Single -phase Transformers

Transformers
Transformer is a static electrical device which transfers electrical power from one circuit to
another without change in power and frequency. It works on the principle of mutual induction.

Necessity of Transformer:

Fig. Power system comprising generation, transmission, and distribution

Transformer is a static AC electrical machine used to step up or step down the voltage from
one level to another level. When voltage is stepped up, current will automatically step down so
that power remains same.
(1) In India, AC voltage generation in all power plant is 11 kV. The generated power cannot
be transmitted for a longer distance, which may lead to more voltage drop and copper losses in
the lines. The copper losses depend upon the resistivity of a conductor and amount of current
flowing in a conductor. Hence, when the generated voltage of 11 kV is stepped up to 110 kV
or 220 kV, the current will reduce several times lead to less copper losses in the transmission
lines.
(2) We need to step down voltage from 230 V AC to 5 V AC and then to a DC form using step
down transformer and rectifier circuits for all switched mode power supplies used in electronic
gadgets.
(3) In some practical applications, It is required to isolate the two different circuits using 1:1
isolation transformers, where the two circuits are electrically isolated but magnetically coupled.
Hence any damage occurred in one circuit will not be carried out to another circuit due to
electrical isolation,
(4) It is required to perform impedance matching in telecommunication systems for which
transformers are used to vary resistance, inductance or capacitance effect of lines.
Applications
(1) Step up or step down the voltage

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Single -phase Transformers

(2) Electrical isolation

(3) Impedance matching

Classification of Transformers
(1) Based on voltages
(a) Step up transformer to increase the voltage
(b) Step down transformer to decrease the voltage
(2) Based on construction of core
(a) Core type transformer
(b) Shell type transformer

Construction of Transformers
A single-phase transformer consists of two parts (1) windings (2) core. There are two windings
namely primary and secondary windings which are wounded on the two limbs of the core,
which are insulated from each other and from the limbs. The windings are made of copper, so
that they possess a very small resistance. The core is made of silicon steel, which has a high
relative permeability & low hysteresis co-efficient. The core of the transformer is laminated to
reduce eddy current losses. The laminations are about 0.3 mm thickness and are insulated from
each other by a coating of varnish on the surface

Construction of Core type transformer

The core is rectangular having two limbs and one window. It has one magnetic flux path only.
On every limb, both primary and secondary windings are wounded so that leakage of magnetic
flux is reduced as shown in Fig. 2. In core type transformer, the winding encircles the core.
The coils are wound in helical layers with different layers insulated from each other by paper

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Single -phase Transformers

or mica. The low voltage coil is placed inside, near the core while high voltage coil surrounds
the low voltage coil. The lamination is cut in the form of the L strips. Core is made up of large
number of thin laminations to reduce eddy current losses and made of high silicon steel to
reduce hysteresis losses. The core type transformer affords better cooling surface for winding
than the shell type transformer and is therefore suitable for fully loaded conditions. Therefore,
they are preferred for high voltage ratings ( > 11 kV) that includes distribution transformers
seen on road sides.

It has three limbs, two windows and two magnetic flux path. Both LV and HV windings are
placed at central limb as shown. Hence the coils are generally multilayer disc type. In shell
type transformer, the core encircles the winding of the transformer. Each high voltage coil is
in between two low voltage coils and low voltage coils are nearest to top and bottom of the
yokes. Lamination are cut in the form of the long strips of E and I. The core is laminated to
reduce eddy currents and made of high silicon steel to reduce hysteresis losses. The central
limb carries the whole of the flux, and the side limb carries the half of the flux. Hence the width
of the central limb is about to double to that of the outer limbs. Shell type transformers are
preferably used in electronic circuits, SMPS, power converter circuits and most suitable for
low voltage applications (< 11 kV).
Working principle of a Transformer
A single-phase transformer consists of two parts (1) windings (2) core. There are two windings
namely primary and secondary windings which are wounded on the two limbs of the core,
which are insulated from each other and from the limbs. The windings are made of copper, so
that they possess a very small resistance. The core is made of silicon steel, which has a high
relative permeability & low hysteresis co-efficient. The core of the transformer is laminated to
reduce eddy current losses. The laminations are about 0.3 mm thickness and are insulated from
each other by a coating of varnish on the surface.

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Single -phase Transformers

Working Principle: A single phase transformer works on the principle of mutual induction
between two magnetically coupled coils. When the primary winding is connected to an AC
voltage of rms value V1 volts, an alternating current flow through the primary winding and sets
up an alternating flux in the material of the core. This alternating flux links not only the primary
winding but also the secondary winding. Therefore, an EMF E1 is induced in the primary
winding and an EMF E2 is induced in the secondary winding.
The instantaneous values of induced EMF in primary windings is given as

Similarly, in secondary winding,

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Single -phase Transformers

EMF equation of a Transformer

When an alternating voltage,V1=Vm sin ωt is applied to the primary windings, an alternating
current flows through the primary winding produces an alternating flux 𝜑1. Hence EMF e1 is
induced in the primary winding & e2 is induced in the secondary winding.
As the primary applied voltage is sinusoidal in nature, the resulting flux is also sinusoidal in
nature.
Therefore, the equation for flux is given as

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Single -phase Transformers

Problems on EMF equation

(1) A single phase, 20 kVA, transformer has 1000 primary turns & 2500 secondary turns.
The net cross sectional area of the core is 100 cm2. When the primary winding is
connected to 500 V, 50 Hz supply, Calculate
(i) The maximum value of the flux density in the core
(ii) The voltage induced in the secondary winding &
(ii) The primary & secondary full load current

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Single -phase Transformers

(2) A 100 kVA, 50 Hz, single phase, core type transformer has a turns ratio of 1000/250,
the primary winding is connected to 500 V, 50 Hz supply. Find
(i) Secondary open circuit voltage & the max. value of flux in the core
(ii) No. of turns/limb on high & low voltage side

(3) The design

requirement of a 6000/450 V, 50 Hz, core type transformer are approx. EMF/turn=15 V,
Max. flux density=1 Tesla. Calculate the suitable no. of primary and secondary turns and
the net cross sectional area of the core.

(4) A single-phase transformer with 10:1 turns ratio & rated at 25 kVA, 1200/120 V, 50
Hz is used to step down the voltage of a distribution system. The low-tension voltage is to
be kept constant at 120 V. Find the value of the load impedance on the low-tension side
so that the transformer is fully loaded. Find also the maximum value of flux, if the low-
tension side has 25 turns.

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Single -phase Transformers

(5) Find the no. of turns required on the HT side of a 415/240 V, 50 Hz, single phase
transformer, if the area of cross section of the core is 25 cm 2 & the max. flux density is
1.3 wb/m2 .

Ideal Transformer.
➢ An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has: - no copper losses (no winding
resistance) - no iron loss in core. - no leakage fluxes.
➢ In other words, an ideal transformer gives output power exactly equal to the input power.
➢ These values are determined by the power factor of the load and are equal for the ideal
transformer. Hence, V1I1 = V2I2, and this can be expressed as a ratio, V1/ V2 = I2/ I1
➢ This shows that if a transformer steps up the voltage to a higher value, the current flowing will
be correspondingly reduced.
➢ An ideal transformer comprises two resistance less coils embracing a common magnetic
circuit of infinite permeability and zero core loss.
➢ The coils produce no leakage flux: i.e., the whole flux of the magnetic circuit completely links
both coils. When the primary coil is energised by an alternating voltage V1, a corresponding flux
of peak value Φm is developed, inducing in the N1-turn primary coil an e.m.f E1 = V1.
➢ At the same time an e.m.f E2 is induced in the N2-turn secondary coil.
➢If the terminals of the secondary coil are connected to a load taking a current I2, the primary
coil must accept a balancing current I1 such that I1N1 = I2N2, as the core requires zero excitation.
➢ The operating conditions are therefore,

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Single -phase Transformers

In the ideal transformer, the power input would be equal to the power output. This may be
written;

• These two m.m.fs will be acting in opposition around

the magnetic circuit and the resultant m.m.f. is FR =
F1 – F2 (phasor).
• This resultant would be zero in the case of the ideal
transformer as no m.m.f. would be required to maintain the
flux in the iron core.
• A phasor diagram showing the ideal transformer on load is
given in Fig.
• Note that the currents I1 and I2 are in antiphase because the corresponding m.m.f.s are
in opposition in the magnetic circuit.
• Vector diagram of an Ideal transformer.

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Single -phase Transformers

Practical transformer.
• A practical power transformer differs from the ideal, in that its core is not infinitely
permeable and demands an excitation N1I0 = (N1I1 − N2I2); the primary and secondary
coils have both resistance and magnetic leakage; and core losses occur.
Practical Transformer on No load condition.
• When the transformer is operating at no load, the secondary winding is open-circuited,
which means there is no load on the secondary side of the transformer and, therefore,
current in the secondary will be zero.
• While primary winding carries a small current I0 called no-load current which is 2 to
10% of the rated current.
• This current is responsible for supplying the iron losses (hysteresis and eddy current
losses) in the core and a very small amount of copper losses in the primary winding.
• The angle of lag depends upon the losses in the transformer. The power factor is very
low and varies from 0.1 to 0.15.

• The no-load current consists of two components:

• Reactive or magnetizing component Im : (It is in quadrature with the applied voltage

V1. It produces flux in the core and does not consume any power).

• Active or power component Iw : also known as a working component. (It is in phase

with the applied voltage V1. It supplies the iron losses and a small amount of primary
copper loss).

• With the secondary circuit open, nothing is connected across it, a back EMF along with
the primary winding resistance acts to limit the flow of this primary current.
Obviously, this no-load primary current (Io) must be sufficient to maintain enough
magnetic field to produce the required back emf.

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Single -phase Transformers

The following steps are given below to draw the phasor diagram:
1. The function of the magnetizing component is to produce the magnetizing flux, and thus,
it will be in phase with the flux.
2. Induced emf in the primary and the secondary winding lags the flux ϕ by 90 degrees.
3. The primary copper loss is neglected, and secondary copper losses are zero as I2 = 0.
4. Therefore, the current I0 lags behind the voltage vector V1 by an angle ϕ0 called the no-
load power factor angle and is shown in the phasor diagram.
5. The applied voltage V1 is drawn equal and opposite to the induced emf E1 because the
difference between the two, at no load, is negligible.
6. Active component Iw is drawn in phase with the applied voltage V1.
7. The phasor sum of magnetizing current Im and the working current Iw gives the no-load
current I0.
• From the phasor diagram, the following conclusions can be made.

• The no load power input is to meet the no load losses occurring in the transformer such
as the core loss or iron loss which is a constant loss as the applied voltage and frequency
is constant during the normal working of the transformers.

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Single -phase Transformers

Transformer On Load Condition

When the transformer is on the loaded condition, the secondary of the transformer is connected
to load. The load can be resistive, inductive, or capacitive. The current I2 flows through the
secondary winding of the transformer. The magnitude of the secondary current depends on the
terminal voltage V2 and the load impedance. The phase angle between the secondary current
and voltage depends on the nature of the load.

When the secondary of the transformer is kept open, it draws the no-load current from the main
supply. The no-load current induces the magnetomotive force N0I0 and this force set up the
flux Φ in the core of the transformer. The circuit of the transformer at no load condition is
shown in the figure below:

When the load is connected to the secondary of the transformer, I2 current flows through their
secondary winding. The secondary current induces the magnetomotive force N2I2 on the
secondary winding of the transformer. This force set up the flux φ2 in the transformer core. The
flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, according to Lenz’s law.

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Single -phase Transformers

• As the flux φ2 opposes the flux φ, the resultant flux of the transformer decreases and this
flux reduces the induced EMF E1. Thus, the strength of the V1 is more than E1 and an
additional primary current I’1 drawn from the main supply. The additional current is used
for restoring the original value of the flux in the core of the transformer so that V1 = E1.
The primary current I’1 is in phase opposition with the secondary current I2. Thus, it is
called the primary counter-balancing current.
• The additional current I’1 induces the magnetomotive force N1I’1. And this force set up the
flux φ’1. The direction of the flux is the same as that of the φ and it cancels the flux φ2 which
induces because of the MMF N2I2

Now, N1I1’ = N2I2

Therefore,

• The phase difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary side
of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
• If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be
lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. The total primary
current I1 is the vector sum of the currents I0 and I1’. i.e

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Inductive Load (lagging pf)

The phasor diagram of the actual transformer when it is loaded inductively is shown below:

Steps to draw the phasor diagram

• Take flux ϕ, a reference

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Single -phase Transformers

• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.

• The component of the applied voltage to the primary equal
and opposite to induced emf in the primary winding. E1 is
represented by V1'.
• Current I0 lags the voltage V1 by 90 degrees.
• The power factor of the load is lagging. Therefore, current
I2 is drawn lagging V2 by an angle ϕ2.
• The resistance and the leakage reactance of the windings
result in a voltage drop, and hence secondary terminal
voltage V2 is the phase difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops, I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is

in quadrature with I2.

• The total current flowing in the primary winding is the

phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
• Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1’ and the voltage drop in the primary
winding.
• Current I1’ is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

V1 = V1' + voltage drop I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the primary
side of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected to the
transformer.
• If the load is inductive as shown in the above phasor diagram, the power factor will be
lagging, and if the load is capacitive, the power factor will be leading. Where I1R1 is the
resistive drop in the primary windings I2X2 is the reactive drop in the secondary winding

Phasor Diagram of Transformer on Capacitive Load (leading pf)

The Transformer on the Capacitive load (leading power factor load) is shown below in the
phasor diagram.

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Single -phase Transformers

Steps to draw the phasor diagram at capacitive load

• Take flux ϕ a reference
• Induces emf E1 and E2 lags the flux by 90 degrees.
• The component of the applied voltage to the primary
equal and opposite to induced emf in the primary
winding. E1 is represented by V1’.
• Current I0 lags the voltage V1’ by 90 degrees.
• The power factor of the load is leading. Therefore,
current I2 is drawn leading E2
• The resistance and the leakage reactance of the
windings result in a voltage drop, and hence
secondary terminal voltage V2 is the phasor difference of E2 and voltage drop.

V2 = E2 – voltage drops I2 R2 is in phase with I2 and I2X2 is in quadrature with I2.

• Current I1' is drawn equal and opposite to the current I2

• The total current I1 flowing in the primary winding is the phasor sum of I1’ and I0.
• Primary applied voltage V1 is the phasor sum of V1' and the voltage drop in the
primary winding.

V1 = V1’ + voltage drop I1R1 is in phase with I1 and I1XI is in quadrature with I1.

• The phasor difference between V1 and I1 gives the power factor angle ϕ1 of the
primary side of the transformer.
• The power factor of the secondary side depends upon the type of load connected
to the transformer.

Resistance and Reactance of the Transformer

The Resistance of the transformer is defined as the internal resistance of both primary and
secondary windings. In an actual transformer, the primary and the secondary windings have
some resistance represented by R1 and R2 and the reactance by X1 and X2. Let K be the
transformation ratio.

To make the calculations easy the resistances and reactance can be transferred to either side,
which means either all the primary terms are referred to the secondary side, or all the secondary
terms are referred to the primary side.

The resistive and the reactive drops in the primary and secondary side are represented as
follows

• Resistive drop in the secondary side = I2R2

• Reactive drop in the secondary side = I2X2
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Single -phase Transformers

• Resistive drop in the primary side = I1R1

• Reactive drop in the primary side = I1X1

Primary Side Referred to Secondary Side

Since the transformation ratio is K, the primary resistive and reactive drop as referred to
secondary side will be K times, i.e., K I1R1 and K I1X1 respectively. If I1 is substituted equal to
KI2 then we have primary resistive, and reactive drop referred to secondary side equal to
K2I2R1 and K2I2X1 respectively.

The total resistive drop in a transformer

The total reactive drop in a transformer

The terms represent the equivalent resistance and

reactance of the transformer referred to the secondary side.
Where,

Thus, from the phasor diagram shown above the equation can
be formed as

Where V2 is the secondary terminal voltage and I2 is secondary current lagging behind the
terminal voltage V2 by an angle ϕ.
Since the term is very small and is neglected as

compared to the term

Now the equation becomes

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Single -phase Transformers

Where V1 is the applied voltage to the primary winding.

If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is purely resistive then ϕ = 0 and the
equation (1) becomes

If the load on the secondary side of the transformer is capacitive then ϕ should be taken as
negative, and the equation (1) becomes

Therefore, this will be the load voltage.

Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

The equivalent circuit diagram of any device can be quite helpful in the pre-determination of
the behaviour of the device under the various condition of operation. It is simply the circuit
representation of the equation describing the performance of the device.

The simplified equivalent circuit of a transformer is drawn by representing all the parameters
of the transformer either on the secondary side or on the primary side. The equivalent circuit
diagram of the transformer is shown below:

Equivalent circuit diagram of a transformer

• Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Primary side
• Equivalent Circuit When all the Quantities are Referred to Secondary side

Let the equivalent circuit of a transformer having the transformation ratio K = E2/E1

The induced emf E1 is equal to the primary applied voltage V1 less primary voltage drop. This
voltage causes current I0 no-load current in the primary winding of the transformer. The value
of no-load current is very small, and thus, it is neglected.
Hence, I1 = I1’. The no-load current is further divided into two components called magnetizing
current (Im) and working current (Iw).

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Single -phase Transformers

These two components of no-load current are due to the current drawn by a non-inductive
resistance R0 and pure reactance X0 having voltage E1 or (V1 – primary voltage drop).
The secondary current I2 is

The terminal voltage V2 across the load is equal to the induced emf E2 in the secondary winding
less voltage drop in the secondary winding.

Equivalent Circuit when all the quantities are referred to Primary side

In this case, to draw the equivalent circuit of the transformer all the quantities are to be referred
to the primary as shown in the figure below:

Circuit Diagram of Transformer when all the Secondary Quantities are Referred to Primary Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below
Secondary resistance referred to the primary side is given as:

The equivalent resistance referred to the primary side is given as:

Secondary reactance referred to the primary side is given as:

The equivalent reactance referred to the primary side is given

as:

Equivalent Circuit when all the quantities are referred to Secondary side
The equivalent circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below when all the quantities are
referred to the secondary side.

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Single -phase Transformers

Circuit Diagram of Transformer When All the Primary Quantities are Referred to Secondary Side

The following are the values of resistance and reactance given below

Primary resistance referred to the secondary side is given as

The equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is given as

Primary reactance referred to the secondary side is given as

The equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given as

No-load current I0 is hardly 3 to 5% of full load rated current, the parallel branch consisting of
resistance R0 and reactance X0 can be omitted without introducing any appreciable error in the
behaviour of the transformer under the loaded condition.
Further simplification of the equivalent circuit of the transformer can be done by neglecting
the parallel branch consisting of R0 and X0.
The simplified circuit diagram of the transformer is shown below:

Simplified Equivalent Circuit Diagram of a Transformer

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Single -phase Transformers

There are two types of prominent losses occur in a transformer namely core losses and copper
losses.
(1) Constant loss or core loss or Iron loss (Wi): These losses occur in the core portion of
the transformer. They are further classified into (a) Eddy current losses (Wh) & (b)
Hysteresis losses (Wh)
1.a Eddy current losses (We): occurs due to flow of eddy currents in the laminations
of the core. These eddy current cause power loss in the core and heats up the core of
the transformer.

To keep the eddy current loss as minimum, the core is made of thin laminations of high
permeability magnetic material such as silicon steel and they are insulated from one another by
coating with varnish insulating paint.
1.b Hysteresis losses (We): occurs because the core of the transformer is subjected to cycles
of magnetization and demagnetization. Hysteresis loss is expressed as

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Single -phase Transformers

Hysteresis losses can be minimized by selecting a core of high silicon steel which has high
permeability.
Losses in Transformers & Efficiency in Transformers
Losses in Transformers:
We all know that all machines have losses. Similarly, a Transformer also has some losses
called transformer losses. Its losses are almost similar to that of DC machines
except transformers do not have mechanical losses because all of its parts are stationary (no
moving parts).
So, all losses in transformer are explained in detail below:
1. Primary copper loss, 2. Secondary copper loss, 3. Iron loss, 4. Dielectric loss
5. Stray load loss
1.Primary copper losses:
These copper losses in transformer occur due to the flow of current through the primary
windings of a transformer which possess some resistance.
2.Secondary copper losses:
These copper losses in transformer occur due to the flow of current through the secondary
windings of a transformer which also has resistance.

The primary and secondary resistances differ from their DC values due to skin effect and
the temperature rise of the windings. While the average temperature rise can be
approximately used, the skin effect is harder to get analytically. The short circuit test gives the
value of Re considering the skin effect.
3. Iron losses or Core losses:
These losses include Eddy current losses and Hysteresis losses in Transformers. They both
depend upon the magnetic properties of the material used for the construction of core.
(i)Eddy current losses:
When AC supply is given to primary windings of a transformer, an alternating flux is
developed. This alternating magnetic flux links with secondary windings of transformer and an
emf is induced in it. As we are aware that, the core of transformer is made of steel or iron, that
alternating flux also cuts this iron parts or core of transformer, and emf is also induced in those
parts which causes some circulating currents to flow through it. These circulating currents are
also called eddy currents. Due to this eddy currents some amount of energy is lost in the form
of heat. The power loss due to eddy currents is given by

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Single -phase Transformers

As the lamination thickness is much smaller than the depth of penetration of the field,
the eddy current loss can be reduced by reducing the thickness of the lamination. Present day
laminations are of 0.25 mm thickness and are capable of operation at 2 Tesla. These reduce the
eddy current losses in the core. This loss also remains constant due to constant voltage and
frequency of operation.
(ii)Hysteresis losses:
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic properties of the core. If the
magnetic field applied to a magnetic material is increased and then decreased back to its
original value, the magnetic field inside the material does not return to its original value. The
internal field lags behind the external field. This behaviour results in a loss of energy, called
the hysteresis loss when a sample is repeatedly magnetized and demagnetized. It can simply
state that losses occurring due to the reversal of magnetization of a transformer. Hysteresis
loss can be given by Steinmetz formula:

This loss depends upon the volume of the transformer core, frequency and flux density.
The sum of hysteresis and eddy current losses can be obtained by the open circuit test.
4. Dielectric loss:
The dielectric losses take place in the insulation of the transformer due to the large electric
stress. In the case of low voltage transformers, this can be neglected. For constant voltage
operation, this can be assumed to be a constant.
5.Stray load loss:
The stray load losses arise out of the leakage fluxes of the transformer. These
leakage fluxes link the metallic structural parts, tank etc. and produce eddy current losses in
them. Thus, they take place ’all round’ the transformer instead of a definite place, hence the
name ’stray’. Also, the leakage flux is directly proportional to the load current, unlike the
mutual flux which is proportional to the applied voltage.
Hence this loss is called 'stray load loss'. This can also be estimated experimentally. It can
be modelled by another resistance in the series branch in the equivalent circuit. The stray load
losses are very low in air-cored transformers due to the absence of the metallic tank.

Thus, the different losses fall into two categories Constant losses (mainly voltage dependant)
and Variable losses (current dependant). The expression for the efficiency of
the transformer operating at a fractional load x of its rating, at a load power factor of θ2,
can be written as:

Here S in the volt ampere rating of the transformer (V′2I′2 at full load), Pconst being
constant losses and Pvar the variable losses at full load.

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Single -phase Transformers

For a given power factor an expression for η in terms of the variable x is thus
obtained. By differentiating η with respect to x and equating the same to zero, the condition
for maximum efficiency is obtained. In the present case, that condition comes out to be

That is, when constant losses equal the variable losses at any fractional load x
the efficiency reaches a maximum value. The maximum value of that efficiency at any
given power factor is given by,

From the expression for the maximum efficiency it can be easily deduced that
this maximum value increases with increase in power factor and is zero at zero power factor
of the load. It may be considered a good practice to select the operating load point to be at
the maximum efficiency point. Thus, if a transformer is on full load, for the most part of the
time then the ηmax can be made to occur at full load by proper selection of constant and
variable losses. However, in the modern transformers, the iron losses are so low that it is
practically impossible to reduce the full load copper losses to that value. Such a design wastes
lot of copper.

Efficiency of Transformer:
As is the case with other types of electrical machines, the efficiency of transformer at a
particular load and power factor is defined as the output divided by the input the two being
measured in the same units (either watts or kilowatts).

But a transformer being a highly efficient piece of equipment has a very small loss, hence it is
impractical to try to measure transformer, efficiency by measuring input and output. These
quantities are nearly of the same size. A better method is to determine the losses and then to
calculate the efficiency from;

It may be noted here that efficiency is based on power output in watts and not in volt-
amperes, although losses are proportional to VA. Hence, at any volt-ampere load, the
efficiency depends on power factor, being maximum at a power factor of unity. Efficiency can
be computed by determining core loss from no-load or open-circuit test and Cu loss from the
short-circuit test

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Single -phase Transformers

All day efficiency:

Large capacity transformers used in power systems are classified broadly into Power
transformers and Distribution transformers. The former variety is seen in generating stations
and large substations. Distribution transformers are seen at the distribution substations. The
basic difference between the two types arise from the fact that the power transformers are
switched in or out of the circuit depending upon the load to be handled by them. Thus at 50%
load on the station, only 50% of the transformers need to be connected in the circuit. On the
other hand, a distribution transformer is never switched off. It has to remain in the circuit
irrespective of the load connected. In such cases, the constant loss of the transformer continues
to be dissipated. Hence the concept of energy based efficiency is defined for such transformers.
It is called ’all day’ efficiency.

The all-day efficiency is thus the ratio of the energy output of the transformer over a day to
the corresponding energy input. One day is taken as a duration of time over which the load
pattern repeats itself. This assumption, however, is far from being true. The power output varies
from zero to full load depending on the requirement of the user and the load losses vary as the
square of the fractional loads. The no-load losses or constant losses occur throughout the 24
hours.
Thus, the comparison of loads on different days becomes difficult. Even the load factor,
which is given by the ratio of the average load to rated load, does not give satisfactory results.
The calculation of the all-day efficiency is illustrated below with an example. The graph of load
on the transformer expressed as a fraction of the full load is plotted against time in Figure
below. In an actual situation, the load on the transformer continuously changes. This has been
presented by a stepped curve for convenience. The average load can be calculated by

where Pi is the load during an interval i.n intervals are assumed. xi is the fractional load.
Si = xiSn where Sn is a nominal load. The average loss during the day is given by

This is a non-linear function. For the same load factor, different average loss can be there
depending upon the values of xi and ti. Hence a better option would be to keep the constant
losses very low to keep all day efficiency high. Variable losses are related to load and are

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Single -phase Transformers

associated with revenue earned. The constant losses, on the other hand, has to be incurred to
make the service available. The concept of all day efficiency may, therefore, be more useful
for comparing two transformers subjected to the same load cycle.
The concept of minimizing the lost energy comes into effect right from the time
of procurement of the transformer. The constant losses and variable losses are capitalized and
added to the material cost of the transformer in order to select the most competitive one, which
gives minimum cost taking initial cost and running cost put together. Obviously, the iron losses
are capitalized more in the process to give an effect to the maximization of energy efficiency.
If the load cycle is known at this stage, it can also be incorporated in computation of the best
transformer.

Voltage Regulation of Transformer

Voltage regulation is the measure of how well a transformer can maintain a constant secondary
voltage under varying load conditions, as the output secondary voltage may not be what we
expect. It is commonly used in power engineering to describe the percentage voltage difference
between no load and full load voltages distribution lines, transmission lines, and transformers.
Explanation of Voltage Regulation of Transformer
Say an electrical power transformer is open circuited, meaning that the load is not connected
to the secondary terminals. In this situation, the secondary terminal voltage of the transformer
will be its secondary induced emf E2.
Whenever a full load is connected to the secondary terminals of the transformer, rated current
I2 flows through the secondary circuit and voltage drop comes into picture. At this situation,
primary winding will also draw equivalent full load current from source. The voltage drop in
the secondary is I2Z2 where Z2 is the secondary impedance of transformer.
Now if at this loading condition, any one measures the voltage between secondary terminals,
he or she will get voltage V2 across load terminals which is obviously less than no load
secondary voltage E2 and this is because of I2Z2 voltage drop in the transformer.

Expression of Voltage Regulation of Transformer

The equation for the voltage regulation of transformer, represented in percentage, is

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Lagging Power Factor

derive the expression of voltage regulation in detail. Say lagging power factor of the load is
cosθ2, that means angle between secondary current and voltage is θ2.

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Single -phase Transformers

Here, from the above diagram,

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is considered
nearly equal to OC i.e.

Voltage regulation of transformer at lagging power factor,

Voltage Regulation of Transformer for Leading Power Factor

voltage regulation with leading current, say leading power factor of the load is cosθ 2, that
means angle between secondary current and voltage is θ2.

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Single -phase Transformers

Here, from the above diagram,

Angle between OC and OD may be very small, so it can be neglected and OD is considered
nearly equal to OC i.e.

Voltage regulation of transformer at leading power factor,

Zero Voltage Regulation of a Transformer

‘Zero voltage regulation’ indicates that there is no difference between its ‘no-load voltage’ and
its ‘full-load voltage’. This means that in the voltage regulation equation above, voltage
regulation is equal to zero. This is not practical – and is only theoretically possible in the case
for an ideal transformer.

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