For example, it could be to
change the way they think about something. Or it could be to
change the way they do things. Finally, it could be to persuade
the audience to do something that they do not do now. Your
speech will be successful if at the end of your speech the
audience is willing to make the change you suggested.
“We rule the world by our words”.

–Napoleon Bonaparte
Speeches for Special Occasions

There are myriad special occasions in life, for example, birthdays,
anniversaries, graduations, weddings, bar mitzvahs, christenings,
award presentations, retirement dinners, and funerals. In fact,
there are so many special occasions that it’s impossible to list
them. However, whatever the occasions, chances are that
someone will be asked to deliver a speech, which could be
anything from a toast to a couple who have been married for 50
years to the eulogy for a departed loved one.
Regardless of the occasion, however, there are several important

points to keep in mind:
• The speech must fit the occasion. If the occasion is formal,
for example, the speech should be as well; but if the
occasion is casual, the speech should reflect a similar
mood.
• The speech must meet the allotted time. Speakers should be

neither too brief nor too longwinded.
• Intended remarks must be accurate. For example, if someone

is presenting an award and intends to begin with interesting
facts about the recipient, these facts must be correct.
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5.4.3 Speaking Functions
Giving Personal/ Non-Personal Information
When giving personal information in English, there is some basic

language that you can use. You can start with “I”, or “my” (with a
direct object) or “mine” (without a direct object). You will often
use the present tense of verbs but sometimes you can use the
past or the present perfect.
You can start to give personal information in English by using a
very general sentence. For example, you could say “I live in an
apartment in the city”. That is a good enough start, but you could
add a few small details, like this: “I live in a small apartment in a
15-story building on the west side of the city”. Adding details
makes your apartment seem real. After your first sentence, you
can then talk about your feelings or give even more details about
what is good, or maybe not so good, about your apartment. This
will use different sentence structure and vocabulary.. Here are
some sentences you could use to continue: “I really like the view
from my apartment - I can see a park to the south with many
trees and there are mountains in the distance” or you could talk
about the inside of your apartment - “There are three rooms in my
apartment. My favorite is my bedroom where I have a computer
set up on my desk and with lots of books on a shelf along the
wall”. With sentences like these, you can almost picture the room
in your mind.
Expressing an opinion
Here are basic phrases you should use when expressing an

opinion in English:
I think + a sentence using the present tense
I believe + a sentence using the present tense
It seems to me that + a sentence using the present tense
In my opinion + a sentence using the present tense Here are
some intermediate phrases, which show that you are not
completely certain of your opinion:
This is just my opinion, but I think (or believe)...
I am not very familiar with this topic, but my first thought
on this topic is...
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Try using an introductory clause plus one of the basic phrases

above:
Some people may disagree with me, but I think...
My own preference is to favor EFG, so I believe...
Sometimes you want to show that you feel quite certain about
your point of view. You can express your opinion with these
advanced phrases:
I am convinced that...
I feel absolutely certain that ABC is better than XYX I am
quite certain about my opinion regarding LMNOP You do NOT have
to give a perfect opinion! The most important thing is to show
your English ability, which you can do by using more complex
sentences using a variety of grammatical structures. Even if
your opinion does not seem “right”, don’t worry. Just speak
English as fluently as you can!
Justifying Opinions in English
You should also express why you hold your opinion. To begin, you
can use these basic phrases to justify an opinion in English:
Because ...
the reason is...
the reason I believe that is...
the facts suggest...
the evidence shows...
You can justify your opinion more effectively by being more
specific. Try some intermediate phrases like these:
The first reason I believe this is...
The main reason I feel this way is...
There are several reasons I believe this. The first is... When
you are not completely certain, you can try one of these more
advanced English phrases:
I don’t have any special reason for believing this. It just
seems right to me. I could be wrong as I have no special
reason for believing this. I just feel this is right.
When you ARE certain, try one of these phrases:
There is a lot of evidence to support my point of view. For
example ...
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There are many facts in favor of my opinion. One such fact

is...
Explaining in English
When explaining something in English, the goal is to be very clear

so the listener understands what you mean. When explaining in
English, you will usually be talking about how to do something
or you will be talking about how something works. So, you can
use these basic phrases to start explaining in English:
There are three steps you must follow. (How to do
something) There are three parts to this process. (How
something works)
You can introduce an explanation with a clause such as these:
To do XYZ successfully, the first thing you should do is...
The most important thing to remember about how ABC
works is...
Transitions are also important when explaining in English. Be sure
to use these expressions, or something similar, if you have the
chance:
After you do A, then you can move on to B.
Those are two parts of the whole system. A third important
part is...
An important thing to keep in mind is that it is okay to repeat
something or to rephrase something (say the same thing using
different words) if you think the listener does not understand what
you mean. This is common in normal English conversations.
Making a Suggestion in English

The most common way to make a suggestion in English is to use
either “should” (if you think something is really a good idea) or
“could” (if you are just talking about one possible suggestion). You
could add the words “maybe” or “perhaps” (more formal) to your
suggestion to make it softer. Here are some sample sentences:
You should study harder if you want to be successful. (A
good idea!) .
The city should add more public transportation as the
population grows. (Another good idea!)
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We could go to a restaurant to eat if you’re too tired to

cook. (Just an idea.)
Maybe you could find a tutor to help you study in the
evenings. (Again, just an idea.)
Of course, you can also choose to be direct, if you wish. Just use
basic English phrases such as these:
My idea is...
My suggestion is...
You can also use some polite English phrases, when making a
suggestion. For example:
I would suggest that we...
If I may suggest an idea, perhaps we could...
Finally, you can try one of these common English questions:
What if we...
How about if we...
What do you think of this idea ...
These are very basic, very simple English expressions. However,
many students do not use them. Just use one or two of these
expressions when you are making a suggestion and you will easily
communicate your meaning.
How to Speculate in English
The word “speculate” in English is basically the same as “guess”!

When you guess about something - about the future, about an
idea, about a situation that is not certain, or about any unknown
situation, you can simply use the future tense in English if you
believe strongly in your idea. You can add language that we use
when we express an opinionor when we justify an opinion.
Another simple pattern that you can use is this pattern:
If + past participle + conditional
Example: If the world were coming to an end, we would
be lucky to find a spaceship so we could escape! When you are
talking about a conditional situation (not a real situation) in
English, be sure to continue using the conditional tense as
you describe possible results. For example, after talking about
having a spaceship above, you could say:
If we had a spaceship, we could fly to the moon or to
Mars.
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We would have to be careful to choose the best people

who could help us live in our new world
We might have some trouble from people who are not
chosen to come with us in our spaceship!.
One mistake that students often make when talking about
speculative ideas in English is that they confuse different word
forms. Be sure to understand the difference between “possible”
(adjective), “possibly” (adverb) and “possibilities” (noun).
When speculating in English, you have the chance to be very

creative. If you say “Some people would say ...” and add
something totally crazy, you can always say that you don’t agree
with those people!
Expressing a Preference
Start to express your preference in English with these basic

English phrases:
I prefer A
I like B
I prefer C to D
I like E more than F
If you only have a slight preference (a small preference) you can
use more advanced phrases such as these:
I prefer A to B, but not by much
I have a slight preference for C
I like D a little more than D
Or if you have a big preference, try these phrases:
I prefer E by a big margin
I have a big preference for F
I like G much more than H
You can use any of the English expressions above with phrases
that express an opinion.
Making Comparisons in English

To make comparisons when speaking English is quite simple, but
you must learn the five patterns below:
1. When you compare two things in English, there are two basic
methods. The first is:
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“be” + “adjective with -er” + “than”, when the adjective is a

short word
Example: Bob is taller than Bill.
2. The second way to compare two things is:

“more” + adjective + “than”, when the adjective is a short
word
Example: This movie is more interesting than that one.
3. If you are comparing three or more things, it is called the

superlative form. The first way to make the superlative, with
short words, is:
“the” + “adjective with -est”
Example: Susan is the tallest girl in the class.
4. The second way to make the superlative, with longer words, is

this:
“the” + “most” + “adjective”
Example: Joe is the most wonderful teacher I have ever
known!
5. If you are comparing things that are equal or very similar:

Use “as” + adjective + “as”
Example: “A is as good as B.”
This is the same for big adjectives. For example:
X is as interesting as Y.
Special Note: Most adjectives are done as above. We say tall -

taller - tallest or we use funny - funnier - funniest. There are
two common words that are different: “good” and “bad”. Instead
of “good - gooder - goodest”, we say “good - better - best”. For
“bad” we say “bad - worse - worst”.
When you are expressing an opinion, you can say “I believe M is
more useful than N”. Or if you are describing something, you can
say “My hometown is bigger than City Z”. These patterns help you
express more details in English.
Making a Contrast in English

To make a contrast (show how things are different) in English,
you can use some of the same patterns from the section Making
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Comparisons. The most important thing is to add a negative word

such as “not” or use “less” instead of “more”.
Example 1: D is not as easy to use as E.
Example 2: G is less important than H.
Students often make a big mistake when making comparisons.
They often confuse the two words “different” (an adjective) and
“difference” (a noun).
Example 3: K is good but L is very different. L is much
better than K because...
Example 4: The difference between M and N is that...
When contrasting three things, use the superlative - “most” or “-
est”:
Example 5: P is not the most intelligent choice. Q is the
most intelligent.
Example 6: S may not be the largest one. I think T is the
largest.
A very useful English expression you can use is “On one
hand... but on the other hand ... “. The two things being
compared should be similar in many ways but different in one
important way.
Example 7: Question - Who is the better basketball player,
Tom or Jack? Answer, using contrast - On the one hand,
Tom is taller than Jack. On the other hand, Jack is quicker
and stronger.
Practice these sentence patterns until you can say them fluently.
Making a Summary in English
Some basic English phrases that everyone should use easily

when summarizing are these:
In summary (I believe) ...
To summarize (it is my belief that) ...
To conclude (I want to say) ...
Combine the phrases above with your most important opinion or
some of your key facts.
Here are some more advanced phrases..
Example 1: Looking at the whole picture, it is clear that...
Example 2: Considering all the points mentioned, we can
see that...
Example 3: We can see from this discussion that...
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Another way to summarize is with a question. Practice the

patterns below until you can say them perfectly:
Question 1: What can we conclude from this discussion?
Question 2: What do all these facts mean?
Question 3: What is the importance of all this?
When you summarize, don’t be afraid to repeat information you
talked about earlier. The main thing is to express your ideas in
a different way. This shows that you are capable of
communicating your message using various language patterns.
How to Analyze in English
When we analyze a problem in English, we must break it down

and look at the individual parts. Analyzing is not as easy as
previous functions. Be sure to use these sentences only when you
are talking about a difficult problem and want to explain it in
simpler parts.
Here are some advanced English sentences you can use :

Example 1: Let’s look at the situation in three (or four)
parts. First...
Example 2: We should consider this problem step by step. I
think the first step is...
Example 3: If we break this question down into smaller
parts, we can see clearly that...
You don’t have to always use sentences like this when you are
analyzing. If you simply talk about parts of a problem and explain
each part, that can be enough. Remember to use “transitions”
between two parts.
Example 4: That was the first part. The second part is a bit
different...
Example 5: After the first and second parts, it is easier to
understand the third part which is...
Narrating or Telling Stories
Some students think they never tell stories, but that is not true.
Any time we talk about an action or an event, it is a story. If you
describe a book you have read, or a movie that you have seen,
that is a story too. Here is the basic formula for telling a
story:
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Step 1: Tell who is involved in the situation or event (or

movie or book) and where it happens. Give enough
information so that the listener can “picture” or imagine the
people and place clearly in his or her mind.
Step 2: Describe the main action that happened at that
time or in that movie.
Step 3: Be sure to end with the main point of the story.
This is what listeners will remember.
If you get very good at story-telling, by practicing with your voice
in a variety of ways and by adding expressive body language, you
might become a professional speaker some day. That is a good
reason to practice extra hard! Good luck!
Conversation “Repair” in English
Many students worry about making mistakes in English. In reality,

mistakes are a wonderful opportunity to show your English ability,
if you know how to “repair” any problems you have. Good
speakers of English often have problems in communicating, but
they know how to make things better when misunderstandings
come up.
Here are some very simple English expressions you can use to
make your meaning more clear:
I mean...
I mean to say...
I meant to say...
What I mean is...
What I mean by ~ is ~
You can also try using one of these more formal English
sentences:
Perhaps I should clarify. I don’t mean to say X. What I
really want to say is Y. Perhaps I should be clearer. My
point is that...
When you seem to have misunderstood something, use these
useful English sentences:
Oh, I thought you said 13, not 30!
Sorry, I think I misunderstood your point.
Sorry, I may have misunderstood your main idea. Could
you explain your comment about ~ ?
At any time, if your listener asks you a question, you can eagerly
jump in:
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Yes, that’s what I meant!

Finally, you can learn to control a conversation in English which
will help you get through any difficulty.
How to Control a Conversation in English
The key to controlling a conversation is using questions well. Good

students know how to ask the right question at the right time.
After reading this article, you will be able to start conversations
easily and keep the conversation going smoothly even when you
don’t understand everything.
The best way to begin a conversation is by using “yes / no”

questions. The goal is to find some common topics of interest, so
that your conversation is enjoyable for both partners. Think about
a topic that interests you, and which you think might interest your
conversation partner. Use “yes / no” questions to find out if your
new friend is interested in the same thing. For example, if you like
a particular kind of music, you could ask questions such as these:
Do you like blues music?
Have you ever listened to B.B. King?
Do you know where I can listen to live music?
Are you interested in jazz?
Any question starting with “Do”, “Did”, “Are”, “Is”, “Can”, “Will”,
or “Have” can be a good start to a conversation. However, such
questions are just the beginning. You must listen for your
partner’s answer, then “follow-up” with a more specific question,
usually using “what”, “when”, “where”, “who” or “why”. So, if
your partner says that he or she does like the blues, you can then
ask, “Whose music do you like?”. If your partner does NOT like
blues, then you might ask something like, “What kind of music do
you like?”. You must always have a “follow-up” question ready. If
not, the conversation could come to a quick end.
Now, as the conversation moves along, you might have some

communication problems. What should you do then? Again, asking
the right question is very important. Here are some key questions
that you MUST use whenever you have trouble:
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Could you repeat that please?
More informally, we can ask, “What did you say?”. Often with
friends we might only say “What?”. Even if you use informal
language, you can make it polite by starting with “Excuse me” or
“Pardon me”.
Could you speak more slowly please?
This is obviously a good question, but don’t use it too often. If you
really have trouble understanding somebody, you might think
about buying some good cassettes and working to improve your
listening comprehension skills. DVDs and VCDs are also good
practice for advanced students.
How do you spell blah blah blah?
Maybe you know the word, but you’ve only seen it in writing. If
you hear the spelling, you might understand.
What does blah blah blah mean?
If you can’t catch the word exactly, you can say “that” instead of
the word. (Don’t really say “blah blah blah”! That’s just a “filler”!)
Do you mean to say blah blah blah?
If you think you understand, but you’re not sure, you can repeat
your partner’s idea in different words. Then you will know from his
or her response whether you were right or not. If instead you just
say, “I don’t think I understand”, then the conversation will come
to a stop.
5.4.4 Debate
Once more unto the breach, dear friends, once

more; Or close the wall up with our English dead.
In peace there’s nothing so becomes a man
As modest stillness and humility:
But when the blast of war blows in our ears,
You know your places: God be with you all!
William Shakespeare, Henry V, Act III, Scene i.
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Debate is an excellent activity for language learning because it

engages students in a variety of cognitive and linguistic ways.
Debate is also highly effective for developing argumentation skills
for persuasive speech and writing.
A debate is, basically, an argument. That is not to say that it is an

undisciplined shouting match between parties that passionately
believe in a particular point of view. In fact the opposite is true.
Debating has strict rules of conduct and quite sophisticated
arguing techniques and you will often be in a position where you
will have to argue the opposite of what you believe in.
If a debate is a form of argument then it logically follows that

there must be something to argue about. This is called the TOPIC.
The topic changes from debate to debate. They are often about
current issues of public importance (“That Serbia should join EU”)
or about general philosophies or ideas (“That beauty is better
than brains”). All topics begin with the word “That”. As in other
arguments there are two sides to any topic. The team that agrees
with the topic is called the AFFIRMATIVE (or the `government’ in
parliamentary debating) and the team that disagrees with the
topic is called the NEGATIVE (or the `opposition’ in parliamentary
debating).
Deciding and explaining what a topic means is called `defining the

topic’. The job of defining begins with the AFFIRMATIVE. The first
speaker of the affirmative must explain in clear terms what they
believe the topic means. In deciding this, the affirmative team
should always try to use the “person on the street” test. That is if
this topic were presented to the average person on the street - is
this what they would take it to mean. Where the topic is too
obscure to allow this test then apply the `reasonability’ test. The
affirmative team should ask themselves “Is this definition
reasonable? Is it something the average person might expect?
Does it allow for both sides of the debate?” . If you can answer
yes to these questions then the definition is probably reasonable,
if not search for something more reasonable. Try to avoid the
dictionary, except in cases where you don’t understand a word. In
your definition explain the meaning of the whole topic rather than
each separate word.
The negative team may agree with or choose to challenge the

definition presented. The negative team should be very careful
about challenging as it is difficult to continue the debate with
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two definitions. Challenges may be made if the definition given is

unreasonable or if it defines the opposition out of the debate. If
the negative team chooses to challenge the definition it should be
done by the first speaker who should clearly outline why the
negative is challenging and then propose a better definition.
Because debating is a team event it is important that the three

speakers work together as a team. The TEAM LINE is the basic
statement of “why the topic is true” (for the affirmative) and “why
the topic is false” (for the negative). It should be a short sentence,
presented by the first speaker of each team and used by the other
two speakers to enforce the idea of teamwork.
In a debating team each speaker has specified roles that they

must fulfill to play their part in the team. They are laid out below
in the order that the speakers will speak.
1st affirmative must:

- define the topic.
- present the affirmative’s team line.
- outline briefly what each speaker in their team will talk about.
- present the first half of the affirmative case.
1st negative must:

- accept or reject the definition. If you don’t do this it is assumed
that you accept the definition.
- present the negative team line.
- outline briefly what each of the negative speakers will say. -
rebut a few of the main points of the first affirmative speaker.
- 1st negative should spend about one quarter of their time
rebutting.
- present the first half of the negative team’s case.
2nd affirmative must:
- reaffirm the affirmative’s team line.

- rebut the main points presented by the 1st negative.
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- 2nd affirmative should spend about one third of their time

rebutting.
- present the second half of the affirmative’s case.
2nd negative must:
- reaffirm the negative’s team line.

- rebut some of the main points of the affirmative’s case.
- 2nd negative should spend about one third of their time
rebutting.
- present the second half of the negative’s case.
3rd affirmative must:

- reaffirm the affirmative’s team line.
- rebut all the remaining points of the negative’s case.
- 3rd affirmative should spend about two thirds to three quarters
of their time rebutting.
- present a summary of the affirmative’s case.
- round off the debate for the affirmative.
3rd negative must:

- reaffirm the negative’s team line.
- rebut all the remaining points of the affirmative’s case.
- 3rd negative should spend about two thirds to three quarters of
their time rebutting.
- present a summary of the negative’s case.
- round off the debate for the negative.
Neither third speaker may introduce any new parts of their team’s
cases.
In debating each team will present points in favor of their case.

They will also spend some time criticizing the arguments
presented by the other team. This is called rebuttal. There are a
few things to remember about rebuttal.
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a.) Logic - to say that the other side is wrong is not enough. You
have to show why the other side is wrong. This is best done by
taking a main point of the other side’s argument and showing that
it does not make sense. Because, here, a lot of the thinking needs
to be done quickly this is one of the most challenging and
enjoyable aspects of debating.
b.) Pick the important points - try to rebut the most important
points of the other side’s case. You will find that after a while
these are easier and easier to spot. One obvious spot to find them
is when the first speaker of the other team outlines briefly what
the rest of the team will say. But do not rebut those points until
after they have actually been presented by the other team.
c. )’Play the ball’ - do not criticize the individual speakers, criticize

what they say. To call someone fat, ugly or a nerd does not make
what they say wrong and it will also lose you marks.
Matter is - what you say, it is the substance of your speech. You

should divide your matter into arguments and examples.
An argument is a statement “The topic is true (or false depending

on which side you are on) because of x”, where the argument fills
in for the x. For example in the topic “That the zoos should be
closed” an argument may be: “the zoos should be closed because
they confine the animals in an unnatural environment”.
An example is a fact or piece of evidence which supports an

argument. If our argument is: “that zoos should be closed because
they confine the animals in an unnatural environment” then an
example might be: “that in the lion cage at Belgrade Zoo Park the
animals only have about 200 square meters where in the wild they
would have 2000 square kilometers to roam in.”
Any examples that you use should be relevant to the topic at

hand. Examples which have very little or nothing to do with the
topic only make a speech look weak and lacking substance.
Matter cannot be just a long list of examples. You do not win a

debate by creating the biggest pile of facts. Facts are like bricks
in a wall, if you don’t use them, cement them together properly
then they are useless. Similarly you cannot win a debate solely by
proving that some of the facts of the opposition are wrong. It may
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weaken their case a little, the same way that removing some of
the bricks from a wall will, but you really need to attack the main
arguments that the other side presents to bring the whole wall
crashing down.
Many debates are on currently important issues so it is good for

any debater to keep themselves informed of what is happening in
the world around them and what are the issues involved.
Watching the news helps (but watch a credible broadcast!) as
does reading a good paper or periodical.
Good team method involves unity and logic. Unity is created by all
members being aware of the definition, what the other speakers
have said and what the team line is. Each member of the team
needs to reinforce the team line and be consistent with what has
already been said and what will be said by the other members of
their team. You may as well shoot yourself in the foot as change
the team line mid debate just because you think it isn’t working.
Your team will look poorly organized.
You must structure your own speech well. The first step is to have
a clear idea of your own arguments and which examples you will
be using to support those arguments. As you speak make a clear
division between arguments and let the audience know when you
are moving from one argument to the next, this is called sign
posting and is a very important debating tool. The key thing to
remember is that although you know exactly what you are saying
the audience has never heard it before and will only hear it once
so you have to be very clear about it.
When you are presenting one particular argument make sure that
the argument is logical (makes sense) and that you make clear
links between your team line and the argument, as well as
between the argument and the examples that you will use to
support it.
Rebuttal should be organized the same way. Attack each

argument that the opposition presents in turn. Spend a little while
on each and then move on to the next. That way the other team’s
case is completely demolished.
Develop a manner style that is natural to you. Here are some tips
and pointers.
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EYE CONTACT. If you look at the audience you will hold their
attention. If you spend your time reading from cue cards or
looking at a point just above the audience’s head they will lose
concentration very quickly. When you’ve got them by the eyeballs
their hearts and minds will follow.
VOICE. There are many things you can do with your voice to make
it effective. You must project so that you can be heard but 4
minutes of constant shouting will become very annoying very
quickly (like a butcher shouting out the daily specials). Use
volume, pitch and speed to emphasize important points in your
speech. A sudden loud burst will grab your audience’s attention
while a period of quiet speaking can draw your audience in and
make them listen carefully.
BODY. Your body is a tool for you to use. Make hand gestures
deliberately and with confidence. Move your head and upper body
to maintain eye contact with all members of the audience. If you
want to walk up and down do so but move with effect and
deliberately, don’t wear worry lines into the carpet. If you are
going to stand still, stand with confidence. Don’t let your body
apologize for your presence by appearing nervous.
NERVOUS HABITS. Avoid them like the plague. Pulling on a stray

strand of hair, fiddling with your watch, bouncing up and down on
the balls of your feet or bouncing your cue cards off the nose of
the nearest audience member as you are finished with them only
distracts from your presentation. Use your whole person to effect,
don’t let any one thing detract from your ability to persuade the
audience.
ELOCUTION AND OTHER BIG WORDS. This is not an exercise in

grammar or elocution. Try to avoid being too informal but don’t go
overboard the other way. There are no marks to be gained from
trying to use big words you don’t understand or can’t pronounce.
In the same way, it is a huge mistake to let someone else write
your speech. People that do that aren’t entering the spirit or
developing the skills of debating and end up looking really silly
getting stuck on a word they just can’t say.
74
5.4.5 Discussion
A local coalition forms a task force to address the rising HIV rate
among teens in the community.
A group of parents meets to wrestle with their feeling that their

school district is shortchanging its students.
A college class in human services approaches the topic of dealing

with reluctant participants.
Members of an environmental group attend a workshop on the

effects of global warming.
A politician convenes a “town hall meeting” of constituents to
brainstorm ideas for the economic development of the region.
A community health educator facilitates a smoking cessation

support group.
All of these might be examples of group discussions, although

they have different purposes, take place in different locations, and
probably run in different ways. Group discussions are common in
a democratic society, and, as a community builder, it’s more than
likely that you have been and will continue to be involved in many
of them. You also may be in a position to lead one.
Group discussions have a variety of purposes, from planning an
intervention or initiative to mutual support to problem-solving to
addressing an issue of local concern. An effective group discussion
can lay the groundwork for action and real community change.
The literal definition of a group discussion is obvious: a critical
conversation about a particular topic, or perhaps a range of topics,
conducted in a group of a size that allows participation by all
members. A group of two or three generally doesn’t need a leader
to have a good discussion, but once the number reaches five or
six, a leader or facilitator can often be helpful. When the group
numbers eight or more, a leader or facilitator, whether formal or
informal, is almost always helpful in ensuring an effective
discussion.
75
An effective group discussion generally has a number of

elements:
• All members of the group have a chance to speak, expressing

their own ideas and feelings freely, and to pursue and finish
out their thoughts.
• All members of the group can hear others’ ideas and feelings
stated openly.
• Group members can safely test out ideas that are not yet fully
formed.
• Group members can receive and respond to respectful but

honest and constructive feedback. Feedback could be positive,
negative, or merely clarifying or correcting factual questions or
errors, but is in all cases delivered respectfully.
• A variety of points of view are put forward and discussed. •
The discussion is not dominated by any one person.
• Arguments, while they may be spirited, are based on the content

of ideas and opinions, not on personalities.
• Even in disagreement, there’s an understanding that the group

is working together to resolve a dispute, solve a problem,
create a plan, make a decision, find principles all can agree on,
or come to a conclusion from which it can move on to further
discussion.
Many group discussions have no specific purpose except the

exchange of ideas and opinions. Ultimately, an effective group
discussion is one in which many different ideas and viewpoints
are heard and considered. This allows the group to accomplish its
purpose if it has one, or to establish a basis either for ongoing
discussion or for further contact and collaboration among its
members. There are many possible purposes for a group
discussion. A partial list:
• Create a new situation – form a coalition, start an initiative, etc.
• Explore cooperative or collaborative arrangements among

groups or organizations.
76
• Discuss and/or analyze an issue, with no specific goal in mind

but understanding.
• Create a strategic plan – for an initiative, an advocacy campaign,

an intervention, etc.
• Discuss policy and policy change.
• Air concerns and differences among individuals or groups.
• Hold public hearings on proposed laws or regulations,

development, etc.
• Decide on an action.
• Provide mutual support.
• Solve a problem.
• Resolve a conflict.
• Plan your work or an event.
• DISCUSSION TECHNIQUES:
1.0 Asking someone for their opinion about a topic
1.1 Yes/No Questions (e.g. Do you believe in horoscopes?)
1.2 OR Questions (e.g. Which should be the official

world language - English or Esperanto)
1.3 WH Questions (e.g. What are the advantages

and disadvantages of getting married?)
1.4 Negative Yes/No Questions (e.g. Don’t you think

it’s better to stay single?)
2.0 Delaying strategies
e.g. I’ll need time to think about that. /Well… /Well,

it depends on what you mean../ To be honest, that’s
a difficult question, because…
3.0 Presenting a number of arguments
77
e.g. To begin with, most women and men want the
right to work.
There’re two points here. Firstly, the cost to the
environment. Think of all the rain forests. Secondly,
the advertiser may pay, but the costs are passed on
to the consumer.
4.0 Giving your opinion about a topic
4.1 Expressing a strong opinion (e.g. In my opinion,

fashion is a complete waste of time, money and
resources. I strongly believe, In my reckoning, I
definitely think that…)
4.2 Expressing a strong value (e.g. It’s a nonsense to keep

everybody at the same level regardless of their
progress. It’s perfect/ It’s wrong/ It’s a scandal…)
4.3 Expressing certainty (e.g. Clearly/ Actually/ In

fact/ Surely/Without doubt…)
4.4 Expressing high probability (e.g. I’d’ve thought/ I

expec/ I believe….)
4.5 Expressing fair probability (e.g. I guess/ I suppose/

I think it’s probably possible…)
5.0 Agreeing
5.1 Expressing complete agreement (e.g. Exactly…)
5.2 Expressing conditional agreement (e.g. I’d agree with

you if/ I’d certainly agree if you’re thinking of…)
6.0 Disagreeing
6.1 Expressing complete disagreement (e.g. I

disagree entirely/ I’m afraid I can’t agree /On the
contrary… / Rubbish!)
6.2 Using irony to express disagreement (e.g. Come off

it! / Do you really think so?/ Come on!)
78
6.3 Dismissing an argument as irrelevant or improbable
(e.g. That isn’t the point./ That’s highly debatable.
/That’s highly unlikely.)
6.4 Disagreeing diplomatically (through doubt) – (e.g.
I wonder whether that’s the case. /I’m not sure
that it works like that. / I’m not so sure about
that.)
6.5 Disagreeing in part (appeal to logic ) – (e.g. Not

necessarily. /That doesn’t necessarily follow. /That
isn’t strictly true.)
7.0 Countering
7.1 Countering directly (through antithesis) – (e.g. But/

But who can say/ But if…)
7.2 Countering politely (through agreement followed

by antithesis) – (e.g. Yes, but…)
7.3 Countering politely (through partial agreement followed

by antithesis) – (e.g. That may be so/ That may be
true/ You may be right…)
7.4 Countering using “well” both to cast doubt and

for antithesis
7.5 Countering using “after all” “at least” “even so” both
for concession
and antithesis
7.6 Countering using the Negative Yes/No Question

(e.g. Don’t you think…)
8.0 Logical argument
8.1 Questions or conclusions based on conditions with “if”
8.2 Questions based on conditions with sentence

adverbials “then” and “so” (e.g. Then why shouldn’t
God send evil people to hell?)
79
8.3 Deduced questions and conclusions with sentence
adverbials “In that case” and “so” (e.g. In that case,
would you describe astrology as a Science?/ So you
don’t think everybody should have the right to strike?)
8.4 Strongly argued questions with “Why” (e.g. Why

should other people pay for the exhibition of junk
which nobody wants?)
9.0 Clarification
9.1 Through short Yes/No Questions inviting illustration

or example
9.2 Through “What” or “How” Questions inviting illustration

or example (e.g. What do you mean? /How do you
mean?)
9.3 Through “Why” / “Why not” Questions inviting reason

or example
9.4 Through reference to subject (e.g. Are you saying

that.../ What I’m saying is that…/To come to the
point… /What are you trying to say?)
10. Expressing solutions and alternatives
(e.g. The solution is to/The best way to…/There are many

choices./ Alternatively/ Instead…)
80

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EXPRES

5.2 English is not Phonetic ...................................... 42 5.3

6.5.4 Comparison and Contrast ........................ 148

7.5.10 Verbs Followed by a Noun + an Infinitive .. 193

8.5.3 Graphical Abbreviations .......................... 222

Appendix 1 ............................................................... 287

Over the years of teaching I’ve noticed, however, that most

The main goal of this handbook is to “create” users of English

In addition, this handbook is intended to make students more

It is important to study a balance of the four major skills one

Chapter 3 describes strategies within the reading process to help

Chapter 4 deals with listening as a form of language

Chapter 5 focuses on improving fluency in English and increasing

Chapter 6 introduces students to the basics of academic writing

The purpose of Chapter 7 is to make students use the grammar

Chapter 8 is dedicated to vocabulary building and

Chapter 9 deals with the basic techniques of translation, types

Various texts and materials from a variety of sources are used to

Language may be our most powerful tool. We use it to understand

C1 Effective Operational Proficiency or Advanced (Expert)

The CEFR describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in

A1 Can understand and use familiar everyday

A2 Can understand sentences and frequently used

B1 Can understand the main points of clear standard

C1 Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer

C2 Can understand with ease virtually everything heard

The Certificate of Proficiency in English or

2. Writing (1 hour and 30 minutes)

3. Listening (approx. 40 minutes)

4. Speaking (approx. 16 minutes)

The Certificate in Advanced English

2. Writing (1 hour and 30 minutes)

3. Use of English (1 hour)

4. Listening (40 minutes)

5. Speaking (15 minutes)

The First Certificate in English (FCE)

2. Writing (80 minutes)

3. Use of English (45 minutes)

4. Listening (40 minutes)

5. Speaking (15 minutes)

The Preliminary English Test (PET)

The Key English Test (KET)

The ‘Test of English as a Foreign Language’, or

Task Description Approx.

Reading 3–4 passages, each containing 12– 60–80

Listenin 6–9 passages, each containing 5– 60–90

Speakin 6 tasks and 6 questions 20 minutes

Writing 2 tasks and 2 questions 50 minutes

1. Listening (30 – 40 minutes)

2. Structure and Written Expression (25 minutes)

3. Reading Comprehension (55 minutes)

4. Writing (30 minutes)

BEC (Business English Certificates)

BULATS (Business Language Testing Service)

ILEC (International Legal English Certificate)

“Reading has made me who I am. To read is to learn and grow,

3.1 Why do People Read?

People read with a purpose or for pleasure.

● reading for pleasure

The act of reading can be a form of pleasurable escape from the