Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

Open Circuit and Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The open circuit and short circuit test are performed for determining the parameter of the
transformer like their efficiency, voltage regulation, circuit constant etc. These tests are
performed without the actual loading and because of this reason the very less power is required
for the test. The open circuit and the short circuit test give a very accurate result as compared
to the full load test.
Open Circuit Test
The purpose of the open-circuit test is to determine the no-load current and losses of the
transformer because of which their no-load parameters are determined. This test is performed
on the primary winding of the transformer. The wattmeter, ammeter and the voltage are
connected to their primary winding. The nominal rated voltage is supplied to their primary
winding with the help of the ac source.

Circuit Diagram of Open Circuit Test on Transformer

The secondary winding of the transformer is kept open, and the voltmeter is connected to their
terminal. This voltmeter measures the secondary induced voltage. As the secondary of the
transformer is open, thus no-load current flows through the primary winding.
The value of no-load current is very small as compared to the full rated current. The copper
loss occurs only on the primary winding of the transformer because the secondary winding is
open. The reading of the wattmeter only represents the core and iron losses. The core loss of
the transformer is the same for all types of loads.
Calculation of open-circuit test
Let,
• W0 – wattmeter reading
• V1 – voltmeter reading
• I0 – ammeter reading
Then the iron loss of the transformer Pi = W0 and

The no-load power factor is

Working component Iw is

Putting the value of W0 from the equation (1) in equation (2) you will get the value of the
working component as

Magnetizing component is

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

No-load parameters are given below:

Equivalent exciting resistance is

Equivalent exciting reactance is

The phasor diagram of the transformer at no load or when an open circuit test is performed is
shown below,

Phasor Diagram of Open Circuit Test

The iron losses measured by the open circuit test is used for calculating the efficiency of the
transformer.

Short Circuit Test

The short circuit test is performed for determining the below mention parameter of the
transformer.
• It determines the copper loss occur on the full load. The copper loss is used for
finding the efficiency of the transformer.
• The equivalent resistance, impedance, and leakage reactance are known by the
short circuit test.
The short circuit test is performed on the secondary or high voltage winding of the transformer.
The measuring instrument like wattmeter, voltmeter and ammeter are connected to the high
voltage winding of the transformer. Their primary winding is short-circuited by the help of
thick strip or ammeter which is connected to its terminal.
The low voltage source is connected across the secondary winding because of which the full
load current flows from both the secondary and the primary winding of the transformer. The
full load current is measured by the ammeter connected across their secondary winding.
The circuit diagram of the short circuit test is shown below:

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Circuit Diagram of Short Circuit Test on Transformer

The low voltage source is applied across the secondary winding, which is approximately 5 to
10% of the normal rated voltage. The flux is set up in the core of the transformer. The
magnitude of the flux is small as compared to the normal flux.
The iron loss of the transformer depends on the flux. It is less occurred in the short circuit test
because of the low value of flux. The reading of the wattmeter only determines the copper loss
occurred, in their windings. The voltmeter measures the voltage applied to their high voltage
winding. The secondary current induces in the transformer because of the applied voltage.

Calculation of Short Circuit Test

Let,
• Wc – Wattmeter reading
• V2sc – voltmeter reading
• I2sc – ammeter reading
Then the full load copper loss of the transformer is given by

Equivalent resistance referred to the secondary side is

The phasor diagram of the short circuit test of the transformer is shown below

Phasor Diagram of Short Circuit Test

From the phasor diagram,

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Equivalent impedance referred to the secondary side is given by

The equivalent reactance referred to the secondary side is given by

The voltage regulation of the transformer can be determined at any load and power factor after
knowing the values of Zes and Res.
In the short circuit test the wattmeter record, the total losses, including core loss but the value
of core loss are very small as compared to copper loss so the core loss can be neglected.

Advantages of Tests performed on Transformers:

The above two simple transformer tests offer the following advantages:
(i) The power required to carry out these tests is very small as compared to the full-load output
of the transformer. In case of open circuit lest, the power required is equal to the iron loss
whereas, for a short-circuit test, the power required is equal to full-load copper loss.
(ii) These tests enable us to determine the efficiency of the transformer accurately at any load
and p.f. without actually loading the transformer.
(iii) The short-circuit test enables us to determine R01 and X01 (or R02 and X02). We can thus
find the total voltage drop in the transformer as referred to primary or secondary. This
permits us to calculate voltage regulation of the transformer.

Back-to-Back Test (Sumpner’s Test) on Transformer

Definition: The full load test on a small transformer is very convenient, but on the large
transformer, it is very difficult. The maximum temperature rise in a large transformer is
determined by the full load test. This test is called, back-to-back test, regenerative test or
Sumpner’s test.
The suitable load which absorbs the full load power of a large transformer will not easily be
available. Hence a large amount of energy will be wasted. The back-to-back test determines
the maximum temperature rise in a transformer, and hence the load is chosen according to the
capability of the transformer.
Back-to-Back Test Circuit
The two identical transformer is used for the back-to-back test. Consider the Tr1 and Tr2 are the
primary windings of the transformer connects parallel to each other. The nominal rated voltage
and frequency is supplied to their primary winding. The voltmeter and ammeter are connected
on their primary side for the measurement of the input voltage and current.
The secondary winding of the transformer is connected in series with the each other but with
opposite polarity. The voltmeter V2 is connected to the terminal of the secondary winding for
the measurement of the voltage.
The series opposition of the secondary winding is determined by connecting there any two
terminals; the voltmeter is connected across their remaining terminals. If it is connected in
series opposition, the voltmeter gives the zero reading. The open terminal is used for measuring
the parameter of the transformer.

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

The above figure shows that the terminal B and C are connected to each other, and the voltage
is measured across the terminal A and D.
Determination of Temperature Rise
The temperature rise of the transformer is determined by measuring the temperature of their oil
after every particular interval of time. The transformer is operating back-to-back for the long
time which increases their oil temperature. By measuring the temperature of their oil, the
withstand capacity of the transformer under high temperature is determined.
Determination of Iron Loss
The wattmeter W1 measures the power loss which is equal to the iron loss of the transformer.
For determining the iron loss, the primary circuit of the transformer is kept closed. Because of
the primary closed circuit, no current flows through the secondary windings of the transformer.
The secondary winding behaves like an open circuit. The wattmeter is connected to
their secondary terminal for the measurement of iron loss.
Determination of Copper Loss
The copper loss of the transformer is determined when the full load current flows through their
primary and secondary windings. The additional regulating transformer is used for exciting the
secondary windings. The full load current flows from the secondary to the primary winding.
The wattmeter W2 measures the full load copper loss of the two transformers.

Polarity Test of Transformer

Polarity means the direction of the induced voltages in the primary and the secondary winding
of the transformer. If the two transformers are connected in parallel, then the polarity should
be known for the proper connection of the transformer. There are two types of polarity one
is Additive, and another is Subtractive.
Contents:
• Additive Polarity
• Subtractive Polarity
• Explanation With Connection Diagram
• Steps to Perform Polarity Test

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Additive Polarity: In additive polarity, the same terminals of the primary and the secondary
windings of the transformer are connected
Subtractive Polarity: In subtractive polarity, different terminals of the primary and secondary
side of the transformer is connected.
Explanation With Connection Diagram
Each of the terminals of the primary, as well as the secondary winding of a transformer, is
alternatively positive and negative with respect to each other as shown in the figure below. Let,
A1 and A2 be the positive and negative terminal, respectively of the primary side of the
transformer and a1, a2 are the positive and negative terminal of the secondary side of the
transformer.
If A1 is connected to a1 and A2 is connected to a2 that means similar terminals of the
transformer are connected, then the polarity is said to be additive. If A1 is connected to a2 and
A2 to a1, that means the opposite terminals are connected to each other, and thus the voltmeter
will read the subtractive polarity.

Circuit Diagram of Polarity Test of Transformer

It is essential to know the relative polarities at any instant of the primary and the secondary
terminals for making the correct connections if the transformers are to be connected in parallel
or they are used in a three-phase circuit.
In the primary side, the terminals are marked as A1 and A2 and from the secondary side, the
terminals are named as a1 and a2. The terminal A1 is connected to one end of the secondary
winding, and a voltmeter is connected between A2 and the other end of the secondary winding.
When the voltmeter reads the difference that is (V1 – V2), the transformer is said to be
connected with opposite polarity know as subtractive polarity and when the voltmeter reads
(V1 + V2), the transformer is said to have additive polarity.

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

Steps to Perform Polarity Test

• Connect the circuit as shown in the above circuit diagram figure and set the
autotransformer to zero position.
• Switch on the single-phase supply
• Record the values of the voltages as shown by the voltmeter V1, V2 and V3.
• If the reading of the V3 shows the addition of the value of V1 and V2 that is V2 =
V1+V2 the transformer is said to be connected in additive polarity.
• If the reading of the V3 is the subtraction of the readings of V1 and V2, then the
transformer is said to be connected in subtractive or negative polarity.
This is all about polarity test of transformer.

Separation of Hysteresis and Eddy current losses

Iron losses in a transformer has two components: Hysteresis loss and Eddy current loss

Hysteresis loss: Hysteresis loss is due to reversal of the magnetising force. This loss is due to
the retentive property of material used for the magnetic core.

Eddy current loss: The alternating flux in the core induces a voltage in the core which in turn
sets up a current in the laminations. This current is called eddy current. The loss due to the
eddy current is called eddy current loss.

For a given value of volume of iron in the core, we have, Hysteresis loss 𝑾𝒉 ∝ 𝑲𝒉 𝑩𝟏.𝟔
𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒇

Where,

Wh – hysteresis loss in watts

𝐾ℎ – hysteresis or Steinmetz’s constant in J/m3, its value depends upon the nature of the
magnetic material.
Bmax – maximum value of the flux density in the magnetic material in wb/m2

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

f – number of cycles of magnetisation made per second

For a given thickness of lamination and volume of iron, we have, Eddy Current loss

𝑾𝒆 ∝ 𝑲𝒆 𝑩𝟐𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝒇𝟐

Where,

Ke – co-efficient of eddy current. Its value depends upon the nature of magnetic material
Bmax – maximum value of flux density in wb/m2
t – thickness of lamination in meters
f – frequency of reversal of the magnetic field in Hz

To separate the iron losses, we need to supply the primary of the transformer with a variable
voltage, variable frequency source

We need to maintain the voltage to frequency ratio a constant to make the flux density in the
core constant.

For constant flux density we have, 𝑊ℎ = 𝐴𝑓 and 𝑊𝑒 = 𝐵𝑓 2

𝑊𝑖
Iron loss 𝑊𝑖 = 𝐴𝑓 + 𝐵𝑓 2 or = 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑓
𝑓

If we know iron loss at two different frequencies, we can calculate the constants A and B, then
for any given frequency we can determine the hysteresis loss and eddy current loss.

Transformer primary is connected to a source whose frequency and the induced emf can be
varied and the secondary is kept open. This can be achieved by using an alternator driven by a
prime mover such as a DC shunt motor. By adjusting the field and armature rheostats of the
Ns P
DC motor the speed can be varied there by the frequency varies, as f = and by varying the
120
field rheostat of the alternator we can vary the magnitude of the induced emf E which is applied
to the primary of the transformer.

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

As the supply frequency is 50 Hz and taking the rated voltage is 230 V the ratio of V to f will
be 230/50 = 4.6 is to be maintained constant for various different frequencies such as 40 Hz,
42 Hz, 45 Hz, 50 Hz, and 55 Hz and the corresponding voltage is calculated and adjusted by
adjusting the excitation of the alternator. For each application of this V and f the input watt
meter readings are noted against the frequency. [V/f = 4.6]

Ns = (120f/P)
f Hz rpm = (30f) for 4- V = (4.6f) Pi Watts
pole alternator volts Pi/f
40 1200 184 ... ...
42 1260 193.2 ... ...
45 1350 207 ... ...
50 1500 230 ... ...
55 1650 253 ... ...

A graph between the frequency f and (Pi/f) is plotted as shown. The intercept represents the
value of the hysteresis coefficient Kh in watts per Hertz. The slope of the slant line represents
the eddy current coefficient Ke in Watts per Hz2.

After evaluating the values of Kh and Ke we evaluate the hysteresis loss at power frequency f
= 50 Hz as Ph = Kh × f = 50 f Watts, and the eddy current loss at 50 Hz = Pe = Ke × f2 = 2500
Ke Watts.
So that the iron loss at 50 Hz Pi = (Ph + Pe), which should tally with the watt meter reading
obtained at f = 50 Hz.

Parallel operation of transformers.

Parallel operation of a transformer is necessary because of the following reasons are given
below:
• It is impractical and uneconomical to have a single large transformer for heavy and
large loads. Hence, it will be a wise decision to connect a number of transformers in
parallel.

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

• In substations, the total load required may be supplied by an appropriate number of the
transformer of standard size. As a result, this reduces the spare capacity of the
substation.
• If the transformers are connected in parallel, so there will be scope in future, for
expansion of a substation to supply a load beyond the capacity of the transformer
already installed.
• If there will be any breakdown of a transformer in a system of transformers connected
in parallel, there will be no interruption of power supply, for essential services.
• If any of the transformer from the system is taken out of service for its maintenance and
inspection, the continuity of the supply will not get disturbed.

Necessity of parallel operation:

Transformers are to be operated in parallel for:
(i) maintaining continuity of service in case of one transformer breaks down or
taken out of service for maintenance and repair.
(ii) avoiding the transformer from overloading, which increases the life of a
transformer.
(iii) Transformers maintain better voltage regulation and efficiency.

Necessary Conditions for Parallel Operation

For the satisfactory parallel operation of the transformer, the two main conditions are
necessary. One is that the Polarities of the transformers must be the same. Another condition
is that the Turn Ratio of the transformer should be equal.

The other two desirable conditions are as follows: -

• The voltage across the transformer internal impedance should be equal at full load.
• The ratio of their winding resistances to reactance (R/X) should be equal for both the
transformers. This condition ensures that both transformers operate at the same power
factor, thus sharing their active power and reactive volt-amperes according to their
ratings.
Summarizing,
• Polarities of the transformers must be same,
• The turns ratio of the transformers must be same. These conditions are very necessary.
• The ratio of the resistance to reactance (R/X) should be equal,
• The voltages across the secondaries on full load should be same.

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

The circuit diagram shown in figure explains to know the load sharing of two dissimilar
single-phase transformers A and B when connected in parallel and sharing a common load.
a1 is the turn ratio of the transformer A
a2 is the turn ratio of transformer B
ZA is the equivalent impedance of the transformer A referred to secondary
ZB is the equivalent impedance of the transformer B referred to secondary
ZL is the load impedance across the secondary
IA is the current supplied to the load by the secondary of the transformer A
IB is the current supplied to the load by the secondary of the transformer B
VL is the secondary load voltage
IL is the load current

Applying Kirchhoff’s Current Law,

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

By Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law,

𝑽𝟐 = 𝑬𝟐𝑨 - 𝑰𝑨 𝒁𝑨 . . .. (2) and 𝑽𝟐 = 𝑬𝟐𝑩 - 𝑰𝑩 𝒁𝑩 . . . . . . (3)

from the equation (1) in equation (3) we will get,

Solving equations (2) and (4) we will get,

The current IA and IB have two components. The first component represents the transformers
share of the load currents and the second component is a circulating current in the secondary
windings of the single-phase transformer.

The undesirable effects of the circulating currents are as follows

• They increase the copper loss.
• The circulating current overloads the one transformer and reduce the permissible load
kVA.

Equal Voltage Ratio.

• In order to eliminate circulating currents, the voltage ratios must be identical. That is a1=a2
• Under this condition:

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

Equating equation (7) and (8) we will get

From the above equation (9), it is clear that the transformer currents
are inversely proportional to the transformer impedance. Thus, for the efficient parallel
operation of the two single-phase transformers, the potential differences at full load across the
transformer internal impedance should be equal.

This condition ensures that the load sharing between the two single-phase transformer is
according to the rating of each transformer. If the per-unit equivalent impedance is not equal,
then the transformer will not share the load in proportion to their kVA ratings. As a result, the
overall rating of the transformer bank will be reduced.

Equation (9) can also be written as

The current in the equations (7) and (8) is changed into volt-amperes by multiplying the two
equations by the common load voltage VL.

Therefore, we know that, the total load in volt-ampere (VA) is:

The volt-ampere of transformer A is;

Similarly, the volt-ampere of transformer B is;

Hence, the various equations will be written as shown below

Equating the equation (11) and (12) we will get

Equation (13) tells that the volt-ampere load on each single-phase transformer is inversely
proportional to its impedance.

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

Hence, to share the load in proportion to their ratings, the transformers should have the
impedance which is inversely proportional to their ratings.

Unequal voltage ratio.

Let E2A and E2B be the no-load secondary emfs of the two transformers A and B connected in
parallel.

ZL be the common load impedance at the secondary terminals of the transformers.

By KVL and KCL, V2 = (E2A – IAZA) and V2 = (E2B – IBZB) also V2 = ILZL, IL = (IA + IB).

V2 = (IA + IB) ZL

Form the above equations we write, (E2A - E2B) = (IAZA – IBZB)

−(E2A − E2B )+ IA ZA
from this equation, IB =
ZB

−(E2A − E2B )+ IA ZA
also, V2 = (IA + IB) ZL = (E2A - IAZA) = IAZL + ZL { }
ZB

ZL
= {IA ZA − −(E2A − E2B )}
ZB

ZL ZA Z
Grouping, IA {ZA + ZL + } = {E2A + (E2A − E2B ) Z L }
ZB B

With ZB as L C M, IA {ZA ZB + ZL ZB + ZL ZA } = {E2A ZB + (E2A − E2B )ZL }

IA {ZA ZB + ZL (ZB + ZA } = {E2A ZB + (E2A − E2B )ZL }

{𝐄𝟐𝐀 𝐙𝐁 +(𝐄𝟐𝐀 −𝐄𝟐𝐁 )𝐙𝐋 }

The current shared by transformer A is IA = ,
{𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 +𝐙𝐋 (𝐙𝐁 +𝐙𝐀 }

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Module-2 Testing and Parallel Operation

{𝐄𝟐𝐁 𝐙𝐀 −(𝐄𝟐𝐀 −𝐄𝟐𝐁 )𝐙𝐋 }

on similar lines we write the current sharing of transformer B is IB =
{𝐙𝐀 𝐙𝐁 +𝐙𝐋 (𝐙𝐁 +𝐙𝐀 }

𝐸2𝐴 − 𝐸2𝐵
Circulating current = IC = [ ]
𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵

Advantages of Transformer Parallel Operation

• Maximise electrical system efficiency
• Generally, electrical power transformer gives the maximum efficiency at full load. If
one runs numbers of transformers in parallel, one can switch on only those transformers
which will give the total demand by running nearer to its full load rating for that time.
• When load increases, one can switch no one by one other transformer connected in
parallel to fulfil the total demand. In this way one can run the system with maximum
efficiency.
• Maximise electrical system availability
• If numbers of transformers run in parallel, one can take shutdown any one of them for
maintenance purpose. Other parallel transformers in system will serve the load without
total interruption of power.
• Maximise power system reliability
• If any one of the transformers run in parallel is tripped due to fault, other parallel
transformers in the system will share the load hence power supply may not be
interrupted if the shared loads do not make other transformers over loaded.
• Maximise electrical system flexibility
• There is a chance of increasing or decreasing future demand of power system. If it is
predicted that power demand will be increased in future, there must be a provision of
connecting transformers in system in parallel to fulfil the extra demand, because it is
not economical from business point of view to install a bigger rated single transformer
by forecasting the increased future demand as it is unnecessary investment of money.
• Again, in future demand is decreased, transformers running in parallel can be removed
from system to balance the capital investment and its return.
Disadvantages of Transformer Parallel Operation
• Increasing short-circuit currents that increase necessary breaker capacity.
• The risk of circulating currents running from one transformer to another transformer.
Circulating currents that diminish load capability and increased losses.
• The bus ratings could be too high.
• Paralleling transformers reduce the transformer impedance significantly, i.e., the parallel
transformers may have very low impedance, which creates the high short circuit currents.
Therefore, some current limiters are needed, e.g., reactors, fuses, high impedance buses,
etc
• The control and protection of three units in parallel is more complex.
• It is not a common practice in this industry.

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Conclusion
Loading considerations for paralleling transformers are simple unless kVA, percent
impedances, or ratios are different. When paralleled transformer turn ratios and percent
impedances are the same, equal load division will exist on each transformer. When paralleled
transformer kVA ratings are the same, but the percent impedances are different, then unequal
load division will occur. The same is true for unequal percent impedances and unequal kVA.
Circulating currents only exist if the turn ratios do not match on each transformer. The
magnitude of the circulating currents will also depend on the X/R ratios of the transformers.
Delta-delta to delta-wye transformer paralleling should not be attempted.

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