Radiation, sensible heat flux and evapotranspiration

Climatological and hydrological field work

1 The surface radiation and energy balance

Solar radiation is the primary energy source for the climate system. At the Earth surface
(Figure 1), the net radiative flux represents the energy that is available for

1. heating or cooling the soil

2. changing the phase of water present at the surface through evaporation, conden-
sation, melting, freezing or sublimation
3. heating or cooling air in the boundary layer, eventually inducing convection or
subsidence.

The net radiation at the surface is thus both important for the thermal structure as
well as for the dynamics of the atmosphere and the water cycle.

Figure 1: Estimate of the Earth’s annual global mean energy balance. Over the long
term, the incoming solar radiation absorbed by the Earth and the atmosphere is bal-
anced by the longwave radiation emitted by the two. About half of the incoming solar
radiation is absorbed by the surface. This energy is transferred to the atmosphere by
warming the near-surface air (thermals), by evapotranspiration and by longwave radi-
ation that is absorbed by clouds and greenhouse gases. The atmosphere radiates long-
wave energy back to the surface and out to space. Source: Kiehl & Trenberth (1997).

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1.1 Radiation at the surface
The net radiation at the surface is the result of a combination of different radiative
processes. The incident shortwave radiation is reflected (mainly by clouds) and ab-
sorbed (mainly by oxygen, ozone and water vapor). At the surface, the incoming
global shortwave radiation (shortwave downward radiation SW↓ , Wm−2 ) consists of
a direct and a diffuse component. Part of the the incoming radiation is reflected at
the surface (shortwave upward radiation SW↑ , Wm−2 ). The fraction of reflected ra-
diation is determined by the surface albedo α, which depends on optical properties
of the surface. The amount of longwave radiation emitted at the surface (longwave
upward radiation LW↑ , Wm−2 ) depends on the radiative temperature Tr (K) and the
emissivity ϵ, of which the latter describes how close the Earth is to a black body. Ac-
cording to Planck’s law, every body at a certain temperature Tr (K) emits longwave
radiation amounting to ϵσTr4 , where σ is the Stephan Bolzmann constant (5.67 · 10−8 W
K−4 m−2 ). In the atmosphere, this thermal radiation is absorbed mainly by water va-
por and other greenhouse gases and re-emitted both upwards and downward toward
the surface (longwave downward radiation, LW↓ , Wm−2 ). The longwave downward
radiation depends on the atmospheric temperature and water vapor distribution, and
cloud cover. At the surface, RLW↓ is reflected again, assuming the Earth to be a grey
body (for which its reflectivity R = 1 − ϵ; “a good emitter is a good absorber, i.e., a
bad reflector”). As Earth is a good absorber with high ϵ, its reflectivity is typically very
small and will be neglected here.

Rn = SW↓ − SW↑ + LW↓ − LW↑ (1)

SW↑ = αSW↓ (2)
LW↑ = ϵσTr4 . (3)
The four components of the upward and downward, solar and thermal radiation,
add up to the surface net radiation (net radiation Rn , Wm−2 ; see Equation 1). Equations

gs=f(An)
Rn=SW↓-SW↑+LW↓-LW↑
Shortwave Longwave Hc LEc

Rn
SW↓ LW↓

SW↑ Hg LEg

LW↑
Tr G
α ε

Figure 2: Radiation balance (left) and energy balance (right) at the Earth surface.

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2 and 3 show the relationship between reflected shortwave radiation and albedo as well
as the longwave upward radiation and the emissivity and the radiative temperature.

1.2 Energy fluxes at the surface

At the surface net radiation Rn is partitioned into the sensible heat flux H, the latent
heat flux λE and the ground heat flux G through the energy balance (Equation 4).

Rn = H + λE + G. (4)
E is also called evapotranspiration and λ = 2.5 · 106 J kg−1 is the latent heat of
evaporation of water. Evapotranspiration thus links the radiation (Equation 4) to the
water balance (Equation 5), also shown in Figure 2.

dS
= P − E − Q, (5)
dt
Equation 5 relates evapotranspiration E to changes in terrestrial water storage (dS/dt),
precipitation P and runoff Q. In a first order approximation the sensible heat flux and
evapotranspiration can be expressed as

∆T
H = cp ρKh (6)
∆z
∆q
E = ρKE , (7)
∆z
where ρ is the air density, cp the specific heat of air, ∆q/∆z is the change of specific
humidity and ∆T /∆z is the change of air temperature with height, i.e., the respective
vertical gradients near the surface. The transfer coefficients (KH , KE ) summarize the
combined effects of processes such as atmospheric turbulence or vegetation activity
and are difficult to estimate. The relation between the latent and the sensible heat flux
can be described using the Bowen ratio, which is specified as:

H cp ∆T ∆T
Bo = = =γ , (8)
λE λ∆q ∆e
assuming that the transfer coefficients in Equation 6 and Equation 7 are approx-
imately equal (KH ≈ KE ). Here ∆T and ∆q are the difference in temperature and
specific humidity at two elevations. ∆e is the difference in vapor pressure and γ ≈ 0.67
hPa / K is the psychrometric constant. Finally, the Bowen ration can be combined with
the energy balance equation (4) to derive estimates of the sensible and latent heat flux.
Under the assumption that the ground heat flux is often negligible (G ≪ H + λE) the
fluxes are specified as:

Rn Bo
H = (9)
1 + Bo
Rn
λE = . (10)
1 + Bo
The Bowen ratio can also be approximated through measurements of temperature
and specific humidity alone. This equation only holds over inland continental regions

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and on longer (daily to monthly) time scales, as it assumes land and atmosphere to be
in equilibrium1 .

Rv cp Ta2
Bo ≈ (11)
λ 2 qa
Ta is the screen-level temperature (K), qa is screen-level specific humidity (-), cp =
1, 005(Jkg −1 K −1 ) is the specific heat capacity of air at constant pressure, and Rv =
461.5(Jkg −1 K − 1) is the gas constant for water vapor. The advantage of this equation
is that there is no approximation of the temperature and humidity gradient, instead we
can use surface temperature and humidity.

2 Instruments
2.1 Radiation
In this experiment short wave radiation components will be measured using a net-
pyranometer that measures the upward and downward components separately. In
addition net radiation (Rn ) is measured using a net-radiometer. Both instruments are
mounted on a portable tripod and can be deployed at different locations in the field.

2.2 Psychrometer
Air temperature and humidity will by measured using an aspiration psychrometer
measuring temperatures at two ventilated thermometers. The first thermometer mea-
sures air temperature (“dry-bulb” temperature, Ta ). The second thermometer is kept
wet and measures the so called “wet-bulb” temperature (Tw ). The difference between
the dry-bulb and the “wet-bulb” temperature is directly related to the vapor pressure:
p
e = es (Tw ) − γ (Ta − Tw ), (12)
p0
where es (Tw ) is the saturation vapor pressure at the wet-bulb temperature, γ is the
psychrometric constant, p is the air pressure and p0 = 1000 hPa. The saturation vapor
pressure is specified as:

17.62 × T
 
es (T ) = 6.112 × exp (13)
243.12 + T

1
McColl, K. A., & Rigden, A. J. (2020). Emergent simplicity of continental evapotranspiration. Geo-
physical Research Letters

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3 Experiments
3.1 Think
Discuss the surface radiation balance and its components. Try to go beyond the equa-
tions listed in this document. Which factors determine the components? How would
you, for instance, parametrize LW↓ and E?

3.2 Look
Have a look at the mobile instruments available at the field course and discuss how
they (might) work.

3.3 Play
Play with the instrument, without breaking them of course. Measure under conditions
that might not be scientifically meaningful, but reveil how the instruments work tech-
nically.

3.4 Measure
1. Choose a series of different environments for mobile radiation measurements.

2. At each location, determine:

• the albedo (α)

• the shortwave radiation balance (SW↓ − SW↑ )
• the longwave radiation balance (LW↓ − LW↑ )
• the latent (E) and sensible heat flux (H).

3. Estimate the accuracy of your measurements and calculations.

3.5 Discuss
1. What are the strong points of your observations and instruments?

2. What are the weak points of your observations and instruments?

3. Compare the values at the different locations and discuss differences.

4. Which research questions could be answered with the instruments at hand.