Chapter 11 (2020)

Magnetic Properties of
Materials

(Callister Ch. 21 p 752-773)

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 11.1 Outcomes
 Define and explain the meaning of terms and
concepts such as: ferromagnetic materials;
ferrimagnetic materials; paramagnetic materials; soft
and hard magnetic materials; magnetic field;
magnetization and demagnetization; magnetic field
strength; magnetic induction (flux density); magnetic
permeability (o, , i, max, r ); Curie temperature.;
ferromagnetic domains; hysteresis loop; saturation
induction (Bs); remnant induction (Br); coercive
force (Hc); maximum energy product (BHmax);
 Give examples of the different types of magnetic
materials and give typical applications of each

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 Outcomes
 describe an experimental method from which the B -H
curve as well as hysteresis loop for a ferro- (ferri-)
magnetic material can be constructed and also how
the i, max and r values of the material can be
obtained from the curve
 explain the principle of and the conditions for
ferromagnetic behaviour of elements and show why
Fe, Co and Ni are the only ferromagnetic elements
 explain the concept of ferromagnetic domains and
how the domain structure of a ferromagnetic material
is affected during magnetization and demagnetization
in a magnetic field
 explain why a magnetized ferromagnetic material is
demagnetized after heating to above its Curie
3
temperature 2019/07/08
 Outcomes
 Explain, with reference to their typical hysteresis
loops, why soft ferromagnetic materials are easily
magnetized and demagnetized, while hard
ferromagnetic materials are difficult to magnetize
and to demagnetize

 Determine the following magnetic properties of a

ferromagnetic material from its hysteresis loop: Bs,
Br, Hc and BHmax and explain the practical
significance of each of these properties.

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 11.2 Introduction
1. The metals iron, cobalt and nickel are the
only three elemental metals which when
magnetized at room temperature can produce
strong magnetic fields around themselves.
2. Modern applications rely on magnetism and
magnetic materials or induced magnetism:
these include power generators, transformers,
electric motors, components of video and audio
systems etc.

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 11.3 Applied Magnetic Field
i) Applied Magn. Field Strength: H

H = Field strength (H: Oersted)

N = number of coil turns
I = Current (A)
L= length (m)

ii) Induced Magnetic flux density: B

B: Tesla
 = permeability (H/m) of the insert
2019/07/08 H = “Input” B = “Output” 6
 Induced Magnetic Flux
1. The magnetic induction, or magnetic flux density, denoted
by B, represents the magnitude of the internal field strength
within a substance that is subjected to an external H field.
2. The units for B are Tesla [or Weber/m3]
3. Both B and H are field vectors, being characterized not only
by magnitude, but also by direction in space.
Bo = o H
where B o = magnetic induction or flux density [Tesla=T ]
0 = magnetic permeability of free space/vacuum
(4..10 –7 T.m/A)
B  >0
vacuum
 measures the
=0 material’s response
< 0 relative to a vacuum.
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 Magnetic Units

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 11.4 Types of Magnetism:
1. Diamagnetism: weak form of magnetism and
occurs only with an external magnetic field.

Such a field slightly unbalances the orbiting

electrons and creates small magnetic dipoles within
the atoms which oppose the applied field. This leads to
a negative magnetic effect known as diamagnetism

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 Types of Magnetism:
2. Paramagnetism
The randomly oriented atomic dipole moments align
themselves in the direction of the applied magnetic
field. When the external magnetic field is removed,
the material loses its magnetism

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 Types of Magnetism:
3. Ferromagnetism
The magnetic dipole moments maintain their orientation
in the same direction even after the external field was
removed .

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 Types of Magnetism
4. Anti-ferromagnetism
Elements like Cr and Mn have a small magnetic
dipole moment at room temperature. These
magnetic dipole moments align anti-parallel in an
external magnetic field as a result of negative
exchange energy
5. Ferrimagnetism
Ionic compounds with ions having different
dipole moments. The different ions align anti-
parallel in an applied field but show a net magnetic
dipole moment – same as ferromagnetism

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 Magnetic Moments for 3 Types
No Applied Applied
Magnetic Field (H = 0) Magnetic Field (H)

opposing
(1) diamagnetic

none
random

aligned
(2) paramagnetic

aligned

aligned
(3) ferromagnetic
ferrimagnetic

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11.5 Effect of temperature on Ferromagnetism
The Curie temperature
1. The energy associated with an increase in
temperature has the effect to decrease the
parallel alignment of unpaired 3d-electrons within
the magnetic domains
2. At a specific temperature (Curie Temperature,
Tc), the ferromagnetic behaviour is completely lost
and the material becomes paramagnetic
 iron: Tc = 770 oC
 cobalt: Tc = 1123 oC
 nickel: Tc = 358 oC
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11.6 Domains and the Hysteresis Loop

Ferro- and ferri-magnetic materials contain small regions in which the

atomic dipole moments are aligned 15
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 The Hysteresis Loop
i) ‘Hysteresis is the dependence of a system not
only on its current environment but also on its past
environment’

B-H Hysteresis terminology

- Bs: Saturation induction
- Br: Residual magnetic
induction
- Hc: Coercive force
- : permeability (is the slope at
2019/07/08 the initial magnetisation) 16
 11.7 Magnetization
When an external magnetic field is applied to a
demagnetized ferromagnetic or ferrimagnetic
material, it will become magnetized again, due to
the following structural changes
(a) Magnetic domains: whose moments are initially
parallel to the applied field (H), grow at the
expense of the less favorably orientated domains.
(b) If the applied field (H) is high (strong) enough,
less favorably orientated domains are also re-
orientated by rotation of the dipole moments thus
moving the domain wall

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 Ferro- & Ferri-Magnetic Materials
i) As the applied field (H) increases
--the magnetic moments align with H.
Bsat
H
H
induction (B)

H “Domains” with
Magnetic

aligned magnetic
H moment grow at
expense of poorly
aligned ones!
H
0 Applied Magnetic Field (H)

H=0
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 Meaning of Hysteresis Loop!

Form and size of the loop:

– Area of B-H loop: measure
of the energy lost for each
cycle of magnetisation and
demagnetisation

Soft magnetic material Hard magnetic material

Small and narrow Hysteresis Loop Large and wide Hysteresis Loop

Low intensity field / energy required to Permanent magnets not easily

magnetise or demagnetise demagnetised
Low eddy current losses (can increase
resistivity by alloying with impurities) 2019/07/08
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 11.8 Demagnetisation
A material can be demagnetized by:

i) applying an oppositely directed magnetic field

ii) heating the material to above its Curie

temperature and slow cooling

iii) cold work the material or expose it to impact

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 11.9 Soft magnetic materials
i) Easy to magnetize and to demagnetize (low
applied fields required and low energy losses).
ii) Requirements for soft magnetic materials
 High saturation induction (Bs) and high
permeability (). Pure Iron is the most suitable.
 Minimum hysteresis losses – which is increased
by: - impurities in solid solution
- high dislocation density (cold work)
- small grain size
- the presence of precipitates all which limits domain
boundary movement.
 Low eddy current energy losses

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 11.10 Hard Magnetic Materials
Hard Magnetic Materials:
1.They are characterised by a high coercive force Hc and
high remnant induction Br

2.The area occupied by the

largest rectangle that can
be inscribed in the second
quadrant of the hysteresis
loop is an indication of the
energy which is required
for demagnetization. (BHmax)

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 11.11 References
Chapter 11
Slide Reference
no

1 http://wtamu.edu/~cbaird/sq/2013/03/26/how-do-magnets-heal/ ; Sciencing: https://sciencing.com/properties-magnets-

electromagnets-8052145.html
5 Global sources: https://www.globalsources.com/si/AS/Hangtung-Electrical/6008830277474/pdtl/Digital-EC-
Transformer/1134171505.htm ; TATA Steel: https://www.tatasteeleurope.com/en/products/engineering/electrical-steel ;
6 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.3 pg 753
8 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Table 21.1 pg 755
9 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.4 pg 755
10 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.5 pg 757
11 Slideplayer: https://slideplayer.com/slide/8667115/
13 Sinatra:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/254705371_Understanding_the_Interaction_Between_Blood_Flow_and_an_A
pplied_Magnetic_Field ; Jan 2010
15 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.11 and
Fig21.13 pg 764
16 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.14 pg 766
19 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.19 pg 768
22 Material Science and Engineering Callister 9e Fig 21.14 pg 766

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