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FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

What is electricity?

Electricity is the flow of moving electrons. In other terms, electricity is the flow of charges or charged
particles.

Electrons
An electron is a negatively charged particle of an atom. Electrons move around an atom through paths
known as orbits.

Protons
These are positively charged particles of an atom. The number of protons must be equal to the number
of electrons in order for the atom to be electrically neutral.

Neutrons
These are neither positively charged nor negatively charged. In other words, these particles have no
electric charge.

Atom
An atom is a basic unit of an element.
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The Electron theory

This is the theory which suggests that electrons move from negative to positive.

Conventional theory

This is the theory which suggests that electrons move from a high potential positive to
a low potential negative. In simple terms, this theory states that electrons move from
positive to negative. This theory is used whenever basic laws are used.

Electrostatics
Electrostatics is a branch of physics that deals with the phenomena and properties of
stationary or slow-moving electric charges with no acceleration. In practice is also the
form of energy produced by rubbing materials together. On a motor vehicle, this type of
charge is generated at places where friction occurs e.g clutch, brake etc.

The behavior of electricity obtained from an energy source like a battery is similar to
that of electrostatic electricity.

Conductors

The electrons in the atoms of such materials are not bounded tightly to their nucleus.
They drift at random from one atom to another. As indicated in the atomic theory,
conductors normally have less or up to four electrons in the outer shell which fully
utilize this function. Good conductors therefore have free electrons which can be moved
freely when needed.
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Copper is a very good conductor because it allows electrons to flow freely. Other
examples of good conductors include, silver, iron, gold, aluminium, lead, electrolyte and
many others.

Insulators
These are materials which have atoms with no loosely bound electrons. In other words,
these are materials which have no free electrons in the outer shell, thereby making the
movement of electrons very difficult. Therefore, insulators do not conduct electricity in
general. However, it should be noted that no material is a perfect insulator because all
materials can allow some electron movement when the force pushing the electrons is
large enough.

Some typical examples of insulators include plastic, wood, rubber etc.

Attraction and repulsion

Electric charges of the same polarity mutually repel each other while electric charges of
opposite polarity attract one another. Simply put,

Like charges repel, while unlike charges attract

When dealing with magnets, like poles will repel, while unlike poles attract.

Current
This is defined as the rate of flow of electrons through a conductor. It can also be
defined as the quantity of charge which passes a section of a conductor per unit time
(one second).
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The unit of measurement for current is the Ampere (A), abbreviated as Amp(s).

Potential

The potential indicates the amount that a body is electrically charged. Two bodies that
have the same electric charge with the same polarity may require a force in order to
move the two bodies together.

Electric potential expressed in terms of Joule per unit of charge. This is also known as
the volt.

Potential difference (p.d)

This is the difference in electric potential between two points in an electric circuit. The
rate of flow of electric energy will depend on the potential difference.

Electromotive force (e.m.f)

The energy, per unit charge, that is converted reversibly from chemical, mechanical, or other forms of en
ergy into electrical energy in a battery or dynamo. The unit of electromotive force is called the volt. Thus,
the electric force that gives rise to a difference in potential between two points is called an electromotive
force. This can also be termed as the voltage.

Electric power

Power is the rate of doing work. The unit of measurement for power is the Watt (W).

This is the product of voltage and current. It is therefore, given by,

Power = VI

Resistance

This is the opposition offered to the flow of electrons in a conductor. It measured in ohms (Ω).

Factors that affect resistance:

 Type of material (atomic structure)
 Surface area
 Length
 Temperature- Some materials will increase the resistance with an increase in
temperature. Such materials are said to be positive temperature coefficient (PTC). But
other materials have a resistance that reduces with an increase in temperature. Such
materials are referred to as negative temperature coefficient (NTC).
 Corrosion or dirt.

Energy

Energy is the ability to do work. The unit of measurement for energy is the Joule (J)
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Energy can neither be created nor destroyed but can only be converted from one form to another. For
example, the starter motor converts electrical energy from the battery to mechanical energy to crank the
engine. On the other hand, the alternator converts mechanical energy from the engine drive to electrical
energy to charge the battery and supply to other electrical loads when the engine is running.

ELECTRIC CIRCUITS

An electric circuit is the path taken by an electric current from the source through the
loads and back to the source. It can also be defined as an electrical device that provides
a path for electric current to flow.

Complete circuit

A complete circuit should have the following six parts:

(i) An energy source: It provides the voltage needed to force current

(electrons) through a circuit.
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(ii) Conductor: This is the device or component through which the current can
flow or travel. Its main function is to transmit current.
(iii) Insulators: They are there to confine the current to the desired paths.
(iv) Load: Used to control the amount current flowing in a circuit by (consuming)
and convert the electrical energy taken from the source to other forms of
energy e.g heat, sound, light, mechanical etc.
(v) Control device: This is used to start and stop the flow of current. This is
usually a switch.
(vi) Protective device: This can either be a fuse or circuit breaker to interrupt
the flow of current when there is some malfunction or an overload.

Types of circuit diagrams

There are many types of circuit diagrams or schematics in use. But the three commonest types are as
follows:

1. Wiring diagrams: This type of diagram normally emphasizes on the connections between the
components or elements of a circuit or system. They use horizontal and vertical lines to represent
the wires or lines. They also use simplified pictorials that clearly resemble circuit/system
components. In addition, the also place equipment and wiring on drawing to approximate actual
physical location on real the circuit.
Spark plugs

2. Schematic diagram(s): Such diagrams emphasize on the flow of the system. They also use
horizontal and vertical lines to represent system flow. They also use symbols that indicate the
function of components. The symbols do not look like the actual components. The drawing layout
is used to represent the flow of the system and not the actual location of components.
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3. Pictorial diagram: This is a diagram that represents the actual pictorial or physical view of the
various components of a circuit. Such diagrams are not very useful because they don’t provide
enough information to analyze a circuit in readiness for repair or servicing.

Ohm’s law

This law states that the current in a resistor varies directly with the voltage when the resistance is kept
constant.

V = IR

Common Circuit symbols

Some useful circuit symbol in a motor vehicle may include the following:
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Battery
Bulb/lamp

Switch
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Ground return circuit: This circuit uses the metal parts of an automobile (chassis) as
a common conductor for the return of current to the supply or source. Thus only half as
much of the insulated wire is required.

Short circuit: This occurs when the current takes a path of very low resistance back to
the source thereby bypassing the load e.g faulty insulation that allows a naked wire to
touch ground or faulty insulation between turns of coil

Unintentional ground: This occurs when the current goes to the ground after
passing through the load but without following the complete original path.

Open circuit: This is a break in the complete circuit because of either an open switch
or a broken wire or blown fuse.

Closed circuit: A closed circuit is a complete path from the source through the load
and back to the source.

Basic types of electric circuits

The three basic types of electric circuits are as follows:

(i) Short Circuit

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A short circuit occurs when the current takes a path of very low resistance
back to the source thereby bypassing the load. An example is can be seen
through some faulty insulation that allows a naked wire to touch the ground
or faulty insulation between turns of coils that eventually reduces the number
of turns in the coil.
(ii) Open circuit
This is when a circuit is incomplete. In other words, it is when there is a
break in the complete circuit because of either a broken wire or some blown
fuse.

Break or open in
Circuit

(iii) Closed circuit

A closed circuit is a complete path taken by electricity from the source
through the load and back to the source.

Electrical Circuits
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This part covers basic direct current theory by reviewing the THREE basic types of
electrical circuits and the laws that apply to each type of circuit.

 Series Circuits
 Parallel Circuits
 Series-Parallel Circuits

DIAGRAM

(i) Series Circuit

A series circuit is the simplest kind of circuit. In a series circuit, each
electrical device is connected to other electrical devices in such a way
that there is only one path for current to flow. In the circuit shown
here, current flows from the battery (+) through a fuse (protection
device) and a switch (control device) to the lamp (load) and then
returns to frame (ground). All circuit devices and components are
connected in series. The following rules apply to all series circuits:

At any given point in the circuit the current value is the same.

The total circuit resistance is equal to the sum of all the individual
resistances and is called an equivalent resistance.

The voltage drop across all circuit loads are equal to the applied source
voltage.

A simple way to express these series circuit rules are:

Voltage is the SUM of all voltage drops.

Current is the SAME at any given point in the circuit
Resistance is the SUM of all individual resistances
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DIAGRAM

(ii) Parallel Circuit

A parallel circuit is more complex than a series circuit because there is
more than one path for current to flow. Each current path is called a
branch. Because all branches connect to the same positive and
negative terminal, they will all have the same voltage; each branch
drops the same amount of voltage, regardless of resistance within the
branch.

The current flow in each branch can be different, depending on the

resistance. Total current in the circuit equals the sum of the branch
currents.

The total resistance is always less than the smallest resistance in any
branch.

In the circuit shown in Figure 2.2.3, current flows from the battery
through a fuse and switch, and then divides into two branches, each
containing a lamp. Each branch is connected to frame ground. The
following rules apply to parallel circuits:

The voltage is the same in each parallel branch.

The total current is the sum of each individual branch currents.

The equivalent resistance is equal to the applied voltage divided by the

total current, and is ALWAYS less than the smallest resistance in any
one branch.

A simple way to express these parallel rules are:

Voltage is the SAME for all branches.

Current is the SUM of the individual branch currents.
Equivalent resistance is SMALLER than the smallest resistance of any
individual branch.
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DIAGRAM

(iii) Series-Parallel Circuits

A series-parallel circuit is composed of a series section and a parallel
section. All of the rules previously discussed regarding series and
parallel circuits are applicable in solving for unknown circuit values.

Although some series-parallel circuits appear to be very complex, they

are solved quite easily using a logical approach. The following tips will
make solving series-parallel circuits less complicated.

Examine the circuit carefully, then determine the path or paths that
current may flow through the circuit before returning to the source.

Redraw a complex circuit to simplify its appearance.

When simplifying a series-parallel circuit, begin at the farthest point

from the voltage source. Replace series and parallel resistor
combinations one step at a time.

A correctly redrawn series-parallel (equivalent) circuit will contain

only ONE series resistor in the end.

Apply the simple series rules for determining the unknown values.

Return to the original circuit and “plug” in the known values. Use
Ohm’s Law to solve the remaining values.

ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION

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INTRODUCTION
Electrical and electronic systems are becoming increasingly important in motor vehicle
engineering. Often electronics form the main part of systems like fuel injection, traction
control or turbo chargers. It is therefore important to introduce Automotive Technicians
to the main things they need to know about motor vehicles and the industry. It is
important to give or help the Automotive Technician have a good ground in the subject
of electrics and electronics.

TERMINOLOGY RELATED TO AUTOMOTIVE ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC

SYSTEMS.

BATTERY – stores electricity in a chemical form, for the vehicle to use when the
engine is not running.

STARTER MOTOR - A very powerful electric motor which uses electrical energy
(current) from the battery to crank the engine which should then run on
its own.

ALTERNATOR – The Alternator generates electricity when the engine is running: to

charge the battery and supply electrical energy to all the other electrical
loads on the motor vehicle.

LIGHTING – Lights controlled by switches so that the driver can see, be seen or signal
to others that he or she is going to stop or turn.

AUXILIARIES – This heading covers most other standard electrical systems on the
motor vehicles such as wipers, heater blower and heated rear window.

INSTRUMENTS – The instruments provide information for the driver about the
operation of the vehicle. The most common are the speedometer, rev
counter, fuel and temperature gauges. Also the panel warning lights like
oil, charge, hand brake etc.

WIRES – Made from strands of copper insulated with PVC, the wires simply carry
electricity from one point to another – but only if a complete circuit is
made.

TERMINALS – Connections to join wires to components. They are often made

waterproof and also latch together so they don’t fall off.

WIRE HARNESS – Many modern vehicles have well over one thousand separate
wiring circuits! A wiring harness is made by bundling different wires
together for neatness and safety.
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VOLTAGE – The pressure which pushes electricity through a circuit.

CURRENT – The flow rate of electricity through a circuit.

RESISTANCE – Opposite to the flow of electricity. Resistance is often supplied by a

bulb or motor, but even a dirty connection can cause resistance which
will prevent the circuit from operating properly.

POWER OR WATTAGE – A measure of how much energy is being converted, in this

case electrical energy to say, heat energy. Consider the difference
between a head lump bulb and a panel light bulb.

CHASSIS OR NEGATIVE EARTH RETURN – To save and simplify the circuits, the
body and chassis of most vehicles are used as a common connection: this
is usually described as ‘earth’. All modern vehicles have the chassis or
earth, connected to the negative terminal of the battery.

INSULATED EARTH – Very few vehicles use earth wires instead of the chassis. This is
often for safety reasons, for example to reduce the risk of a spark on a
petrol tanker!

OPEN CIRCUIT – A broken wire or connection.

SHORT CIRCUIT – A broken wire or connection.

SHORT CIRCUIT – Part of a circuit, such as wire or terminal, is touching the earth
where it shouldn’t e.g. live wire touching earth.

HIGH RESISTANCE – A dirty or loose connection can cause a high resistance in a

circuit. This restricts the flow of electricity and could, for example cause a
dim light.

BAD EARTH OR BAD CONNECTION – ‘Bad’ is often used to describe one of the last
three terms! The problem is that ‘bad’ could mean open circuit, short
circuit or high resistance. It is good to learn the correct way of describing
a fault.

BATTERIES
General
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The battery is the primary “source” of electrical energy on Toyota vehicles. It stores
chemicals, not electricity. Two different types of lead in an acid mixture react to
produce an electrical pressure. This electrochemical reaction changes chemical
energy to electrical energy.

Battery Functions
1. ENGINE OFF: Battery energy is used to operate the lighting and accessory
systems.
2. ENGINE STARTING: Battery energy is used to operate the starter motor and to
provide current for the ignition system during cranking.
3. ENGINE RUNNING: Battery energy may be needed when the vehicle’s
electrical load requirements exceed the supply from the charging system.

In addition, the battery also serves as a voltage stabilizer, or large filter, by

absorbing abnormal, transient voltages in the vehicle’s electrical system. Without
this protection, certain electrical or electronic components could be damaged by
these high voltages.

Battery Types
1. PRIMARY CELL: The chemical reaction totally destroys one of the metals after
a period of time. Small batteries for flashlights and radios are primary cells.
2. SECONDARY CELLS: The metals and acid mixture change as the battery
supplies voltage. The metals become similar, the acid strength weakens. This is
called discharging. By applying current to the battery in the opposite direction,
the battery materials can be restored. This is called charging. Automotive lead-
acid batteries are secondary cells.
3. WET-CHARGED: The lead-acid battery is filled with electrolyte and charged
when it is built. During storage, a slow chemical reaction will cause self-
discharge. Periodic charging is required. For Toyota batteries, this is every 5 to 7
months.
4. DRY-CHARGED: The battery is built, charged, washed and dried, sealed, and
shipped without electrolyte. It can be stored for 12 to 18 months. When put into
use, it requires adding electrolyte and charging.
5. LOW-MAINTENANCE: Most batteries for Toyota vehicles are considered low-
maintenance batteries. Such batteries are built to reduce internal heat and water
loss. The addition of water should only be required every 15,000 miles or so.

DIAGRAM
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DIAGRAM

Construction
1. CASE: Container which holds and protects all battery components and
electrolyte, separates cells, and provides space at the bottom for sediment
(active materials washed off plates). Translucent plastic cases allow checking
electrolyte level without removing vent caps.
2. COVER: Permanently sealed to the top of the case; provides outlets for terminal
posts, vent holes for venting of gases and for battery maintenance (checking
electrolyte, adding water).
3. PLATES: Positive and negative plates have a grid framework of antimony and
lead alloy. Active material is pasted to the grid…brown colored lead peroxide
(Pb02) on positive plates, gray-colored sponge lead (Pb) on negative plates. The
number and size of the plates determine current capability….batteries with large
plates or many plates produce more current than batteries with small plates or
few plates.
4. SEPARATORS: Thin, porous insulators (woven glass or plastic envelopes) are
placed between positive and negative plates. They allow passage of electrolyte,
yet prevent the plates from touching and shorting out.
5. CELLS: An assembly of connected positive and negative plates with separators
in between is called a cell or element. When immersed in electrolyte, a cell
produces about 2.1 volts (regardless of the number or size of plates). Battery
cells are connected in series, so the number of cells determines the battery
voltage. A “1.2 – volt” battery has six cells.
6. CELL CONNECTORS: Heavy, cast alloy metal straps are welded to the negative
terminal of one cell and the positive terminal of the adjoining cell until all six cells
are connected in series.
7. CELL PARTITIONS: Part of the case, the partitions separate each cell.
8. TERMINAL POSTS: Positive and negative posts (terminals) on the case top
have thick, heavy cables connected to them. These cables connect the battery to
the vehicle’s electrical system (positive) and to ground (negative).
9. VENT CAPS: Types include individual filler plugs, strip-type, or box-type. They
allow controlled release of hydrogen gas during charging (vehicle operation).
Removed, they permit checking electrolyte and, if necessary, adding water.
10. ELECTROLYTE: A mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O). It reacts
chemically with the active materials in the plates to create an electrical pressure
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(voltage). And, it conducts the electrical current produced by that pressure from
plate to plate. A fully charged battery will have about 36% acid and 64% water.

CELL THEORY
A lead-acid cell works by a simple principle: when two different metals are immersed in
an acid solution, a chemical reaction creates an electrical pressure. One metal is brown-
colored lead peroxide (PbO2). It has a positive electrical charge. The other metal is gray
colored sponge lead (Pb). It has a negative electrical charge. The acid solution is a
mixture of sulfuric acid (H2SO4) and water (H2O). It is called electrolyte. If a conductor
and a load are connected between the two metals, current will flow. This discharging
will continue until the metals become alike and the acid is used up. The action can be
reversed by sending current into the cell in the opposite direction. This charging will
continue until the cell materials are restored to their original condition.

DIAGRAM

ELECTROCHEMICAL REACTION
A lead-acid storage battery can be partially discharged and recharged many times.
There are four stages in this discharging/charging cycle.

1. CHARGED: A fully charged battery contains a negative plate of sponge lead

(Pb), a positive plate of lead peroxide (PbO 2), and electrolyte of sulfuric acid
(H2SO4) and water (H2O).

DIAGRAM

2. DISCHARGING: As the battery is discharging, the electrolyte becomes diluted

and the plates become sulfated. The electrolyte divides into hydrogen (H 2) and
sulfate (SO4). The hydrogen (H2) combines with oxygen (O 2) from the positive
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plate to form more water (H2O). The sulfate combines with the lead (Pb) in both
plates to form lead sulfate (PbSO4).

DIAGRAM

3. DISCHARGED: In a fully discharged battery, both plates are covered with lead
sulfate (PbSO4) and the electrolyte is diluted to mostly water (H2O).

DIAGRAM

4. CHARGING: During charging, the chemical action is reversed. Sulfate (SO 4)

leaves the plates and combines with hydrogen (H 2) to become sulfuric acid
(H2SO4). Free oxygen (O2) combines with lead (Pb) on the positive plate to form
lead peroxide (PbO2). Gassing occurs as the battery nears full charge, and
hydrogen bubbles out at the negative plates, oxygen at the positive.

DIAGRAM

Capacity Ratings
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The battery must be capable of cranking the engine and providing adequate reserve
capacity. Its capacity is the amount of electrical energy the battery can deliver when
fully charged. Capacity is determined by the size and number of plates, the number of
cells, and the strength and volume of electrolyte.

The most commonly used ratings are:

 Cold Cranking Amperes (CCA)
 Reserve Capacity (RC)
 Amp-Hours (AH)
 Power (Watts)

COLD-CRANKING AMPERES (CCA)

The battery’s primary function is to provide energy to crank the engine during starting.
This requires a large discharge in a short time. The CCA Rating specifies, in amperes,
the discharge load a fully charged battery at 0°F (-1 7.8°C) can deliver for 30 seconds
while maintaining a voltage of at least 1.2 volts per cell (7.2 volts total for a 12-volt
battery). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have CCA ratings ranging from 350
to 560 amps.

RESERVE CAPACITY (RC)

The battery must provide emergency energy for ignition, lights, and accessories if the
vehicle’s charging system fails. This requires adequate capacity at normal temperatures
for a certain amount of time. The RC Rating specifies, in minutes, the length of time a
fully charged battery at 80°F (26.7°C) can be discharged at 25 amps while maintaining
a voltage of at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt battery). Batteries
used on various Toyota vehicles have RC ratings ranging from 55 to 115 minutes.

AMP-HOURS (AH)
The battery must maintain active materials on the plates and adequate lasting power
under light-load conditions. This method of rating batteries is also called the 20-hour
discharge rating. Original equipment batteries are rated in amp-hours. The ratings of
these batteries are listed in the parts microfiche. The Amp-Hour Rating specifies, in amp
hours, the current the battery can provide for 20 hours at 80°F (26.7°C) while
maintaining a voltage of at least 1.75 volts per cell (10.5 volts total for a 12-volt
battery). For example, a battery that can deliver 4 amps for 20 hours is rated at 80
amp-hours (4 x 20 = 80). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have AH ratings
ranging from 40 to 80 amp-hours.

POWER (WATTS)
The battery’s available cranking power may also be measured in watts. The Power
Rating, in watts, is determined by multiplying the current available by the battery
voltage at 0°F (-1 7.8°C). Batteries used on various Toyota vehicles have power ratings
ranging from 2000 to 4000 watts.
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TYPICAL TOYOTA ORIGINAL-EQUIPMENT BATTERIES

Battery Rating

50 D 20 50 Amp-Hours

55 D 23 60 Amp-Hours

N 70 Z 70 Amp-Hours

REPLACEMENT BATTERIES USED ON TOYOTA VEHICLES

BCI GROUP* TYPE PLATES RATINGS

(DIMENSIONS) (MONTHS) (NUMBER) CCA RC
(AMPERES) (MINUTES)

24 48 350 55

24. 24F
(10-3/16L x 6-3/16W x 9H) 36 54 400 60

48 72 525 100

27, 27F
(12L x 6-3/16W x 8-15/16H) 48 84 560 115

THE LEAD-ACID BATTERY

The Battery supplies current to operate the starter motor and the ignition system when
the engine is being started. It also supplies current for lights, radio and other
accessories when the engine is not running or when the charging system is not
functioning. This device (battery) stores electrical energy in a chemical form. The
chemicals in the battery are sponge lead (PB) which is on the negative plates; lead
Peroxide (PbO2) which is on the positive plates and sulphuric acid H 2SO4 as an
electrolyte. These three substances are made to react chemically to produce a flow of
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current. The lead (pb) and lead peroxide (pbO 2) are held in plate grids to form negative
and positive plates respectively.

The plate grid is a framework of lead antimony with horizontal and vertical bars. The
plate grids are made into plates by applying the lead paste on them. In the battery,
several similar plates are properly spaced and welded to form a plate group. Plates of
two types are used, one for the positive plate group and the other for the negative
group. A positive plate group is rested with a negative plate group. Separators are
placed between the plates so that the negative and positive plates do not touch. At the
same time separators are porous enough to permit liquid (electrolyte) to circulate
between the plates. Cedar wood, porous sponge rubbers are used as separators. Heavy
lead connecting straps are used to connect the cells in series. Many batteries have
connecting straps that pass through the partitions and others have connecting straps
going over the partitions. The top cover has opening through which liquid can be added
when the filler plugs or vent caps are removed. Batteries normally have two terminals
which protrude on the outside top cover, one positive and the other negative. The
negative terminal is made slightly smaller than the positive to differentiate them and
they are usually labeled + and -.

The electrolyte in the battery consists of 40% sulphuric acid and 60% water in a fully
charged battery. The electrolyte in a fully charged battery has a specific gravity or
relative density of 1.280.

The chemical action in the battery removes electrons from one group of plates and
collects them on the other. This creates a 2.1 volts pressure between the two groups of
places. If the battery terminals are not connected by any circuit, no further activity takes
place. If the terminals are connected to a circuit chemical action takes place and current
begins to flow from the battery. This chemical action uses up the sponge lead (pb), lead
peroxide (pbO2) and the dilute sulphuric acid (H 2SO4). After a certain amount of current
has been drawn, the battery gets discharged. At this point the sponge lead (pb)
becomes lead sulphate (pbso 4) and the lead peroxide (pbo 2) also becomes lead sulphate
(pbso4) and the dilute sulphuric slowly turns into water (H 2O). When the battery has
reached this stage, it may be recharged. This is done by supplying it with a flow of
current from some external sources such as a battery charger or generator, alternator in
the motor vehicle, thus reversing the chemical action and restoring the elements
(reactions) to their original state and then the battery becomes recharged.

CHEMICAL ACTIONS

+ PLATE - PLATE ELECTROLYTE + PLATE - PLATE ELECTROLYTE

LEAD SPONGE DILUTE LEAD LEAD WATER
PEROXIDE LEAD SULPHURIC SULPHATE SULPHATE
ACID

PbO2 + pb + H2SO4 pbso4 + pbso4 + H2O

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CHARGED REVERSIBLE DISCHARGED

STATE ACTION STATE

NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTOMOTIVE DEPARTMENT

WORKSHOP PRACTICAL EXERCISE

TOPIC: BATTERY

TASK: BATTERY SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE

TOOLS / EQUIPMENT: VOLTMETER, HYDROMETER, HIGH RATE

DISCHARGE TESTER AND BATTERY BENCH
CHARGER.

PROCEDURE: With the battery placed on the working bench, proceed with the
following tests:

1. VISUAL INSPECTION: The battery is checked for terminal corrosion, cracks,

leakage of acid and any sign of container or casing bulging. A white powdery
corrosion of metal parts in the vicinity of the battery indicates a past leakage of acid.
This should be investigated and the corrosion neutralized by washing the affected
parts in (ammoniated) water.
Distortion of container or casing suggests that the plates have deformed and this can
be attributed to overcharging.

2. STATE-OF-CHARGE TEST
A voltmeter can be used to ascertain the state-of-charge. The voltmeter is connected
to the battery in parallel and voltage reading noted. The voltmeter should give
normal battery voltage which is 12V. State-of-charge method used on the vehicle is:
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(i) Switch on headlamps for 30 seconds to remove the surface charge.

(ii) Switch off headlamps and any external loads on the battery such as courtesy
door lights.
(iii) Measure voltage (12v) should be indicated by the voltmeter. State-of-charge
can also be ascertained by measuring the relative density or specific gravity of
the electrolyte.

A hydrometer is used to measure the specific gravity of each cell. The normal reading
in a fully charged battery should be 1.280 with variations of not more than 50 points
in individual cells. If the specific gravity is less than 1.250 the battery should be
checked further and considered for recharging.

3. ELECTRICAL LOAD TEST

This is also called a high-rate discharge test and drop test. It is a severe test and
should be performed only on a charged battery i.e. a battery having a specific gravity
higher than 1.200. Time recommended for this test is normally about 15 seconds.
The instrument used is called a high-rate discharge tester. The tester consists of a
voltmeter and a low-resistance strip which is connected across the battery. The
resistance value, and in consequence the current load, can be adjusted to suit the
battery being tested. This figure can normally be found on a label on the battery. The
voltmeter indicates the potential difference while it is supplying the high current. The
voltage given by a good battery varies with the capacity and temperature of the
battery. A serviceable battery should give at least 9.5 volts for 15 seconds. Faulty
cells are seen to be bubbling under this test and the battery voltage drops drastically
when the battery is defective.

4. BATTERY CHARGING
When the battery voltage is lower than the normal voltage say about 10v and below
and the specific gravity of the electrolyte in the cells is lower than 1.250, the battery
is supposed to be recharged. External or bench chargers are used for this. Batteries
are connected to the charger either individually or in a balanced series-parallel
arrangement. The current flow through any branch of the circuit depends on the
state-of-charge of the batteries in that branch.

MAIN ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS

The battery, which is the source of energy when the engine is not running, is connected
to a number of separate circuits. The main circuits are:

1. Ignition – Supplies high voltage surges which provide a spark to ‘fire’ the air-fuel
mixture in the engine cylinders.
 25

2. Starting – enables the engine to be cranked over a speed sufficient for it to ‘fire’
and keep running on its own.

3. Charging – supplies the electrical energy when the engine is running. The
charging system also maintains the battery in a fully charged state.

4. Lighting – gives the necessary exterior and interior illumination. The lighting
system also signals to other road users i.e. motorists and pedestrians the
intentions of the driver e.g. slowing down, turning, reversing etc.

5. Auxiliary – this includes the various accessories such as window screen wipers
and washers, horns, in-car entertainment etc.

6. Instrumentation or instruments – these provide information for the driver about

the operation of the vehicle. The most common are the speedometer, rev, fuel
and temperature gauges. Also the panel warning lights like oil, charge handbrake
etc.

7. Electronic Fuel Injection – Carries out engine management electronically (fuel

system, air induction and ignition) by use of micro-processor, sensors and
actuators.

THE IGNITION SYSTEM

DESCRIPTION: This is the system that provides a spark to ignite the air-fuel mixture
in the engine cylinders.
- For the air-fuel mixture to be ignited, a high voltage is required to produce a
spark at the spark plug gap.
- A spark has to be introduced to the compressed air-fuel mixture in the cylinder
so that combustion can take place.
PURPOSE: The purpose of the ignition system is to produce high voltage surges of
current and deliver them to the right spark plug at the correct time. The heat from the
spark ignites the compressed air-fuel mixture in the combustion chamber.
SYSTEM LAY-OUT
The ignition system consists of the low voltage or primary circuit with battery voltage of
12 volts and the high voltage or secondary circuit with over 25,000 volts. Modern
systems go as high as 48,000 volts.
TYPES OF IGNITION SYSTEMS
There are two types of ignition systems;
1. Conventional or contact-breaker ignition system.
2. Electronic or breaker less ignition system.
CONVENTIONAL IGNITION SYSTEM
It uses contact-breaker points in its operation
 26

It uses 12 volts from battery and steps it up to over 25,000 volts.

PRIMARY CIRCUIT COMPONENTS
1. Battery: as a supply of the initial electrical energy to operate the system during
starting and when the engine is not running.
2. Ignition switch: as a means of operating the circuit to turn it on and off.
3. Ballast Resistor: to improve cold starting and reduce variation in coil output with
respect to speed.
4. Ignition coil: boosts battery voltage (12v) to a higher voltage needed to jump the
gap at the spark plug.
5. Contact-Breaker Points: open and close the primary circuit repeatedly building
and collapsing the magnetic field thereby inducing high voltage in the ignition
coil.
6. Condenser: acts as an “electrical shock absorber” by providing an alternative
path to the flow of current when the contact-breaker points begin to open.

COMPONENTS OF THE SECONDARY CIRCUIT

1. Ignition coil: produces high voltages induced in the secondary winding to flow to
the spark plugs.
2. Distributor: distributes surges of high voltage to each spark plug at the correct
time.
3. Rotor: conducts high voltage flow to the respective segments leading to the
sparks in turn as it rotates.
4. High Tension Leads or Cables: These deliver high voltage from the distributor
cap to the spark plugs. High Tension Leads or Cables have extra (thick)
insulation to prevent voltage leakages.
5. Spark Plugs: These provide the gap or air space across which the high voltage
produced by the coil can jump. A spark occurs when the high voltage jumps the
gap. The heat from the spark ignites the air-fuel mixture.

IGNITION SYSTEM OPERATION

With the ignition switch on and the contact-breaker points closed, a current of about 4A
flows from the battery through the ballast resistor and to the primary winding of the
ignition coil. This current is earthed through the fixed contract-breaker point. The
complete flow creates a magnetic field around the primary winding and the laminated
iron core. When the engine is being started, the distributor shaft turns and opens the
contact-breaker points and current ceases to flow through the primary winding and the
magnetic field collapses. This collapse causes the magnetic lines of force to cut through
both the primary and secondary windings of the ignition coil thus inducing a voltage in
both windings. The voltage induced is in proportion to the number of turns and in the
primary winding its value is about 200 volts. The secondary winding has a higher
number of turns compared to the primary winding, so a higher voltage of over 25,000
volts is induced in the secondary winding. This high voltage is sufficient enough to
produce a spark at the spark plug gap as it is distributed in turns to each spark plug. To
produce a really sufficient spark, however, capable of igniting the air-fuel mixture under
 27

all conditions of engine speed and load, a condenser is fitted across (in parallel) the
points.

The condenser has two functions:-

1. To reduce the sparkling across the contact-breaker points, thus minimizing the
burning of the contact-breaker points.
2. The foregoing causes the primary circuit magnetic field to fall more rapidly to
zero, thus producing a higher secondary voltage.

DIAGRAM

NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTOMOTIVE / H.E.R. DEPARTMENT

WORKSHOP PRACTICAL EXERCISE

TOPIC: IGNITION SYSTEM

TASK: CARRYOUT IGNITION TIMING

TOOLS / EQUIPMENT: Running Engine, Stroboscope (timing) light, feeler gauge,

multimeter, test lamp, plug spanner, power bar, 22mm socket wrench, 12mm
combination spanner.

OBJECTIVES: At the end of the lesson SSBAT:

(i) Remove and fit distributor to engine
(ii) Adjust the contact points gap to correct specification.
(iii) Set the correct firing order of the engine distributor (Cap)
(iv) Carryout dynamic ignition timing.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Run engine for a short while and then switch off.
(ii) Using 12mm combination spanner loosen the distributor clamp bolt and remove
distributor from engine after disconnecting all the cables from distributor.
(iii) With distributor out, crank engine for a few seconds to disturb the timing.
(iv) Fit distributor out, back to engine but do not tighten the clamp bolt.
(v) Using 22m socket wrench and power bar, turn engine to set No. 1 piston to
T.D.C. Compressor.
 28

(vi) Connect the drive so that points are just opening when rotor arm is pointing to
distributor segment ‘feeding’ No. 1. Cylinder (Take note of the contact points
gap). The contact position may be found by using a lamp connected between
ignition coil + terminal and cable leading to the points. (The lamp should come on
when points are closed and off when points are open)
(vii) Fit h.t. leads to distributor in the order that cylinders fire, for four cylinder engines
being 1 3 4 2.
(viii) Start engine and make final adjustments with timing light.

DYNAMIC (STROBOSCOPIC) TIMING:

A strobe-type timing light gives a sudden flash of light at the instant the spark occurs.
The high-intensity, short duration flash is triggered by the h.t. impulse from the No. 1
plug lead.

PROCEDURE:
(i) Connect the positive prod of the timing light to the positive terminal of the battery
and the battery and the negative prod to the negative terminal of the battery i.e.
parallel connection.

(ii) Connect the timing light plug lead to the h.t. lead leading to No. 1 cylinder. Note
the direction of the arrow on the timing light plug lead which should point
towards No. 1 piston h.t. lead (to the spark-plug side).

(iii) Connect the other timing light probe (usually green in color) to – terminal of
ignition coil.

(iv) Start engine when the lamp (timing light) is held close to the member that carries
the timing marks, the instantaneous flash illuminates the marks and ‘freezes’ the
motion to enable the spark timing to be ascertained. To set the timing, the
recommended advance at a certain speed should be known e.g. advance is 10° at
900rev/min with the vacuum disconnected.

STARTER MOTOR
Electrical start motor operates using the electromagnetic principle similar to that used
by generators. The two systems differ in that a motor is supplied with electrical energy
to run while the generator produces the electrical energy.

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Starter motor operation makes use of the repel action that results when like poles of
magnets are brought close to each other. Like poles repel while unlike poles attract
each other. This principle produces a force, which turns the motor.
 29

DIAGRAM

If current flows through a conductor (wire), magnetic fields are generated around the
conductor. The magnetic flux is also generated when magnetic poles are facing each
other. The fields move from the North Pole to the South Pole as the two poles attract
each other. The magnetic flux between the two poles behaves like elastic bands. When
a current carrying conductor is placed between the two poles, the generated magnetic
flux around the conductor will interfere with the flux from the magnets. The flux will
increase on one side of the conductor and decrease on the other side. The unequal
concentration of the flux causes the conductor to move.

DIAGRAM

The movement occurs because when current flows through the conductor, the flux
around it will move in the same direction as that of the magnets flux on one side and in
the opposite direction on the other side. When the conductor is bent into a loop, the
magnetic forces will cause the loop to rotate.

DIAGRAM

The use of commutator and brushes makes possible continuous rotation of the loop as
long as it continues receiving current. The loop segments interchange contact with the
 30

brushes at the point that the interaction of the magnetic force starts losing effect. At
this instance, the two sides of the loop conductor will receive reversed current hence
changed direction of magnetic flux. This action causes the loop conductor to continue
rotating in the same direction. In reality, there are more loops assembled in the
armature in order to achieve a smooth continuous rotation as the loops continuously
reverse their flux during rotation. In the illustration diagram given above, it is the
permanent magnet used against the conductor loop. In reality, it is electromagnets that
are used to create the magnetic field in place of permanent magnets. The loop
conductors in the armature and the field windings are connected in series in order to
create strong magnetic fields in both.

DIAGRAM

However, some starter motors uses permanent magnets. This design reduces the size
and weight of a starter motor. This type of starter motor achieves the high torque
required of a starter motor by using the reduction gear (epicyclic) arrangement
between the armature and the drive pinion.

ACHIEVING HIGH CRANKING TORQUE

To start the engine, the starter motor must overcome the following:
(i) Inertia of engine components such as the piston, piston rod, crankshaft and
flywheel;
(ii) The compression pressures
(iii) Bearing friction
(iv) Other accessories driven by the engine

To overcome the resistance from the above sources, a starter motor must be supplied
with a large electrical power from the battery. Since electrical power (watts) is the
product of the voltage and current (amps), the starter motor circuit needs to use low
resistance cables. This helps to increase the current flow since the voltage is fixed,
being the potential difference between battery terminals. The lower the resistance, the
greater the current flow and the result is increased power (wattage).

Reduced resistance is achieved in the starter motor by constructing the field and
armature windings from strips of copper or aluminium, which have low resistance. The
brushes are made of a mixture of copper and carbon, which offer high conductivity
properties. The cables connecting the battery to the starter motor must be of adequate
size suitable to carry the high current without over heating or causing the voltage to
drop. The cable must be as short as possible.
 31

On heavy diesel engines, a current as high as 500 amps is required to start the engine.
While petrol engines consume as high as 100 to 200 amps when cranking. The cranking
speed must be as high as 100 rpm or more.

The design of starter motors that use four brushes instead of two reduces resistance,
increasing current flow. The four-brush design is made in either series or series-parallel
wound field windings arrangement.

STARTER SOLENOID
The solenoid is a relay or switch, which connects the starter motor to the battery. It has
copper contacts of adequate area suitable of handling heavy current when closed.
When the contacts are closed, battery current is allowed to energize the magnetic fields
in the field and armature windings.

The solenoid is activated by a small current from the ignition switch. This current,
through the coil, causes the battery/motor contacts to close when the ignition switch is
turned to “START” position.
The solenoid consists of two coils and a plunger. The two coils are:-
(i) Pull-in winding: which causes the plunger to move and close the contacts.
(ii) Hold-on winding: which causes the plunger to remain closed until the starter
switch is turned off.

DIAGRAM

OPERATION
When the ignition is turned to the start position, current flows to the solenoid and the
two windings will be energized, since the two windings are connected in parallel. The
magnetic effect in the coil pulls the plunger closing the battery/motor contacts. When
the contacts are closed, the pull-in winding circuit is short-circuited causing it to be
irrelevant because the current is now earthing through the motor. The hold-on winding
remains operative because current through this circuit is grounded through the solenoid
casing.

At this stage, a small current required to hold the solenoid plunger in the closed
position is passed through the hold-on winding.
 32

With the starter switch closed, current flows from the battery and passes through the
field windings, the insulated brush to the armature windings and through the earth
brush to earth. Current flowing through the field windings produces magnetic fields,
which move from one pole shoe to the other i.e. North pole to South pole. And, current
flowing through the armature windings produces magnetic fields around each winding.
The interaction of the two types of magnetic field causes the armature to rotate with a
high torque, starting the engine.

TYPES OF PINION ENGAGEMENT

The drive pinion of the starter motor is meshed with the flywheel after the starter
motor is operated.
There are two methods used to engage the pinion into the flywheel:

(i) Inertia engagement

(ii) Pre-engagement

1. INERTIA ENGAGEMENT
Inertia is the natural tendency of a body to resist any change to its position or
velocity. In the case of starter motors, the inertia of a pinion is utilized to move
the pinion along its shaft (i.e. moving it axially) sliding it into mesh with the
flywheel gear. When the pinion is fully engaged, rotation of the armature drives
the pinion and the flywheel.

DIAGRAM

The pinion is mounted on a helically screwed sleeve that is splined to the armature.
When the motor is operated, the combined effort of the sudden rotation of the
armature and the inertia of the pinion cause the pinion to slide along the helical splines
on the sleeve towards the flywheel. The engagement is aided by the chamfer on the
teeth. Shocks that occur during engagement and drive are cushioned by the large
compression spring.

When the engine has started, the speed of the flywheel, which is higher than that of
the armature, throws the pinion away from the flywheel. This action disengages the
starter motor from the flywheel. The rejection action is so rapid that the resultant
shocks are damped by the large compression spring.
 33

A thin wire spring (hair spring) is fitted at the opposite end of pinion movement to
prevent unexpected engagement of the pinion into the flywheel that may occur due to
vibrations and engine running.

Movement of pinion for engagement is either towards the starter motor or away from
the starter. If the movement is towards the motor, it is called INBOARD and if it is away
from the motor, it is called OUTBOARD.

In the bendix type inertia drive motors; the compression spring (main spring) is used to
transmit drive from the armature shaft to the helical sleeve. In this design, the
compression spring performs two functions:-
(i) Cushioning the shocks during engagement and disengagement
(ii) Taking up torsional loads that drive the pinion.

2. PRE-ENGAGEMENT
One of the disadvantages that the inertia engagement has is that it is not strong
enough to be used on compression ignition engines or bigger S.I. engines. The non-
support at the other end of the armature shaft makes it liable to bend when not with
high rotational resistance.

The pre-engaged starter motors were originally introduced for C.I. engines, however,
most modern engines are designed to use pre-engaged motors whether S.I. or C.I.
engines.

In pre-engaged starter motors, pinion engagement is performed by the solenoid as the

plunger is pulled to close the contacts. The plunger is attached with a sleeve that
moves the pinion engagement lever. Before the contacts are closed, the pinion is first
moved into mesh with the flywheel teeth. And only after the engagement will full
current flow to the motor. Hence called, pre-engagement. The pinion is disengaged
from the flywheel by the starter switch when turned to off and the hold-on winding is
de-energized.

After the engine has started, overrunning of the armature is prevented by the use of
unidirectional clutch (overrunning clutch), which is located between the armature and
the pinion. Drive from the armature is transmitted to the unidirectional clutch and
pinion by helical splines.

DIAGRAM
 34

THE OVERRUNNING CLUTCH

If the armature was caused to run with the flywheel after the engine has started,
damage would occur to the armature and commutator due to overrunning. To prevent
damage caused by such occurrence, an automatic meshing and demeshing device
called an overrunning clutch is incorporated in the starter drive assembly. The
overrunning clutch is operated by the pinion shift lever as the pinion is being pushed
into mesh with the flywheel.

DIAGRAM

The overrunning clutch consists of the outer shell and the pinion assembly. The outer
shell has four hardened steel rollers fitted into four notches. The notches are smaller in
the opposite of the plunger springs.

OPERATION
The overrunning clutch is operated by the shift lever as the lever pushes the pinion into
mesh. When the armature and the shell begin to rotate, the pinion does not. This
causes the rollers to rotate into the smaller, sections of the notches where they lock the
outer shell (armature and shell) with the pinion collar. The pinion will now rotate with
the armature, cranking the engine.
After the engine has started, the flywheel will spin the pinion faster than the armature
is turning. The speed difference causes the rollers to roll into the larger sections of the
notches where they become free. This allows the pinion to spin independent of the
armature. The pinion overruns the armature thereby preventing damage to the
armature.

TERMS RELATED TO STARTER TORQUE

1. LOCK TORQUE: Also referred to as stall torque. It is the torque of the starter
motor at the moment switch contacts is closed. Current flows through the
armature, but, due to the load imposed on it, the armature fails to rotate.
2. BREAK-AWAY TORQUE: This is the torque required to initially overcome the
compression, inertia, friction, oil-drag etc of the engine. It is the greatest torque
demand imposed on the starter motor, but its duration is shorter. Series wound
starter motors have the characteristic of producing maximum torque at the
beginning of their armature rotation.
 35

STARTER MOTORS FOR HEAVY VEHICLES

Compression ignition engines draw in a large volume of air for the high compression
ratio that should ignite the mixture. Because of high compression ratios, high cranking
torques are required in C.I. engines than in S.I. engines. C.I. engines require cranking
speed of more than 100 rpm, while S.I. engines are able to start with a speed of 50-75
rpm. Other than high compression ratios, large engines require high cranking torque to
overcome the breakaway and inertia of the heavy engine parts.
To obtain high starting power many heavy engines use 24 volts systems. An engine of
more than three litres capacity needs a starting motor of consideration power. The
starter motor must be fully engaged before full electrical current is applied to the
motor. The two types of starter motor suitable for heavy engines are:
(i) Axial (with sliding armature)
(ii) Coaxial (with sliding gear)

1. AXIAL STARTER MOTOR

This type of starter motor is big in size and robust. Engagement of the pinion to the
flywheel is achieved by sliding the complete armature assembly axially through the
motor housing. To allow this axial movement of the armature the commutator is made
longer.

DIAGRAM

The electrical circuit of this type of starter motor consists of:

(a) Field windings: The field consists of three windings.

(i) The main winding: which is the usual thick wire (strip) with low
resistance. This field winding is in series to the armature windings.
(ii) The auxiliary winding: A thin high resistance wire. This field winding is
connected in parallel to the main winding and in series to the armature
windings.
(iii) The holding winding: Of high resistance wire. The holding winding is
connected in parallel to the armature as well as the main and auxiliary
windings.
(b) Solenoid: The axial starter uses a two-stage solenoid mounted on the starter
motor. When the starter switch is operated, the first plunger movement closes
the first contacts, which energizes the auxiliary, and holding windings and the
armature. This action causes the armature to rotate slowly. The armature is also
 36

‘moved axially to a position aligned with the main winding. The second contacts
are prevented from closing by a pawl, which engages with the trip lever.

The axial movement of the armature brings the drive pinion into engagement
with the flywheel gear. When the pinion is near to the full engagement, the
release disc on the armature strikes the pawl and causes the trip lever to close
the second pair of contacts.

Current now flows through the main winding and the armature. This flow
provides full torque to the starter motor.

DIAGRAM

The purpose of the holding windings is to maintain the armature in the position that
allows the pinion to remain engaged with the flywheel. After the starter switch is turned
to off, the break of current in the circuit allows the spring at the solenoid to open the
contacts. The magnetic field in the motor collapses allowing the armature spring to pull
the drive pinion away from the flywheel.

2. COAXIAL STARTER MOTOR

The coaxial starting motor can be used as an alternative to the axial starter motor.
Similar to the axial type starter motor, the coaxial starter motor moves the pinion
with reduced electrical power and only when the pinion is fully engaged will full
electrical power be applied. The main difference between the two types is in the
way the pinion is slid into mesh with the flywheel. In the coaxial, instead of the
whole armature moving, only the pinion moves axially to mesh with the flywheel. A
solenoid mounted coaxially with the armature in the motor housing moves the
pinion.

DIAGRAM

THE SOLENOID
 37

The solenoid used in the coaxial starter motor is of the two-stage movement. When the
starter switch is operated, the solenoid is electrically energized. And when energized it
moves the pinion into mesh with the flywheel at the same time the first contacts are
closed. The second pair of contacts is prevented from closing by a trip lever. When the
first contacts have closed and the second contacts still open, the amount of current
flowing is limited by a resistor. This limitation causes the armature to rotate slowly
during the engagement period. Just before the pinion can engage fully a lever will trip
the second contacts. When the second contacts are closed the resistor is by-passed.
This action allows full battery current to flow to the field winding causing the starter
motor to produce full torque. The solenoid keeps the pinion into engagement until the
driver releases the starter switch. Drive from the armature to the pinion is transmitted
on overrunning clutch.

DIAGRAM

PNEUMATIC STARTER MOTOR

The pneumatic starter motor uses air pressure to crank the engine.

CONSTRUCTION
The air starter motor consists of slotted rotor, which accommodates vanes, the drive
shaft which carries the rotor, piston and drive pinion.
The housing is ported with engagement and drive ports. Air starters are of reduction
gear type to increase the cranking torque.

OPERATION
When the starter switch is operated, compressed air will enter through engagement
port A. This air acts on the face of the piston forcing it to move the drive pinion along
the helical splines of the drive shaft to engage with the flywheel gear.

Movement of the piston uncovers port A. Air, through port A, goes to actuate a valve
which opens for a large air volume from the reservoir to flow into port C. This air
pressure rotates the rotor through vanes and discharges at the opposite side.

When this occurs, the drive pinion rotates the flywheel cranking the engine. The outlet
port is connected with a unifier to reduce noise during discharge.

PNEUMATIC STARTER MOTOR

 38

DIAGRAM

Operation
The operation motor used compressed air as power sources for its operation. With the
operation of the starter motor switch compressed air flows through port A and acts on
the pinion mechanism forcing it to move forward along its sleeve towards the flywheel
ring gear. This action opens port B and the kinetic energy of the air operates the valve
to allow a large quantity of air to feed through Port C is in turn fed through inlet ports
located on the inner casing. The compressed air now acts on the rotor vanes and the
rotor turns which in turn rotates the rotor shaft and pinion mechanism and this rotates
the flywheel for engine starting. This air is fed through the inlet orifice and in turn
passed out to the atmosphere through the exhaust posts.

Disassembly and Reassembly of Starter

DIAGRAM

1. Remove the magnetic switch.

(1) Remove the leads from the magnetic
switch.

DIAGRAM
 39

DIAGRAM (2) Remove the magnetic switch mounting nut.

DIAGRAM (3) Remove the magnetic switch by lifting it in

the direction of the arrow.

2. Remove the end cover.

DIAGRAM

3. Remove the lock plate.

(1) Remove in the direction of the arrow, using
a screwdriver.

DIAGRAM

4. Remove the end frame.

(1) Remove the through bolt.

DIAGRAM
 40

DIAGRAM
(2) Remove the brush holder mounting bolts.

DIAGRAM
(3) Remove the end frame in the direction of
the arrow.

5. Remove the brush

(1) Remove the brush by lifting the brush
spring with long nose pliers.

DIAGRAM

DIAGRAM
(2) The brush may also be removed as shown
on the figure on the left.
 41

6. Remove the yoke

(1) Remove the yoke in the direction of the
arrow while oscillating it.

DIAGRAM

7. Remove the drive lever and armature

(1) Pay attention to the direction of the drive
lever.

DIAGRAM
8. Remove the starter clutch
(1) Using the special tool, remove the pinion
stop collar toward the clutch.

DIAGRAM

DIAGRAM
(2) Remove the snap ring.

DIAGRAM
 42

(3) Remove the stop collar

9. Assemble the removal parts.

(1) To reassemble, reverse the removal
procedure.
(2) Pay attention to the following points:
a. Ensure the shift lever is positioned in
the correct direction.
b. Apply grease to each sliding surface.

Inspection of Starter

DIAGRAM

1. Check the field coil for continuity.

(1) Use a circuit tester.
(2) If the tester shows continuity, the
coil is normal; if not, the coil is open.

DIAGRAM

2. Check the field coil for insulation.

 43

(1) Check the insulation between the

field coil brush and yoke.
(2) If the tester shows no continuity, the
insulation is good; if it shows
continuity, repair or replace the field
coil.
DIAGRAM

3. Check the armature coil for insulation.

(1) Check the insulation between the
commutator and armature core,
using a growler tester.
(2) If the tester pilot lamp does not
light, the insulation is good; if the
lamp lights, repair or replace the
armature coil.
DIAGRAM

4. Check the armature coil for short circuit.

(1) Rotate the armature slowly while
applying an iron piece to the core.
(2) If no magnetic attraction or vibration
is felt, the armature coil is normal; if
attraction or vibration is felt, repair
or replace the armature coil.
DIAGRAM

5. Check the armature coil for continuity.

(1) Check continuity between segments.
(2) If the tester shows continuity in each
segment, the armature coil is
 44

normal; if not in any segment, repair

or replace the armature coil.

DIAGRAM

6. Check the commutator for roundness.

(1) First, check the armature shaft for
bending.
(2) Measure the commutator roundness,
using a dial gauge.
(3) If the out-of-roundness exceeds the
limit, repair by using a surface plate.
(4) Correct surface roughness, using
sandpaper.
DIAGRAM
7. Measure the wear on the commutator O.D.
(1) Measure the O.D. using vernier
calipers.
(2) Replace the commutator if the O.D.
is smaller than the limit.
DIAGRAM

8. Measure the depth of mica between segments.

(1) Measure the mica depth between
segments, and repair or replace if
the depth is smaller than the limit.

DIAGRAM

9. Measure the brush length.

(1) Using vernier calipers, measure the
length of the brush.
 45

(2) Replace the brush if the length is

smaller than the limit.
(3) When replacing the brush, sand the
brush with sandpaper for good
contact.
DIAGRAM

10. Check the brush spring.

(1) Using a spring balancer, measure the
as-installed load of the brush spring.
(2) If the load is smaller than the limit,
replace the spring.

DIAGRAM

11. Check the brush holder for insulation.

(1) Check the insulation between the
positive (+) brush holder and
negative (-) brush holder.
(2) If the tester shows no continuity, the
insulation is good; if it shows
continuity, repair or replace the
brush holder.
DIAGRAM

12. Check the starter clutch.

(1) The starter clutch must be locked
when rotated in the driving direction;
it must rotate freely in the opposite
direction.
(2) Replace the starter clutch if the
pinion tooth face is worn or
damaged.
DIAGRAM
 46

13. Check the bearing.

(1) Measure the shaft O.D., using
vernier calipers.

DIAGRAM

DIAGRAM
(2) Measure the bushing I.D., using
vernier calipers.
(3) If the difference between the shaft
O.D. and bushing I.D. is larger than
the limit, replace the bushing.

STARTER PERFORMANCE TEST

DIAGRAM

1. Pull-in coil attraction test.

(1) Apply a voltage of 8 volts between
starter switch terminal (C) and main
terminal (M) of the magnetic switch.
(2) If the plunger is retracted, the coil is
normal; if not, the pull-in coil is
discontinued or the plunger is
sticking.
DIAGRAM
 47

2. Holding coil hold test.

(1) Apply a voltage of 8 volts between
the magnetic switch body and starter
switch (C) terminal.
(2) Arrange wiring as shown in item 1
above to pull in the plunger.
a. Starter switch(C) Main
terminal (M)
(3) While the plunger is pulled in,
disconnect the lead from the main
terminal (M) only.
(4) The holding coil is normal if the
plunger is held in the pulled-in
position; if not, the holding coil is
broken.

3. Pinion gear return test.

(1) Apply a voltage of 12 volts between
the main terminal (M) and the
magnetic switch body.
(2) Push in the plunger with your finger.
(3) The plunger must return quickly to
the original position when the finger
is released.

4. Pinion cap inspection.

(1) Arrange wiring as shown in item 2
above, and hold the pinion in the
“forced-out” position.
(2) Measure the clearance between the
end of the pinion and the stop collar.

DIAGRAM
(3) If the clearance does not meet the
standard, measure dimension “L”
and make proper adjustments.

DIAGRAM
 48

5. Starter no-load performance test.

(1) Fix the starter securely in a vise.
(2) Arrange wiring as shown in the
Figure on the left.
(3) Run the starter under no load, and
measure the rotating speed, voltage
and current.
(4) Read the current after it has
stabilized.
(5) The starter is normal if these
measured values are within the limit.

Starting Circuit
(1) Turn ON the starter switch.
a. The current flows as follows

FORMULA

b. The plunger is pulled in by the

combined magnetic force of P·C and
H·C to push out the pinion.

c. M·C is about to close.

While cranking
d. As M·C closes, no current flows
through the P·C, and the plunger is
held by the magnetic force of the
H·C only.

FORMULA

e. A large current flows from the

battery to the F and A and rotates
the starter strongly.
 49

(2) Turn OFF the starter switch.

a. When turning OFF the starter switch,
the current flows as follows:

FORMULA

b. The direction of magnetic force of

P·C is converted, cancelling the
magnetic force of H·C. Hence, the
plunger is returned by spring force,
and the M·C opens.

BASIC ELECTRONICS

SOLID STATE COMPONENTS (SEMI-CONDUCTORS)

Modern electronic circuits use solid state components. There are other elements that
are neither good conductors nor good insulators. If an element falls into this group, but
can be changed into a useful conductor, it is called a semi-conductor. Silicon and
germanium are the most commonly used elements for semi-conductors.

Examples of semi-conductors include diodes, transistors and integrated circuits (ICs).

Semi-conductors are used in most motor vehicles or machines to replace mechanical
switches.

All semi-conductors are solid state devices. A solid state device is one that can control
current without moving parts or heated filaments.

How semi-conductors work:

Pure semi-conductors have tight electron bonding; there is no place for electrons to
move. In this natural state, these elements aren’t useful for conducting electricity.
However, semi-conductors can be made into good conductors through doping. Doping
is the addition of impurities. The impurities affect how many free electrons the semi-
conductor has. Depending on which impurity is added, the resulting material will have
either an excess of free electrons or a shortage of free electrons.
 50

If the added material creates an excess of free electrons the semi-conductor is negative
or ‘N’ type. If it creates a shortage of free electrons, the semi-conductor is positive or ‘P’
type. Semi-conductors are made from a sandwich of at least one slice of ‘N’ type
material and at least one slice of ‘P’ type material. The area where the ‘N’ type material
and ‘P’ type material meet is called the ‘PN’ junction.

DIODES
The simplest kind of semi-conductor is a diode. It’s made of one layer of ‘P’ type
material and one of ‘N’ type material. Diodes allow current flow in only one direction.
On a schematic, the triangle in the diode symbol points in the direction current is
permitted to flow using conventional current flow theory.

DIODE DIAGRAM AND SCHEMATIC SYMBOL

DIAGRAM

ZENER DIODES
A zener diode is a special kind of diode that is heavily doped during manufacture. This
results in a high number of free electrons and electron holes. These additional current
carriers permit reverse current flow when a certain voltage (the avalanche point or
zener point) is reached. Below this voltage, the zener diode acts like a regular diode.

For an example of zener diodes, look at the charging system. Zener diodes are placed
inside the alternator. These diodes act as a safety mechanism to limit the output of the
stator winding.

ZENER DIODE DIAGRAM

DIAGRAM

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES (LEDs)

Another type of diode commonly used is the Light Emitting Diode (LED) which is used
for illumination. Like all diodes, LEDs allow current flow in only one direction. The
 51

difference is that when forward voltage is applied to an LED, the LED radiates a beam
of light. Many Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) connected in series can be arranged to light
as numbers or letters in a display.

Most LEDs can handle only a small current of about 20 to 30 mA. To prevent damage to
an LED, a current-limiting transistor is placed in series with the LED.

In complex electrical circuits, LEDs are an excellent alternative to incandescent lamps.

They produce much less heat and need less current to operate. They also turn on and
off more quickly.

SCHEMATIC SYMBOL FOR LED

DIAGRAM

DIODE APPLICATIONS
Common uses for diodes in electrical circuits include:

 Rectification (Changing Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC)).

 Voltage regulation (Using zener diodes)
 Illumination and display (using LEDs)
 Clamping to control voltage spikes and surges that could damage solid state
circuits (acting as a circuit protector)

TRANSISTORS
Like diodes, transistors contain a combination of ‘N’ type and ‘P’ type material.
However, transistors contain three materials instead of two. The three materials are
arranged so that “N” type and ‘P’ type materials alternate (either as PNP or NPN group).
In practical terms, this means that diodes have two leads while transistors have three.

DIAGRAM OF TRANSISTOR SCHEMATIC AND CONSTRUCTION

DIAGRAM
 52

EMITTER, BASE AND COLLECTOR

In the diagram above, the material on the left is the base. The material on the right is
collector. The arrow indicates current flow direction (using conventional theory), and is
always on the emitter. The arrow points in a different direction depending on whether
the transistor is PNP or NPN. The arrow always points towards the N material and away
from the P material. So for a PNP transistor, the arrow points inward towards the base.
For a NPN transistor, the arrow points away from the base.

TRANSISTOR OPERATION
A transistor works by using the base to control the current flow between the emitter
and the collector. When the transistor is turned ‘on’ current can flow in the direction of
the arrow only. When the transistor is ‘off’ current cannot flow in either direction.

A transistor is turned on by applying voltage to the base leg, and turned off by
removing voltage from the base leg. This is very similar to the operation of a relay,
which is turned on and off by applying and removing voltage to the coil.

The current through the base circuit is always much smaller than the current across the
collector circuit. Changing the base current a little results in a big change in the
collector current. The current through the emitter is always the largest of all.

TRANSISTOR APPLICATION
Transistors are used as switching devices. If you see a transistor in a circuit, it is likely
functioning as a switch. However, transistors can also be used to amplify or oscillate
current or as dimmers.

RESISTORS IN TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

Resistors are used with transistors for several purposes. For example, using resistors,
the voltage supplied to a transistor can be precisely controlled, which in turn produces
precise output currents. Resistors used in this way are placed on the base circuit.

The second function is transistor protection. If resistors or other resistances are not
placed in the emitter and collector parts of the circuit, high currents can destroy the
transistor.

TRANSISTOR ‘RELAYS’
In some circuits, it is desirable to have resistors function like relays.

In the circuits below, a switch with a very small current control a light that consumes a
large amount of current. This ‘solid state relay’ has several advantages over a
mechanical relay. It can switch faster, it is smaller and it will not wear out.
 53

DIAGRAM OF TRANSISTORS FUNCTIONING AS RELAYS

DIAGRAM

Transistor ‘relay’ are very different from mechanical relays in one important aspect. A
mechanical relay acts as a switch that turns current completely off. A transistor varies
the current flow according to how much current is flowing through the base.

PRINTED CIRCUITS
A printed circuit is a flat piece of insulating material with a series of conducting strips
printed on it.

In automotive engineering, printed circuits are used in areas where there is limited
space. A good example is the space behind the instrument panel. The space behind
the instrument panel is limited, and there are many wires and connections.

When installed behind the instrument cluster, the conducting strips carry current to the
various lights and gauges. For example, when the indicator bulbs are installed, the
contacts on the bulbs rest on the metallic strips. This completes the circuit.

ELECTRONIC CONTROL MODULE (ECM) OR (ECU)

This is the device that centrally controls an electronic control system. It serves as the
processor or decision maker in an electronic control system. The electronic control
module receives signals, processes them and makes decisions. It then sends commands
that control other devices.

The ECM makes decisions based on information received from sensors and then
performs a predetermined task (which has been programmed into it). The ECM is very
much restricted in its decision making process because it can only make decisions that
it has been programmed to make.

The decision making capability of an ECU is therefore dependent on the volume and
accuracy of information it receives, and the level of sophistication of the programming.

ECU COMPONENTS AND CONSTRUCTION

MAIN CASING
 54

The ECU main casing is usually an alloy casting which, because it can be bolted to the
vehicle bodywork, should help to dissipate heat. The casing should also be placed or
located where it is unlikely to be exposed to moisture and vibrations.

MICROPROCESSOR
This is the main decision making component. The microprocessor receives information
to enable it make calculations. The microprocessor then provides an appropriate output
signal, which is used to control an actuator or influence another system.

AMPLIFIER (OUTPUT OR DRIVE STAGE)

The amplifier receives the control system signal from the microprocessor and then
provides an amplified stronger signal to the actuator.

HIGH SPEED SWITCHING OF CIRCUITS

The ECU on a modern vehicle system is often tasked with switching a circuit on and off
at a very high speed and frequency, such as when an ignition coil or fuel injector is
switched on and off (which could occur as often as 100 times a second on an engine
operating at high revolutions per minute).

MEMORY
Computers, including ECUs have a memory which is stored in a memory microchip.
There are different types of memory but all of them essentially store a description of
the tasks that the ECU must perform. When the microprocessor is making calculations,
it will refer to the memory to establish what task should be performed when certain
items of information are received.

ANALOGUE AND DIGITAL SIGNS

An analogue signal can be regarded as a signal or indicator that continuously changes
from one value to another. A good example is the speedometer using a needle to
sweep around the gauge with changes in speed. An analogue signal shows progressive
change.

A digital signal provides a stepped or pulsed signal. A digital display can be used on a
speedometer to display speed in steps. These steps could be in increments of 5km/h or
5mile/h. In such a case, the driver would only see the display change when the speed
increased by 5km/h or 5miles/h. Digital electronic signals are also structured in steps
which generally consist of electrical pulses.

SENSORS
Sensors are a means of providing information. Sensors gather information and send it
as an electrical signal to the processor unit (ECU).

Each sensor feeds the Electronic Control Unit (ECU) with information that relates to
some particular mechanical action or thermal effect.
 55

TYPES OF SENSORS
PRESSURE SENSORS:
(i) Engine Oil Pressure: The engine oil pressure switch was one of the first
sensors to be used on motor vehicles. A pressure switch sensor signals when
a certain pressure is reached or it initiates a warning message when the
pressure drops below a given point. (For engine protection).
(ii) Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) Sensor: This sensor senses the
engine intake depression (often referred to as engine vacuum). Because
engine intake depression varies with engine load and throttle position (and
other factors), the sensor can pass a signal to the ECU that indicates engine
load. As a result, the ECU can control fuel quantity and ignition timing
although information is required from other sensors (including engine speed
and throttle position) to enable the ECU to calculate the true engine load
accurately.

POSITION SENSORS
(i) Crankshaft Position Sensor (CMP) Sensor): Senses crankshaft position
and engine speed for functions such as fuel control strategy.
(ii) Camshaft Position Sensor: Indicates a specific cylinder in the firing order.
(iii) Throttle Position Sensor (TPS): Senses position or angle of throttle valve
for fuel injection.

TEMPERATURE SENSORS
(i) Engine Coolant Temperature Sensor: Senses coolant temperature for
functions such as engine protection, fan control and engine fueling.
(ii) Exhaust Gas Recirculation Temperature Sensor: Senses EGR exhaust
temperature after EGR cooler. Used for EGR system diagnosis.
(iii) Engine Oil Temperature Sensor (EOT Sensor): Senses oil temperature
for functions such as reducing variations in fuel injection and fan control.

LEVEL SENSORS
(i) Engine Oil Level Sensor (EOL): Senses oil level for functions such as
engine protection.
(ii) Fuel Level Sensor: Senses the amount of fuel in the tank and gives signal
through the fuel gauge on the instrument panel.

GAS SENSING
LAMBDA SENSOR (OXYGEN SENSOR):
Detects oxygen gas in the gas exhausted from an engine to provide a useful means for
controlling the air/fuel mixture.

KNOCK SENSING
KNOCK SENSOR
 56

The main purpose of the knock sensor is to detect combustion knock (detonation) in an
engine combustion chamber. This sensor is fitted to an engine cylinder block adjacent
to the combustion chamber.

FUEL RESTRICTION SENSOR

Detects fuel restriction for the replacement of fuel filter. Used in maintenance alert
system.

SUPPLY FUEL TEMPERATURE SENSOR

Senses fuel temperature for functions such as engine fueling.

INTAKE MANIFOLD PRESSURE SENSOR

Senses turbo boost for functions such as smoke control and engine protection in diesel
engines.

TURBO SPEED SENSOR

Monitors turbo speed.

FLOW SENSING
(i) Air Flow Sensor: Monitors the air flow in an engine manifold for fuel
metering. This sensor also takes into account the volume and density of the
air.
(ii) Fuel Flow Sensor: This sensor provides the feature required to produce or
give a signal that indicates the quantity of fuel used by the engine in a given
time. This provides the feature to calculate fuel consumption of an engine.

ACTUATORS
Actuators interpret, communicate and implement motion. They produce mechanical
motion when commanded by an electrical signal (usually from an ECU).

The two types of electric actuators are:

(i) Linear (solenoids)
(ii) Rotary (motors)

LINEAR ACTUATORS
(i) Solenoid Actuator: This has a coil of wire wound around a former into
which is fitted a soft iron plunger. The plunger usually provides a means of
engagement or to close a set of contacts.

This type often has two coils, closing and holding to reduce current when it is
in use.
 57

(ii) Linear Motor Actuator: Has a coil and a powerful magnet to give motion in
a straight line. This actuator is made in two types:
(i) Moving winding
(ii) Moving magnet

ROTARY ACTUATORS
(i) Permanent – Magnet Motor: The conventional permanent-magnet DC
motor is still the most commonly used type to actuate vehicle systems such
as washers, fuel pumps, windows, seats, sunshine roofs and radio antennae.

This type of motor requires a gearbox to adapt speed and increase torque.
Motion in this motor changes from rotary to reciprocating by using
mechanical linkages to give long-stroke action demanded by many
automotive component.

(ii) Stepper Motor: This motor responds to electrical pulse signals and is used
to move mechanical control units. This motor moves through a give step
angle in response to a digital signal.

This motor comes in three types:

(i) Permanent magnet
(ii) Variable reluctance
(iii) Hybrid

This motor can rotate or move in either direction. It can move a rotor forward
through three steps (270°) and then reverse it to its original position.

CHARGING SYSTEM
The charging system converts mechanical energy from the engine into electrical energy
to charge the battery and supply current to operate the electrical systems of the
machine or motor vehicle.

There are two kinds of charging circuits:

 Direct Current (DC) charging circuits that use generators (Dynamos)
 Alternating Current (AC) charging circuits that use alternators.

Both circuits generate an Alternating Current (AC). The difference is in the way they
rectify the Alternating Current (AC) to Direct Current (DC).

The generator supplies the electrical power and rectifies its current mechanically by
using commutators and brushes.

A voltage regulator is included in the circuit. The regulator has three functions:
 58

 It opens and closes the charging circuit

 Prevents battery overcharging
 Limits generator output to safe rates

Alternating Current (AC) charging circuits include an alternator and a regulator. Like the
generator, the alternator produces Alternating Current (AC), but rectifies the current
using diodes. Alternators are generally more compact than generators of equal output,
and supply a higher current at low engine speed.

The regulator in the Alternating Current (AC) charging circuits limits the alternator
voltage to a safe present level. Transistorized models are used in many of the modern
charging circuits.

CHARGING CIRCUIT OPERATION

Charging circuits operate in three stages:
 During starting, the battery supplies all the load current
 During normal operation, the generator or alternator supplies all current and
recharges the battery.
 During peak operation, when the alternator cannot meet the full load, the
battery supplement (helps) the alternator in the supply of current.
The generator produces electrical energy using electromagnetic induction.
Electromagnetic induction is used to generate electricity in the charging circuit.
Electromagnetic induction occurs when there is relative motion (movement) between a
conductor and a magnetic field. As the conductor cuts through the field, a voltage is
induced in the conductor. This voltage causes current flow when the conductor is
connected to a circuit. The amount of output depends on the strength of the magnetic
field, the speed at which the magnetic field is cut and the number of conductors cutting
the field.

The base generator has two components:

 Armature – rotating wire loop (conductor)
 Magnetic poles – stationery magnetic field.

As the armature rotates through the magnetic field of the poles, voltage is induced. The
ends of the loop are connected to a split ring called a commutator. Brushes contact the
commutator and wires connect the brushes to a load. Current will flow since the circuit
is complete. To ensure a strong current and proper flow, wires are wound around the
magnetic poles and the wires are attached to the brushes.

A.C. GENERATOR (ALTERNATOR)

Because of the many advantages associated with the A.C. generator, almost all modern
vehicles are fitted with the alternator. Though, there are many types of alternators,
they all consist of similar components and use the same basic principles in their
operation.
 59

CONSTRUCTION
The alternator consists of the following basic parts:

(i) Rotor: The rotor is an assembly of electromagnetic poles. It consists of a

windings called FIELD WINDING. The field winding is wound around an iron
core for the purpose of increasing the strength of the induced magnetism.
The iron core is pressed onto a shaft, which is rotated by the engine through
a belt. The field winding is enclosed by two iron pieces on each end. The iron
pieces are formed into fingers usually six on each piece. One iron piece forms
the NORTH POLE while the other forms the SOUTH POLE.

The two ends of the rotor winding are connected to copper rings called SLIP
RINGS. The slip rings are mounted on the shaft but are insulated from it. Two
carbon brushes are pressed onto the slip rings by springs to supply electrical
current to the field winding. One brush is insulated, the other is earthed.
 60

(ii) Stator: The stator is a laminated soft iron with grooves through which
conductor windings are assembled. A three-phase stator assembly has three
windings, which produce alternator output.

DIAGRAM

The three windings are connected either in:

(i) Delta
(ii) Star (Y)

DELTA CONNECTION

DIAGRAM

The delta connection is named after Greek letter. The output is from points A, B and C.
The delta connection is used on alternators of higher current output. When the star
connection is changed to delta, the output of the alternator is increased.

STAR CONNECTION

DIAGRAM
With the star (or Y) connection, one end or end winding connects to the other two
windings. The output current connects at point A, B or C. The voltage output is the sum
of the induced voltage in windings “a” and “b” or any other two windings. The star
connection is suitable for alternators, which should produce, lower current.
 61

RECTIFIER
In alternators, semi-conductors called diodes are used to rectify the alternating current
into direct current. A single diode rectifies half waves. For full-wave rectification, each
stator winding is connected with two diodes; a positive and a negative diode. There are
a total of six rectifier diodes in the assembly.

DIAGRAM

Rectifier diodes act as one-way valves. The positive diode will allow only the positive
current to pass through while the negative diode will allow only the negative current to
pass through. The negative diodes are earthed while the positive diodes pass the
current to the battery through the B+ terminal of the alternator. Apart from the
rectifying function, the diodes also prevent reversal flow of current; i.e. from battery to
the alternator when battery p.d is higher than alternators. This feature overcomes the
need for a cut-out in the alternator charging system.

DIAGRAM

In half-wave rectification, half of the output is lost.

To improve the efficiency, both the positive and negative current flow is rectified. This
arrangement provides full-wave rectification.

DIAGRAM
OPERATION OF THE ALTERNATOR
The alternator differs from the dynamo in that it is the magnet, which is rotated against
the conductor. During rotation, the magnetic fields of the rotor cut across each of the
stator windings. As the conductor faces the north and south pole of the magnet during
rotor rotation, each stator coil is induced with alternating current.
 62

DIAGRAM

Alternating output from a single pole magnet and a single conductor

The use of three-phase windings places the output peaks close to each other.

DIAGRAM

The three phase stator windings stabilize the output peaks smoothening the current
flow. The multi pole design of the rotor magnetism increases the speed at which the
magnetic field is cut.

DIAGRAM

A combination of reduced phase angle (3-phase winding) and the multi pole magnet
design makes the alternator to have higher efficiency compared to the dynamo.

THE REGULATOR
Alternator output must be limited to prevent the battery from being overcharged and to
protect the electrical components from excessive voltage, which can blow them. The
regulator is included in the charging circuit for this purpose and controls alternator
output by regulating current flow to the field winding. Alternator output is set to a
 63

maximum of 14 to 16 volts. The regulator is connected to one end of the field winding
circuit. On most alternator charging systems it is connected to the earth side of the field
circuit.

DIAGRAM

Early alternators used mechanical (vibrating) regulators, which were remote mounted.
Modern alternators use electronic i.e. micro electronic (solid-state) regulators which are
located within the alternator housing (built-in). This type is connected by short leads or
push-on terminals to the alternator.

Electronic regulators use power transistors to act as a switch, which connects and
disconnects current to the field winding. The characteristic of a zener (avalanche) diode
is used to switch on and off the power transistors by sensing the voltage generated by
the alternator. In electronic regulators, more than one transistor is used. This
arrangement enables a very small current, which is supplied by the zener diode to be
amplified by the driver transistors to a current sufficient to operate the power
transistor, which switches the full field current.

OPERATION OF THE ELECTRONIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR

DIAGRAM

It must be remembered that a transistor will allow current to flow in the

collector/emitter circuit when there is a small current at the base. In the above
diagram, when alternator output voltage is still low, current will flow from the +
terminal into the regulator body and through resistor R4. Current flow through R4
passes through collector/emitter of transistor T2. This current flows through the
base/emitter of transistor T3 to earth. The presence of current at the base of T3
switches on a higher field current flow through terminal F and collector emitter of T3 to
 64

earth. During this period a strong magnetic field is induced in the field winding, which
generates increased current for alternator output.

The generated current as it is delivered to the battery; it also flows to terminal B+ of

the regulator. From B+ it flows through resistors R1 and R2 to earth. The voltage in this
path is sensed by the zener diode. And, as the voltage increases above the breakdown
voltage for the avalanche diode, the diode conducts allowing the current to reach the
base of transistor T1. Current from B+ will now flow through R1 ZD and base of T1 to
earth. The presence of current at base of T1 allows the collector/remitter of T1 to pass
current from the + terminal through R3 to earth.

When there is flow through this path (R3 to earth), T2 is denied of current flow
(blocked). T2 is, therefore, switched off and there is no flow through the field winding
to earth because T3 has also been switched off.

With transistors T2 and T3 switched off, the magnetic field in the field winding is
interrupted and the voltage at zener diode will fall. The diode will switch back to a non-
conductive state. When the zener diode is not conducting, transistor T1 is switched off.
Current from terminal + through R3 will flow to the base of T2. This current switches
on T2 and T3. This action allows current to flow through the field winding re-
establishing the magnetic field and alternator output. This cycle is repeated
continuously in rapid from the alternator.

The sequence can be summarized as follows:

ZD T1 T2 T3 Field circuit
Blocked Switched off Switched on Switched on Earthed
Conducting Switched on Switched off Switched off Not earthed.

In the circuit diagram given above, the purpose of diode D1 is to protect the transistors
from the inductive field surge, which occurs when transistor T3 (power transistor) is
switched off. The rapid switching off develops a high voltage due to sudden collapse of
magnetic flux. The transistors have to be protected from this high voltage surges.

SURGE PROTECTION DIODE

Some regulator circuits incorporate a surge protection diode which is a zener diode
connected between the alternator IND terminal and the vehicle frame. If used, the
purpose of this diode is to protect the regulator main output transistor (power
transistor) from high voltage caused by faulty connections or removal of battery leads
when the alternator is still running.

FIELD EXCITATION
 65

The energy required to build up the magnetic field in the field winding is initially
supplied by the battery. After this initial stage, when alternator output has exceeded
battery potential difference (PD), stator windings take over.

When field excitation is through a relay, the system is termed as battery excited. And,
when excitation is through field diodes, the system is called self-excited. When the
engine is to be started, with the ignition switched on, the charge warning lamp circuit
connects the field circuit to the battery. This allows the battery circuit to be completed
through the warning lamp and field winding. The lamp is illuminated. The extent of
illumination is determined by the voltage of the lamp. A 12 volts charging system uses a
charger warning lamp of 2-3 watts. The lamp will remain illuminated until the alternator
output has exceeded the battery potential difference (P.D). When alternator output has
exceeded battery potential the light slowly fades and eventually turns off as the
contacts separate. The difference between battery and self-excited system starts from
this stage. The speed at which the alternator takes over the supply of field current is
called CUT-IN and is about 1000 rpm. Higher lamp wattage reduces cut-in-speed.

1. BATTERY EXCITED: The battery excited charging system uses a relay to

connect the battery to the field winding when the ignition switch is on.

DIAGRAM

Contacts in the relay are closed when the ignition is switched on. They are opened
when the ignition switch is off. The alternator using this system has terminal “AL” which
is taken from one of the stator windings. The alternator output is maintained within
limit by the regulator. When the warning light is off, supply to the field winding is
regulated by the regulator. Battery excited systems use mechanical regulators with a
relay connecting the circuit between the ignition and the regulator. The battery-excited
system is an old system, which had given way to, the self-excited system.

2. SELF-EXCITED: In self-excited system, three diodes are added in the diode

pack making the total number of diodes to nine. The three additional diodes are
called field diodes. The purpose of field diodes is to pass part of alternator
output to the field winding to excite the generation of magnetic field.

Alternative using electronic regulators are self-excited system.

 66

DIAGRAM

The IND terminal on the alternator connects the warning light with the field diodes and
the field winding positive “+” end.

FUNCTIONS OF THE WARNING LAMP

The charge-warning lamp performs two functions:
(i) To provide warning signal for charging failure.
(ii) To allow the battery to supply initial current for exciting the field winding.

If the filament of the warning lamp is broken, the alternator will not charge.

BATTERY AND MACHINE SENSING

The energy delivered to the electrical loads alters the potential difference (PD) at the
battery. This altered (PD) must be sensed by the regulator for the field winding to be
excited accordingly.

Two methods used to sense voltage demand in the charging system are:
(i) Battery sensing
(ii) Machine sensing

1. BATTERY SENSING CIRCUIT

The battery sensing circuit has the external cable connected between the battery
and the regulator terminal “B+” for sensing battery voltage. Terminal “IND” is for
warning light connection.

DIAGRAM

DIAGRAM
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2. MACHINE SENSING
Machine sensing circuit has the regulator voltage sensing connected internally to the
alternator at terminal “IND”. The connection is through the charge warning light.

DIAGRAM

ALTERNATOR TERMINALS
Standard color codes as applied to electronic regulators:

Red B+ (Sensing circuit)

Yellow + (Alternator output)
Green F (Insulated field connection)
Black - (Earth connection)

ADVANTAGES OF ALTERNATORS
Compared with the dynamo (commutator) the alternator has the following advantages:

1. HIGHER OUTPUT: Because it is small in size and compact, the alternator can
be run at higher speeds by making the drive pulley smaller than that of the
dynamo. This advantage is desirable in traffic congestion situations.
2. MORE EFFICIENT: A combination of three-phase stator windings and multi
pole magnet rotor has improved the efficiency of the alternator for its size.
3. LOWER WEIGHT AND COMPACT: The alternator is lighter than the dynamo.
However, its output is higher than that of the dynamo.
4. LESS MAINTENANCE REQUIREMENTS: Output current is not conducted
through commutator and brush assembly therefore; failure of the charging
system due to brush wear or surface insulation is reduced.
5. MORE PRECISE OUTPUT CONTROL: The use of solid-state (electronic)
regulators enables precise control of alternator output. The maximum limit is
specific. This specific control permits the use of maintenance-free batteries and
other electronic systems, which would otherwise be damaged by excessive
voltage.
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6. REQUIRES NO CUT-OUT: The use of diodes for output conversion (AC to DC)
eliminates the need for cut-out in the charging circuit.

NORTHERN TECHNICAL COLLEGE

AUTOMOTIVE/H.E.R. DEPARTMENT

WORKSHOP PRACTICE
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TOPIC: CHARGING SYSTEM

ON-VEHICLE INSPECTION

1. INSPECT ALTERNATOR DRIVE BELT

(a) Visually check the drive belt for excessive wear, frayed cords etc.

HINT: Cracks on rib side of a drive belt are considered acceptable. If the
drive belt has chunks missing from the ribs, it should be replaced.

(b) Check the drive belt deflection by pressing on the drive belt at the points
indicated in the figure with 98N (this depends on manufacturers’
specification).

DIAGRAM

If belt deflection is NOT as specified, adjust it.

2. VISUALLY CHECK ALTERNATOR WIRING AND LISTEN FOR ABNORMAL

NOISES.
(a) Check that the wiring is in good condition.
(b) Check that there is no abnormal noise from the alternator while the engine is
running.

3. INSPECT CHARGE WARNING LIGHT CIRCUIT.

(a) Warm up the engine and then turn it off.
(b) Turn off all accessories.
(c) Turn ignition switch to “ON”. Check that the charge warning light is lit.
(d) Start the engine. Check that the light goes out.
If the light does NOT go off as specified, troubleshoot the charge light circuit or
charging circuit.

4. INSPECT CHARGING CIRCUIT WITHOUT LOAD

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HINT: If a battery/alternator tester is available, connect the tester to the charging

circuit as per manufacturer’s instructions.

(a) If a tester is NOT available, connect a voltmeter and ammeter to the charging
circuit as follows:
 Discount wire from terminal B+ of the alternator and connect it to the
negative (-) probe of the ammeter.
 Connect the positive (+) probe of the ammeter to terminal B+ of the
alternator.
 Connect the positive (+) probe of the voltmeter to terminal B+ of the
alternator.
 Ground the negative (-) probe of the voltmeter.

(b) Check the charging circuit as follows:

With the engine running from idling to 2,000 rpm, check the reading on the
ammeter and voltmeter.

Standard Amperage: 10A or less

Standard Voltage: 13.9 – 15.1 at 25°C (77°F)
13.5 – 14.3V at 115°C (239°F)

If the voltmeter reading is greater than standard voltage, replace the IC regulator. If
the voltmeter reading is less than standard voltage, check the IC regulator and
alternator as follows:
 With terminal F of alternator grounded, start the engine and check the voltmeter
reading of terminal B.
 If the voltmeter reading is greater than standard voltage, replace the IC
regulator.
 If the voltmeter reading is less than standard voltage, check the alternator.

5. INSPECT CHARGING CIRCUIT WITH LOAD

(a) With the engine running at 2,000 r.p.m turn on the high beam lights and place
the heater blower at “HI”.
(b) Check the reading on the ammeter.

Standard Amperage: 30A or more

If the ammeter reading is less than standard amperage, repair the alternator.
HINT: With the battery fully charged, the indication will sometimes be less than
standard amperage.

ALTERNATOR
 71

REMOVAL OF ALTERNATOR

1. DISCONNECT CABLE FROM NEGATIVE TERMINAL OF BATTERY.

2. REMOVE DRIVE BELT

(a) Loosen the pivot bolt and adjusting bolt.
(b) Remove the drive belt

3. REMOVE ALTERNATOR
(a) Disconnect the alternator connector
(b) Remove the nut and disconnect the alternator main output wire.
(c) Discount the wiring clamp from the wiring clip on the alternator.
(d) Remove the pivot bolt, adjusting lock bolt and alternator.

DISASSEMBLY OF ALTERNATOR.

1. REMOVE REAR AND COVER.

(a) Remove the nut and terminal insulator
(b) Remove the nuts and end cover.

2. REMOVE ROTOR FROM DRIVE END FRAME

(a) Remove the alternator through bolts.

3. REMOVE BRUSH HOLDER AND IC REGULATOR

(a) Remove the screws, brush holder and IC regulator.

4. REMOVE RECTIFIER HOLDER

(a) Remove the four screws and rectifier holder
(b) Remove the rubber insulators.

5. REMOVE RECTIFIER END FRAME

(a) Remove the nuts and wiring clip.

6. REMOVE PULLEY
(a) Mount alternator in vise and install the alternator to a special service too
(SST)
(b) To loosen pulley nut, turn SST in the anti-clockwise direction.
(c) Remove alternator from the SST.
(d) Remove the pulley nut and pulley.
INSPECTION AND REPAIR OF ALTERNATOR

ROTOR:

1. INSPECT ROTOR FOR OPEN CIRCUIT.

 72

Using an ohmmeter, check that there is continuity between the slip rings.
Standard resistance (cold) : 2.8 – 3.0Ω
If there is no continuity, replace the rotor.

2. INSPECT ROTOR FOR GROUND

Using an ohmmeter, check that there is no continuity between the slip ring and
rotor body.

3. INSPECT SLIP RINGS

(a) Check that the slip rings are NOT rough or scored.
If rough or scored, replace the rotor.
(b) Using vernier calipers, measure the slip ring diameter.
If the diameter is less than the minimum specified by manufacturer, replace
the rotor.

STATOR (Drive End Frame)

1. INSPECT STATOR FOR OPEN CIRCUIT

Using an ohmmeter, check that there is continuity between the coil leads.
If there is NO continuity, replace the drive end frame (stator) assembly.

2. INSPECT STATOR FOR GROUND

Using an ohmmeter, check that there is NO continuity between the coil leads and
stator frame. If there is continuity, replace the stator assembly.

BRUSHES

1. INSPECT EXPOSED BRUSH LENGTH

Using a vernier caliper, measure the exposed brush length.

Standard exposed length: 10.5 mm (0.413 inch)

Minimum exposed length: 1.5mm (0.059 inch)

If exposed length is less than minimum, replace the brushes.

2. IF NECESSARY, REPLACE BRUSHES

(a) Unsolder and remove brush and spring.
(b) Run the wire of a new brush through the hole in the brush holder, insert the
spring and brush into the brush holder.
(c) Solder the brush wire to the brush holder at the specified exposed length.
(d) Check that the brush moves freely and smoothly in the brush holder.
(e) Cut off the excess wire.
(f) Apply insulation paint to the soldered point.
 73

RECTIFIERS (Rectifier holder; Diodes)

1. INSPECT POSITIVE RECTIFIER (DIODE)

(a) Using an ohmmeter, connect one tester probe to the positive (+) terminal
and the other to each rectifier terminal.
(b) Reverse the polarity of the tester and repeat (a)
(c) Check that one shows continuity and the other shows no continuity.

If continuity is not as specified, replaced the rectifier holder.

2. INSPECT NEGATIVE RECTIFIER (DIODES)

(a) Using an ohmmeter connect tester probe to each negative (-) terminal and
the other to each rectifier terminal.
(b) Reverse the polarity of the tester probes and repeat (a).
(c) Check that one shows continuity and the other shows NO continuity.
If continuity is NOT as specified, replace the rectifier holder.

BEARINGS

1. INSPECT FRONT BEARING

Check that the bearing is not rough or worn if necessary, replace bearing.

Use a socket wrench and press to press out the bearing.

Use the same to press in a new bearing.

LIGHTING SYSTEM
Introduction
The Lighting System provides the necessary illumination on the vehicle to allow the
driver to see, and be seen, in conditions of darkness and poor visibility. The lighting
system also signals the intentions of the driver to the other road users, i.e. motorists
 74

and pedestrians, e.g. slowing down, stopping, turning, reversing etc. It is an essential
part of road safety.

CIRCUIT LAYOUT
Lamps are grouped in separate circuits; these include the following:
 Main driving lamps (headlamps) fitted with a dipping facility to prevent
approaching drivers being dazzled.
 Side and rear lamps including lamps for the number plate, glove compartment
and instrument panel illumination.
 Rear fog lamps for ‘guarding’ the rear of the vehicle in conditions of poor
visibility.
 Auxiliary driving lamps including spot lamps for distance illumination and fog
lamps that are positioned suitably and designed to reduce the reflected glare
from fog.
 Reversing lamps to illuminate the road when the vehicle is moving backwards
and warn other drivers of the movement. These are usually fitted with a buzzer
on some models.
 Brake (stop) lights to warn a trailing (following) driver that the vehicle is slowing
down or stopping.
 Interior lights and courtesy lights for signaling either the correct operation of a
unit, or the presence of a fault in a particular system.
 Directional indicators and hazard warning lights to serve as pre-warning that the
driver intends to turn, change the lane or overtake by the flashing of amber
colored lights.

Hazards serve as warning of breakdown or other road traffic disturbance on the

highway by flashing all the amber-colored lights at the front and rear of the vehicle at
the same time.

A Horn is also incorporated in the system, thought it mainly serves as an audible

warning device to other road users.

CIRCUIT ARRANGEMENTS
For maximum illumination, the lamps are connected in parallel with each other. This
arrangement provides various circuit paths for the current so an open circuit in any
branch will cause failure in that one branch only, the other lamps will still function
normally.

Most vehicle lighting systems use an earth-return circuit; this requires less cable than
an insulated return or two-wire system. When the vehicle body is used as an earth, a
good clean connection must be made at suitable earthing points on the main body. This
earthing lead is essential where the lamp is mounted in a plastic body panel.
 75

DIAGRAM
 76

DIAGRAM
 77

DIAGRAM

BULBS

A bulb is a thin strand of metal in a glass envelope used to make light. The number,
shape and size of bulbs used on vehicles is increasing all the time. The bulbs for vehicle
lighting are generally either normal tungsten filament bulbs or tungsten halogen. In the
 78

glass bulb, the tungsten filament is heated by the electric current until it is white hot.
The filament is usually wound into a “Spiralled spiral’ to allow a length of thin wire in a
small space. The glass bulb is filled with a gas such as argon. This allows the filament
to work at a high temperature without burning and it produces a whiter light. A few
common bulbs are described below:

TUNGSTEN HALOGEN HEADLIGHT BULB

Almost all vehicles now use tungsten halogen bulbs for the headlights. This bulb has a
long life and, unlike other bulbs, will not blacken over a period of time. The glass
envelop used for the tungsten halogen bulb is made from quartz. The bulb has two
filaments and three terminals, one for main beam, one for dip beam and the other for
an earth connection. Below is a typical tungsten halogen head light bulb, together with
some examples of bulbs in common use (briefly described below).

DIAGRAM

MINIATURE CENTRE CONTACT

This bulb has a bayonet cap consisting of two pins projecting from either side of
cylindrical cap. It has a single central contact, with a metal cap body forming the
second or earth connection. It is made with various power ratings ranging from 1 to 5
watts. It is typically used for panel lights or outside lights.

DOUBLE CONTACT, SMALL BAYONET CAP.

These bulbs have a bayonet cap with a glass envelop endorsing two filaments. One end
of each filament is connected to an end contact, both of the other ends are joined to
the body, which is the earth. These caps have offset bayonet pins, so that the two
filaments (which have different ages) cannot be fitted the wrong way round. One
 79

filament is used for the stop light, the other for the tail light. They are rated 21 and 5
watts (21/5w).

SINGLE CONTACT, SMALL BAYONET CAP.

These bulbs have a bayonet cap with a glass envelop enclosing a single filament. The
filament is connected to a single central contact and uses the metal cap body to form
the second contact. The size or wattage of the bulb is normally 5w or 21w. The large
bulb which is (21w), is used for indicators, reversing and rear fog lights, the small 5w
bulb for number plate lights or side tail lamps. Two other types of bulbs are the festoon
and the capless type.

FESTOON
The glass envelop has a tubular shape, with the filament stretched between brass caps
cemented to the tube ends. It is often used for interior lighting.

CAPLESS BULB
These bulbs have a tubular glass envelop with a flattened end which provides support
for the terminal wires, these wires are bent over to form the two contacts. Capless
bulbs have power ratings of up to 5w and are used for panel lights, side lights and
parking lights. They are now very popular due to the low cost of manufacture.

FUSES
Some form of protection is required for the electrical wiring of a vehicle and also for the
electrical and electronic components. It is now common practice to protect almost all
electrical circuits with a fuse. A fuse is a weak link in a circuit. If an overload occurs (of
current), the fuse will melt and disconnect the circuit before any serious damage is
caused. Automobile fuses are available in three types: glass cartridge, ceramic and
blade type.

DIAGRAM

The blade type is now the most popular choice due to its simple construction and
reliability. The three types of fuses are shown below. Fuses are available in a number of
 80

rated valves, as listed in the following table together with their color code. Only the
fuse recommended by the manufacturer should be used.

TYPE CURRENT RATING COLOUR CODE

BLADE TYPE: 3 Amps Violet
4 Amps Pink
5 Amps Clear/Beige
7.5 Amps Brown
10 Amps Red
15 Amps Blue
20 Amps Yellow
25 Amps Neutral/White
30 Amps Green

CERAMIC TYPE: 5 Amps Yellow

8 Amps White
16 Amps Red
25 Amps Blue

A fuse protects the device as well as the wiring, so the fuse rating needs to be
considered. If you used a fuse with much higher than stated rating in a wiper motor
circuit, the fuse would probably still protect against a severe short circuit. However, if
the wiper blade froze to the screen, a large value fuse might not protect the motor from
overheating. Fusible links in the main output feeds from the battery protect against
major circuits in the event of an accident or error in wiring connections. These links are
simply heavy duty fuses and are rated in values such as 50, 100 or 150A.

Occasionally, circuit breakers are used in place of fuses, this being more common on
heavy vehicles. A circuit breaker has the same rating and function as a fuse, but the
advantage that it can be reset.

TERMINALS AND CONNECTORS

Many types of terminals are available and have developed from early bullet type
connectors into the high quality water proof system now in use. A popular choice for
many years was the space “Lucar” type terminal. This is still a standard choice for
connection to relays, for example, but is now losing ground to the smaller blade
terminals. Circular multipin connectors are used in many cases; the pins vary in size
from 1mm to 5mm. With any type of multipin connector, an offset slot or similar is used
to prevent incorrect connection.
Protection against corrosion of the connector is provided in a number of ways. Earlier
methods included applying a suitable grease to the pins to repel water. It is now more
usual to use rubber seals to protect the terminals, although a small amount of contact
lubricant can still be used. Many multi way connectors use some kind of latch to prevent
 81

individual pins working loose; they also ensure that the complete plug and socket is
held securely.

WIRES
Cables used for motor vehicle applications are now almost always copper stands
insulated with PVC. Copper, beside its very low resistance, has ideal properties such as
ductility and malleability. This makes it the natural choice for most electrical conductors.
PVC is an ideal insulator; it has very high electrical resistance, but also very resistant to
petrol, oil, water and other contaminants.
The choice of cable size depends on the current it will have to carry. The larger the
cable used, the better it will be able to carry the current and supply all of the available
voltage. But if it is too large, the wiring becomes cumbersome and heavy! In general,
the voltage supply to a component must not be less than 90% of the system supply.
Cable is available in stock sizes, and the next table lists some typical sizes and uses. A
good “rule of thumb” is that one strand of 0.3mm diameter will carry 0.5 amps safely.

CABLE SIZE CROSS SECTIONAL AREA RATING EXAMPLES

Strands/diameter (mm) (mm2) (Amps) Used
9/0.30 0.6 5.57 Side lights etc
14/0.25 0.7 6 Clock, radio
14/0.30 1.0 8.75 Ignition
28/0.30 2.0 17.5 Head lights,
Heated rear window
65/0.30 4.6 35.0 Main supply
97/0.30 6.9 50.0 Charging wires
120/0.30 8.5 60.0 Main supply
37/0.90 23.5 350.0
to to to Starter supply
61/0.90 39.0 700

TERMINAL NUMBERS AND COLOUR CODES

Three main methods are mentioned here to help with tracing circuits: British colour
code system, European system and DIN terminal numbers. Please note that some
manufacturers will not use color or numbers exactly as listed here!
The British standard system users twelve colors to determine the main purpose of the
cable, and tracer colors to further define its use. The main color uses and some other
examples are given in the following table:

COLOUR SYMBOL DESTINATION

Brown N Main battery feed
Blue U Headlight switch to dip switch
Blue/White UW Headlight main beam
 82

Blue/Red UR Head light dip beam

Red R Side light main beam
Red/Black R/B Left side lights and number plates
Red/White R/W Right side and panel lights
Purple P Constant but fused supply
Green G Ignition controlled fused supply
Green/Red GR Left side indicator
Green/White GW Right side indicators
Light Green LG Instruments
White W Ignition to ballast resistor
White/Black W/B Coil Negative
Yellow Y Over drive and fuel injection
Black B All earth connections
Slate S Electric windows
Pink/White P/W Ballast resistor wire
Green/Brown G/N Reverse
Green/Purple GP Stop lights
Blue/Yellow UY Rear fog light

A European system used by Ford, VAG, BMW and other manufacturers is based broadly
on the following table. Please note that there is no connection between the European
system and the British standard color codes. In particular, note the use of the color
brown in each system:

COLOUR SYMBOL DESTINATION

Red Rt Main battery feed
White/Black Ws/Sw Headlight switch to dip switch
White Ws Headlight main beam
Yellow Ge Head light dip beam
Grey Gr Side light main feed
Grey/Black Gr/Sw Left side lights
Grey/Red Gr/Rt Right side lights
Black/Green Sw/Gn Ignition controlled supply
Black/White/Green Sw/Ws/Gn Indicator switch
Black/White Sw/Ws Left side indicators
Black/Green Sw/Gn Right side indicators
Light Green L Gn Coil Negative
Brown Br Earth Connections
Pink/White K/W Ballast resistor wire
Black Sw Reverse
Black/Red Sw/Rt Stop lights
Green/Black Gn/Sw Rear fog light
 83

Once you have practiced and familiarized yourself with these color code system, you
will find fault finding an electrical circuit a little easier!

A popular system is the terminal designation (number code). This helps to ensure
correct connections are made on the vehicle, particularly in after sales repairs.

Note that the designations do not identify individual wires but define the terminals of a
device. Listed below are some of the most popular numbers in vehicle electrical system.

NUMBER (NO.) DESIGNATION

1 Ignition coil negative
4 Ignition coil high tension
15 Switched positive (ignition switch output)
30 Input from battery positive
31 Earth connection
49 Input to flasher unit
49a Output from flasher unit
50 Starter control (solenoid terminal)
50m Motor terminal (solenoid to field coil)
53 Wiper motor input
54 Stop lamps
55 Fog lamp
56 Head lamps
56a Main beam
56b Dip beam
58L Left side lights
58R Right side lights
58 Park/side lights (marker lights)
61 Charge warning light
85 Relay winding output
86 Relay winding input
87 Relay contact input (Change over relay)
87a Relay contact output (break)
87b Relay contact output (make)
L Left side indicators
R Right side indicators
C Indicator warning light (vehicle)

SYMBOLS AND CIRCUIT DIAGRAMS

The idea of a symbol is to represent a component in a very simple, but easily
recognizable form. A conventional wiring diagram shows the electrical connections of a
circuit but makes no attempt to show the various parts in any order or position. A
layout circuit diagram makes an attempt to show the main electrical components in a
 84

position similar to those on the actual vehicle. Due to the complex circuits and number
of individual wires, some manufacturers now use two diagrams: one to show electrical
connections and the other to show the actual layout of the wiring harness and
components. A terminal diagram shows only the connections of the devices, not any of
the wiring. The terminal of each device, which can be represented pictorially, is marked
with a code. This code indicates the device terminal designation, the destination device
code and its terminal designation and in some cases the wire color code. A current flow
system is laid out to show current flow from the top of the page to the bottom. These
diagrams often have two supply lines at the top page, marked 30 (main battery positive
supply) and 15 (ignition controlled supply). At the bottom of the page is a line marked
31 (earth or chassis connection).

RELAYS

A Relay is a very simple device. It can be thought of as a remote controlled switch. A

very small current is used to magnetize a small winding. The magnetism then causes
some contacts to close, which in turn can control a much heavier current. This allows
small, delicate switches to be used to control large current users such as head lights or
the heated rear window.

CIRCUIT PROTECTION
A single fuse, mounted in the supply cable, protects a circuit in the event of a severe
short or circuit malfunction. Each lamp circuit will have its own fuse to avoid all lights
going off in the event that the fuse blows.

LAMP FAILURE INDICATOR

Many manufacturers now fit a warning system to inform the driver when a light is NOT
functioning properly. Often the lamp signal indicator on the instrument panel is a
graphical map of the vehicle. On this display, sections are illuminated either when the
lights are operating normally, or as a signal to warn the driver that a light is ‘out’

MAINTENANCE AND FAULT DIAGNOSIS

Other than the usual superficial check for cable security and condition, most items of
work occur only when a fault develops. On modern vehicles, the graphical display on
the instrument panel will warn the driver of a lighting fault.

FAILURE OF A LAMP CIRCUIT

Initial warning to the driver of ‘bulb outage’ should be verified to ensure that the
monitoring system is NOT giving a false signal. Most lighting faults are caused by the
failure of a fuse or bulb.

FUSE
 85

A blown fuse should be replaced with a fuse of the correct rating. If the new fuse blows
immediately, then the fault must be pin-pointed before fitting another fuse.

BULB FAILURE
The suspected bulb should be removed and replaced with recommended type. Glass
surfaces must NOT be touched with the fingers, especially the quartz-halogen type, so
a clean cloth should be used. Stains on the bulb can be removed by washing in
methylated spirit and drying with a lint-free cloth.

WIRING FAULTS
If the initial check shows that the bulb and fuse are serviceable, and a visual check of
the cables does NOT reveal the defect, then the circuit should be tested with a
voltmeter.

TESTS
TEST 1: A voltmeter (V1) is connected across the battery to measure the voltage under
lighting load.

TEST 2: When the voltmeter (V2) is placed across the lamp the voltage should be
similar to the test 1. If a resistance in the circuit causes the reading to differ by more
than 10% of the battery voltage, the cause should be investigated by using Tests 3 and
4.

TEST 3: Voltmeter V3 shows the voltage drop on the insulated line. If an excessive
drop is shown, the location of the fault can be detected by moving one voltmeter lead
along the connection points in the circuit path until a stage is reached where the
change in voltage is considerable.

TEST 4: With the meter arranged as in V4, the drop in the earth line is shown. By using
a similar technique to Test 3, a high resistance can be located. The total voltage drop
from Test 3 and 4 should be less than 10% of the battery voltage e.g. less than 1.2V
for a 12V system.

A quick check for an open-circuit can be made by using a 12V test lamp. A circuit break
between points 1 and 4 is easily found. With one side of the lamp connected to a good
earth, the break can be located.

DIAGRAM

HEADLIGHT ALIGNMENT
 86

The alignment of headlamps must be corrected to meet the requirements of the law in
respect to dazzle and also to provide good illumination for the driver.

Although the lamps may be checked by observing the illumination pattern on a vertical
screen, most garages use special aligning equipment to achieve a greater accuracy.

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT (OPTICAL BEAM SETTER)

This equipment checks horizontal and vertical aim and enables lamps to be set
accurately. Adjusters are provided at each lamp to alter the setting.

Initially, the aligner is set level and positioned parallel with the front of the vehicle.
When the lamps are switched on, light rays from the lamp pass through a condenser
lens and are reflected by a mirror
on to a small screen.

Most lamps, other than the British-American type having a symmetrical beam and
identified by the number ‘1’ or a mould on the lens, are set to dip beam when aligning
the lamps.

WITHOUT SPECIAL EQUIPMENT: This method requires the vehicle to be positioned

on level ground at a given distance in front of a vertical screen set parallel with the
head-lamps. One method recommended is as follows:-
(i) Position car about 3 to 6 metres from aiming board
(ii) Ensure that tyre pressures are correct
(iii) Bounce car to settle suspension.
(iv) Mark out aiming board
(v) Mark centres of front windscreen and rear window with wax crayon and
position car so that it is aligned with the centre line of the aiming board.
(vi) Switch on dipped beam and cover one lamp
(vii) Adjust horizontal and vertical alignment to give light pattern.

LAMP FITTING
Care must be taken before and during the fitting of additional lamps to ensure that the
system functions correctly and conforms with the lighting regulations.

LIGHTING SYSTEM

DIAGRAM
 87

GAUGES
Gauges provide a “look” inside the engine. Be sure they are in good working order. You
can determine what “normal” operating range is by observing the gauges over a period
of time. The cause of any sudden or significant change in the readings should be
determined and corrected.

DIAGRAMS

Fuel
Indicates the level of fuel in the tank. Electrically operated, it registers only when the
key switch is ON.

Fuel Pressure
Indicator should register in the NORMAL (green) range. When the filter element
becomes clogged, the indicator moves to OUT (red) 20 psi (140 kPa). When indicator
registers below 20 psi, wash the primary fuel filter and replace the secondary fuel filter
element.

Ammeter
Indicates the rate of battery charge or discharge.

DIAGRAMS

Tachometer
Indicates engine RPM.

Oil Pressure
Registers between 45 and 70 psi (310 and 480 kPa) when the engine is running at
rated engine speed, with SAE 30 oil, at operating temperature. A lower pressure is
normal at low idling speeds. If no pressure is indicated, stop the engine immediately.
 88

Water Temperature
Normally registers between 170°F and 195°F (70°C and 90°C). Somewhat higher
temperatures may occur under certain conditions.

DIAGRAM