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UNIT -I
8086 Architecture
 Architecture of 8086

 Register Organization

 Programming Model

 Memory addresses

 Memory Segmentation

 Physical Memory Organization

 Signal descriptions of 8086- Common Function Signals

 Minimum and Maximum mode signals

 Timing diagrams

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UNIT-I
8086 Architecture
Introduction to Microprocessors
A microprocessor is a computer processor which incorporates the
functions of a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a
single integrated circuit (IC), or at most a few integrated circuits
The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock driven, register based,
digital-integrated circuit which accepts binary data as input, processes it
according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides results as
output. Microprocessors contain both combinational logic and sequential
digital logic. Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols represented
in the binary numeral system.
Generation of Microprocessors:
 INTEL 4004 ( 1971)
⚫ 4-bit microprocessor
⚫ 4 KB main memory
⚫ 45 instructions
⚫ PMOS technology
⚫ was first programmable device which was used in calculators
 INTEL 8008 (1972)
⚫ 8-bit version of 4004
⚫ 16 KB main memory
⚫ 48 instructions
⚫ PMOS technology
⚫ Slow
 Intel 8080 (1973)
 8-bit microprocessor
⚫ 64 KB main memory
⚫ 2 microseconds clock cycle time
⚫ 500,000 instructions/sec
⚫ 10X faster than 8008
⚫ NMOS technology
⚫ Drawback was that it needed three power supplies.
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⚫ Small computers (Microcomputers) were designed in mid

1970’s
Using 8080 as CPU.

 INTEL 8086/8088

Year of introduction 1978 for 8086 and 1979 for 8088

⚫ 16-bit microprocessors
⚫ Data bus width of 8086 is 16 bit and 8 bit for 8088
⚫ 1 MB main memory
⚫ 400 nanoseconds clock cycle time
⚫ 6 byte instruction cache for 8086 and 4 byte for 8088
⚫ Other improvements included more registers and additional
instructions
⚫ In 1981 IBM decided to use 8088 in its personal computer

 INTEL 80186 (1982)

⚫ 16-bit microprocessor-upgraded version of 8086

⚫ 1 MB main memory
⚫ Contained special hardware like programmable counters,
interrupt controller etc.
⚫ Never used in the PC
⚫ But was ideal for systems that required a minimum of
hardware .
 INTEL 80286 (1983)
⚫ 16-bit high performance microprocessor with memory
management & protection
⚫ 16 MB main memory
⚫ Few additional instructions to handle extra 15 MB
⚫ Instruction execution time is as little as 250 ns
⚫ Concentrates on the features needed to implement
MULTITASKING

 Intel 80386 (1986)

 Intel 80486 (1989)
 Pentium (1993)
 Pentium pro(1995)
 Pentium ii (1997)
 Pentium iii (1999)
 Pentium iv (2002)
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 Latest is Intel i9 processor

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General Architecture of Microprocessors

Buses

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Register Organization of 8086

8086 has a powerful set of registers containing general purpose and
special purpose registers. All the registers of 8086 are 16-bit registers. The
general purpose registers, can be used either 8-bit registers or 16-bit
registers. The general purpose registers are either used for holding the data,
variables and intermediate results temporarily or for other purpose like
counter or for storing offset address for some particular addressing modes
etc. The special purpose registers are used as segment registers, pointers,
index registers or as offset storage registers for particular addressing
modes. Fig 1.4 shows register organization of 8086. We will categorize the
register set into four groups as follows:

General data Registers:

The registers AX, BX, CX, and DX are the general 16-bit registers.

AX Register: Accumulator register consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH,

which can be combined together and used as a 16- bit register AX. AL in this
case contains the low-order byte of the word, and AH contains the high-
order byte. Accumulator can be used for I/O operations, rotate and string
manipulation.

BX Register: This register is mainly used as a base register. It holds the

starting base location of a memory region within a data segment. It is used
as offset storage for forming physical address in case of certain addressing
mode.

CX Register: It is used as default counter or count register in case of string

and loop instructions.

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DX Register: Data register can be used as a port number in I/O operations

and implicit operand or destination in case of few instructions. In integer
32-bit multiply and divide instruction the DX register contains high-order
word of the initial or resulting number.

Segment registers:
To complete 1Mbyte memory is divided into 16 logical segments. The
complete 1Mbyte memory segmentation is as shown in fig 1.5. Each
segment contains 64Kbyte of memory. There are four segment registers.

Code segment (CS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64 KB segment

with processor instructions. The processor uses CS segment for all accesses
to instructions referenced by instruction pointer (IP) register. CS register
cannot be changed directly. The CS register is automatically updated during
far jump, far call and far return instructions. It is used for addressing a
memory location in the code segment of the memory, where the
executable program is stored.

Stack segment (SS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment

with program stack. By default, the processor assumes that all data
referenced by the stack pointer (SP) and base pointer (BP) registers is
located in the stack segment. SS register can be changed directly using POP
instruction. It is used for addressing stack segment of memory. The stack
segment is that segment of memory, which is used to store stack data.

Data segment (DS) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment

with program data. By default, the processor assumes that all data
referenced by general registers (AX, BX, CX, DX) and index register (SI, DI) is
located in the data segment. DS register can be changed directly using POP
and LDS instructions. It points to the data segment memory where the data
is resided.

Extra segment (ES) is a 16-bit register containing address of 64KB segment,

usually with program data. By default, the processor assumes that the DI
register references the ES segment in string manipulation instructions. ES
register can be changed directly using POP and LES instructions. It also
refers to segment which essentially is another data segment of the memory.
It also contains data.

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Pointers and index registers.

The pointers contain within the particular segments. The pointers IP, BP, SP
usually contain offsets within the code, data and stack segments
respectively

Stack Pointer (SP) is a 16-bit register pointing to program stack in stack

segment.

Base Pointer (BP) is a 16-bit register pointing to data in stack segment. BP

register is usually used for based, based indexed or register indirect
addressing.

Source Index (SI) is a 16-bit register. SI is used for indexed, based indexed
and register indirect addressing, as well as a source data addresses in string
manipulation instructions.

Destination Index (DI) is a 16-bit register. DI is used for indexed, based

indexed and register indirect addressing, as well as a destination data
address in string manipulation instructions.

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Flag Register:

Flags Register determines the current state of the processor. They are
modified automatically by CPU after mathematical operations, this allows to
determine the type of the result, and to determine conditions to transfer
control to other parts of the program. The 8086 flag register as shown in
the fig 1.6. 8086 has 9 active flags and they are divided into two categories:

1. Conditional Flags
2. Control Flags

Conditional flags are as follows:

Carry Flag (CY): This flag indicates an overflow condition for unsigned
integer arithmetic. It is also used in multiple-precision arithmetic.

Auxiliary Flag (AC): If an operation performed in ALU generates a

carry/barrow from lower nibble (i.e. D0 – D3) to upper nibble (i.e. D4 – D7),
the AC flag is set i.e. carry given by D3 bit to D4 is AC flag. This is not a
general-purpose flag, it is used internally by the Processor to perform Binary
to BCD conversion.

Parity Flag (PF):This flag is used to indicate the parity of result. If lower
order 8-bits of the result contains even number of 1’s, the Parity Flag is set
and for odd number of 1’s, the Parity flag is reset.

Zero Flag (ZF):It is set; if the result of arithmetic or logical operation is zero
else it is reset.

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Sign Flag (SF):In sign magnitude format the sign of number is indicated by
MSB bit. If the result of operation is negative, sign flag is set.

Control Flags

Control flags are set or reset deliberately to control the operations of the
execution unit. Control flags are as follows:

Trap Flag (TF): It is used for single step control. It allows user to execute one
instruction of a program at a time for debugging. When trap flag is set,
program can be run in single step mode.

Interrupt Flag (IF):It is an interrupt enable/disable flag. If it is set, the

maskable interrupt of 8086 is enabled and if it is reset, the interrupt is
disabled. It can be set by executing instruction sit and can be cleared by
executing CLI instruction.

Direction Flag (DF):It is used in string operation. If it is set, string bytes are
accessed from higher memory address to lower memory address. When it is
reset, the string bytes are accessed from lower memory address to higher
memory address.

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8086 Architecture

The 8086 is mainly divided into mainly two blocks

1. Execution Unit (EU)
2.Bus interface Unit (BIU)
Dividing the work between these two will speedup the processing
1) EXECUTION UNIT( EU)

The Execution unit tells the BIU where to fetch instructions or data
from
 decodes instructions and

 Executes instructions

The Execution unit contains:

1) Control circuitry
2) ALU
3) FLAGS
4) General purpose Registers
5) Pointer and Index Registers

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Control Circuitry:
 It directs internal operations.

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 A decoder in the EU translates instructions fetched from memory

Into series of actions which the EU carries out

Arithmetic Logic Unit:

16 bit ALU
Used to carry the operations
 ADD

 SUBTRACT

 XOR

 INCREMENT

 DECREMENT

 COMPLEMENT

 SHIFT BINARY NUMBERS

FLAG REGISTERS:
 A flag is a flip flop that indicates some condition produced by
execution of an instruction or controls certain operation of the EU.

 It is 16 bit

 It has nine active flags

Divided into two types

1. Conditional flags

2. Control flags

Conditional Flags

Carry Flag (CY): This flag indicates an overflow condition for unsigned
integer arithmetic. It is also used in multiple-precision arithmetic.

Auxiliary Flag (AC): If an operation performed in ALU generates a

carry/barrow from lower nibble (i.e. D0 – D3) to upper nibble (i.e. D4 – D7),
the AC flag is set i.e. carry given by D3 bit to D4 is AC flag. This is not a
general-purpose flag, it is used internally by the Processor to perform Binary
to BCD conversion.

Parity Flag (PF):This flag is used to indicate the parity of result. If lower
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order 8-bits of the result contains even number of 1’s, the Parity Flag is set
and for odd number of 1’s, the Parity flag is reset.

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Zero Flag (ZF):It is set; if the result of arithmetic or logical operation is zero
else it is reset.

Sign Flag (SF):In sign magnitude format the sign of number is indicated by
MSB bit. If the result of operation is negative, sign flag is set.

Control Flags

Control flags are set or reset deliberately to control the operations of the
execution unit. Control flags are as follows:

Trap Flag (TF): It is used for single step control. It allows user to execute one
instruction of a program at a time for debugging. When trap flag is set,
program can be run in single step mode.

Interrupt Flag (IF):It is an interrupt enable/disable flag. If it is set, the

maskable interrupt of 8086 is enabled and if it is reset, the interrupt is
disabled. It can be set by executing instruction sit and can be cleared by
executing CLI instruction.

Direction Flag (DF):It is used in string operation. If it is set, string bytes are
accessed from higher memory address to lower memory address. When it is
reset, the string bytes are accessed from lower memory address to higher
memory address.

General Purpose Registers:

The 8086 general purpose registers are similar to those of earlier
generations 8080 and 8085 .It was designed in such a way that many
programs written for 8080 and 8085 could easily be translated to run on
8086.The advantage of using internal registers for the temporary storage of
data is that since data already in the EU ., it can be accessed much more
quickly than it could be accessed from external memory.
General Purpose Registers
The registers AX, BX, CX, and DX are the general 16-bit registers.
AX Register: Accumulator register consists of two 8-bit registers AL and AH,
which can be combined together and used as a 16- bit register AX. AL in this
case contains the low-order byte of the word, and AH contains the high-
order byte. Accumulator can be used for I/O operations, rotate and string
manipulation.
BX Register: This register is mainly used as a base register. It holds the
starting base location of a memory region within a data segment. It is used
as offset storage for forming physical address in case of certain addressing

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mode.

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CX Register: It is used as default counter or count register in case of string

and loop instructions.
DX Register: Data register can be used as a port number in I/O operations
and implicit operand or destination in case of few instructions. In integer
32-bit multiply and divide instruction the DX register contains high-order
word of the initial or resulting number.
2) BUS INTERFACE UNIT (BIU)

The BIU sends out

 Addresses
 Fetches instructions from memory
 Read data from ports and memory
Or
The BIU handles all transfer of data and addresses on the buses for
the Execution Unit
The Bus interface unit contains
1) Instruction Queue
2) Instruction pointer
3) Segment registers
4) Address Generator

Instruction Queue:
BIU gets upto 6 bytes of next instructions and stores them in the
instruction queue. When EU executes instructions and is ready for its next
instruction, then it simply reads the instruction from this instruction queue
resulting in increased execution speed. Fetching the next instruction while
the current instruction executes is called pipelining.( based on FIFO) .This is
much faster than sending out an addresses to the system memory and
waiting for memory to send back the next instruction byte or bytes .Here
the Queue will be dumped and then reloaded from the new Address.
Segment Register:
The 8086 20 bit addresses So it can address upto 2 20 in memory ( 1 Mbyte)
but at any instant it can address upto 4 64 KB segments. This four segments
holds the upper 16 bits of the starting address of four memory segments
that the 8086 is working with it at particular time .The BIU always inserts
zeros for the lowest 4 bits of the 20 bit starting address
Example : If the code segment register contains 348AH then the code
segment starts at 348A0H .In other words a 64Kbyte segment can be
located anywhere within 1MByte address Space but the segment will
always starts at an address with zeros in the lowest 4 bits

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Stack: is a section of memory set aside to store addresses and data while
subprogram executes is often called segment base . The stack segment
register always holds the upper 16 bit starting address of program stack.
The extra segment register and data segment register is used to hold the
upper 16 bit starting addresses of two memory segments that are used for
data .
Instruction Pointer holds the 16 bit address or offset of the next code byte
within the code segment. The value contained in the Instruction Pointer
called as Offset because the value must be added to the segment base
address in CS to produce the required 20 bit address.

CS register contains the Upper 16 bit of the starting address of the

code segment in the 1 Mbyte address range the instruction pointer contains
a 16 bit offset which tells wherein that 64 Kbyte code segment the next
instruction byte has to be fetched from.
Stack Register and Stack Pointer:
Stack: is a section of memory set aside to store addresses and data
while subprogram executes is often called segment base . The stack
segment register always holds the upper 16 bit starting address of program
stack. The Stack pointer (SP) holds the 16 bit offset from the starting of the
segment to the memory location where a word was most recently stored
.The memory location where the word is stored is called as top of the stack

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Pointer and Index registers:

In addition to stack pointer register EU has
Base pointer Register (BP)
Source Pointer Register(SP)
Destination Pointer Register(DP)

These three registers are used to store temporary storage of data like
general purpose registers .They hold the 16 bit offset data of the data word
in one of the segment

Programming model

How can a 20-bit address be obtained, if there are only 16-bit

registers?
However, the largest register is only 16 bits (64k); so physical addresses
have to be calculated. These calculations are done in hardware within the
microprocessor.
The 16-bit contents of segment register gives the starting/ base address of
particular segment. To address a specific memory location within a segment
we need an offset address. The offset address is also 16-bit wide and it is
provided by one of the associated pointer or index register.

To be able to program a microprocessor, one does not need to know

all of its hardware architectural features. What is important to the
programmer is being aware of the various registers within the device and to
understand their purpose, functions, operating capabilities, and limitations.

The above figure illustrates the software architecture of the 8086

microprocessor. From this diagram, we see that it includes fourteenl6-bit
internal registers: the instruction pointer (IP), four data registers (AX, BX,
CX, and DX), two pointer registers (BP and SP), two index registers (SI and
DI), four segment registers (CS, DS, SS, and ES) and status register (SR), with
nine of its bits implemented as status and control flags.

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The point to note is that the beginning segment address must begin
at an address divisible by 16.Also note that the four segments need not be
defined separately. It is allowable for all four segments to completely
overlap (CS = DS = ES = SS).

Logical and Physical Address

Addresses within a segment can range from address 00000h to

address 0FFFFh. This corresponds to the 64K-bytelength of the segment. An
address within a segment is
called an offset or logical address.

A logical address gives the displacement from the base address of the
segment to the desired location within it, as opposed to its "real" address,
which maps directly anywhere into the 1 MByte memory space. This "real"
address is called the physical address.

What is the difference between the physical and the logical address?
The physical address is 20 bits long and corresponds to the actual binary
code output by the BIU on the address bus lines. The logical address is an
offset from location 0 of a given segment.

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You should also be careful when writing addresses on paper to do so

clearly. To specify the logical address XXXX in the stack segment, use the
convention SS:XXXX, which is equal to [SS] * 16 + XXXX.

Logical address is in the form of: Base Address: Offset Offset is the
displacement of the memory location from the starting location of the
segment. To calculate the physical address of the memory, BIU uses the
following formula:

Physical Address = Base Address of Segment * 16 + Offset

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Example:

The value of Data Segment Register (DS) is 2222H.

To convert this 16-bit address into 20-bit, the BIU appends 0H to the LSB (by
multiplying with 16) of the address. After appending, the starting address of
the Data Segment becomes 22220H.

Data at any location has a logical address specified as:2222H: 0016H

Where 0016H is the offset, 2222 H is the value of DS Therefore the physical
address:22220H + 0016H
: 22236 H

The following table describes the default offset values to the corresponding
memory segments.

Some of the advantages of memory segmentation in the 8086 are as

follows:
 With the help of memory segmentation a user is able to work with
registers having only 16-bits.
 The data and the user’s code can be stored separately allowing for more

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flexibility.

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 Also due to segmentation the logical address range is from 0000H to

FFFFH the code can be loaded at any location in the memory.

Physical memory organization:

The 8086’s 1Mbyte memory address space is divided in to two

independent 512Kbyte banks: the low (even) bank and the high (odd) bank.
Data bytes associated with an even address (0000016, 0000216, etc.) reside
in the low bank, and those with odd addresses (0000116, 0000316, etc.)
reside in the high bank.

Address bits A1 through A19 select the storage location that is to be

accessed. They are applied to both banks in parallel. A0and bank high
enable (BHE) are used as bank-select signals.

The four different cases that happen during accessing data:

Case 1: When a byte of data at an even address (such as X) is to be

accessed:

 A0 is set to logic 0 to enable the low bank of memory.

 BHE is set to logic 1 to disable the high bank.

Case 2: When a byte of data at an odd addresses (such as X+1) is to be

accessed:

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 A0is set to logic 1 to disable the low bank of memory.

 BHE is set to logic 0 to enable the high bank.

Case 3: When a word of data at an even address (aligned word) is to be

accessed:

 A0 is set to logic 0 to enable the low bank of memory.

 BHE is set to logic 0 to enable the high bank.
Case 4: When a word of data at an odd address (misaligned word) is to be
accessed, then the 8086 need two bus cycles to access it:
a) During the first bus cycle, the odd byte of the word (in the high bank) is
addressed

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 A0 is set to logic 1 to disable the low bank of memory

 BHE is set to logic 0 to enable the high bank.
b) During the second bus cycle, the odd byte of the word (in the low bank) is
addressed

 A0is set to logic 0 to enable the low bank of memory.

 BHE is set to logic 1 to disable the high bank.
Signal Description of 8086 Microprocessor

The 8086 Microprocessor is a 16-bit CPU available in 3 clock rates, i.e.

5, 8 and 10MHz, packaged in a 40 pin CERDIP or plastic package. The 8086
Microprocessor operates in single processor or multiprocessor
configurations to achieve high performance. The pin configuration is as
shown in fig1. Some of the pins serve a particular function in minimum
mode (single processor mode) and others function in maximum mode
(multiprocessor mode) configuration.

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The 8086 signals can be categorized in three groups. The first are the
signals having common functions in minimum as well as maximum mode,
the second are the signals which have special functions in minimum mode
and third are the signals having special functions for maximum mode.

The following signal description is common for both the minimum

and maximum modes.

AD15-AD0:
These are the time multiplexed memory I/O address and data lines.
Address remains on the lines during T1 state, while the data is available on
the data bus during T2, T3, TW and T4. Here T1, T2, T3, T4 and TW are the
clock states of a machine cycle. TW is await state. These lines are active
high and float to a tristate during interrupt acknowledge and local bus hold
acknowledge cycles.
A19/S6, A18/S5, A17/S4, A16/S3:
These are the time multiplexed address and status lines. During T1,
these are the most significant address lines or memory operations. During
I/O operations, these lines are low. During memory or I/O operations, status

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information is available on those lines for T2, T3, TW and T4 .The status of

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the interrupt enable flag bit(displayed on S5) is updated at the beginning of

each clock cycle. The S4 and S3 combinedly indicate which segment register
is presently being used for memory accesses as shown in Table 1.1.
These lines float to tri-state off (tristated) during the local bus hold
acknowledge. The status line S6 is always low(logical). The address bits are
separated from the status bits using latches controlled by the ALE signal.

BHE/S7 (Active Low):

The bus high enable signal is used to indicate the transfer of data over the
higher order (D15-D8) data bus as shown in Table 1.2. It goes low for the
data transfers over D15-D8 and is used to derive chip selects of odd address
memory bank or peripherals. is low during T1 for read, write and
interrupt acknowledge cycles, when- ever a byte is to be transferred on the
higher byte of the data bus. The status information is available during T2,
T3 and T4. The signal is active low and is tristated during 'hold'. It is low
during T1 for the first pulse of the interrupt acknowledge cycle.

Read signal, when low, indicates the peripherals that the processor is
performing a memory or I/O read operation. is active low and shows
the state for T2, T3, TW of any read cycle. The signal remains tristated
during the 'hold acknowledge'.

READY:

This is the acknowledgement from the slow devices or memory that

they have completed the data transfer. The signal made available by the
devices is synchronized by the 8284A clock generator to provide ready input
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to the 8086. The signal is active high.

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INTR-Interrupt Request:

This is a level triggered input. This is sampled during the last clock
cycle of each instruction to determine the availability of the request. If any
interrupt request is pending, the processor enters the interrupt
acknowledge cycle. This can be internally masked by resetting the interrupt
enable flag. This signal is active high and internally synchronized.

TEST:

This input is examined by a 'WAIT' instruction. If the TEST input goes

low, execution will continue, else, the processor remains in an idle state.
The input is synchronized internally during each clock cycle on leading edge
of clock.

NMI-Non-maskable Interrupt:

This is an edge-triggered input which causes a Type2 interrrupt. The

NMI is not maskable internally by software. A transition from low to high
initiates the interrupt response at the end of the current instruction. This
input is internally synchronized.

RESET:

This input causes the processor to terminate the current activity and
start execution from FFFF0H. The signal is active high and must be active for
at least four clock cycles. It restarts execution when the RESET returns low.
RESET is also internally synchronized.

CLK-Clock Input:

The clock input provides the basic timing for processor operation and
bus control activity. Its an asymmetric square wave with 33% duty cycle.
The range of frequency for different 8086 versions is from 5MHz to 10MHz.

VCC :

+5V power supply for the operation of the internal circuit. GND
ground for the internal circuit.

MN/MX :

The logic level at this pin decides whether the processor is to operate

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in either minimum (single processor) or maximum (multiprocessor) mode.

The following pin functions are for the minimum mode operation of 8086.

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M/IO -Memory/IO:

This is a status line logically equivalent to S2 in maximum mode.

When it is low, it indicates the CPU is having an I/O operation, and when it
is high, it indicates that the CPU is having a memory operation. This line
becomes active in the previous T4 and remains active till final T4 of the
current cycle. It is tristated during local bus "hold acknowledge".

-Interrupt Acknowledge:

This signal is used as a read strobe for interrupt acknowledge cycles.

In other words, when it goes low, it means that the processor has accepted
the interrupt. It is active low during T2, T3 and TW of each interrupt
acknowledge cycle.

ALE-Address latch Enable:

This output signal indicates the availability of the valid address on the
address/data lines, and is connected to latch enable input of latches. This
signal is active high and is never tristated.

-Data Transmit/Receive:
This output is used to decide the direction of data flow through the
transreceivers (bidirectional buffers). When the processor sends out data,
this signal is high and when the processor is receiving data, this signal is low.
Logically, this is equivalent to S1 in maximum mode. Its timing is the same
as M/I/O. This is tristated during 'hold acknowledge'.

This signal indicates the availability of valid data over the

address/data lines. It is used to enable the transreceivers (bidirectional
buffers) to separate the data from the multiplexed address/data signal. It is
active from the middle ofT2 until the middle of T4 DEN is tristated during
'hold acknowledge' cycle.

HOLD, HLDA-Hold/Hold Acknowledge:

When the HOLD line goes high, it indicates to the processor that
another master is requesting the bus access. The processor, after receiving
the HOLD request, issues the hold acknowledge signal on HLDA pin, in the
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middle of the next clock cycle after completing the current bus (instruction)

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cycle. At the same time, the processor floats the local bus and control lines.
When the processor detects the HOLD line low, it lowers the HLDA signal.
HOLD is an asynchronous input, and it should be externally synchronized.

S2, S1, S0 -Status Lines:

These are the status lines which reflect the type of operation, being
carried out by the processor. These become active during T4 of the previous
cycle and remain active during T1 and T2 of the current bus cycle. The
status lines return to passive state during T3 of the current bus cycle so that
they may again become active for the next bus cycle during T4. Any change
in these lines during T3 indicates the starting of a new cycle, and return to
passive state indicates end of the bus cycle. These status lines are encoded
in table 1.3

This output pin indicates that other system bus masters will be
prevented from gaining the system bus, while the signal is low.
The signal is activated by the 'LOCK' prefix instruction and remains
active until the completion of the next instruction. This floats to tri-state
off during "hold acknowledge". When the CPU is executing a critical
instruction which requires the system bus, the LOCK prefix instruction
ensures that other processors connected in the system will not gain the
control of the bus. The 8086, while executing the prefixed instruction,
asserts the bus lock signal output, which may be connected to an
external bus controller.

QS1, QS0-Queue Status:

These lines give information about the status of the codeprefetch

queue. These are active during the CLK cycle after which the queue
operation is performed. These are encoded as shown in Table 1.4.

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ReQuest/Grant:

These pins are used by other local bus masters, in maximum mode, to
force the processor to release the local bus at the end of the processor's
current bus cycle. Each of the pins is bidirectional with having
higher priority than pins have internal pull-up resistors and
may be left unconnected. The request! Grant sequence is as follows:

1. A pulse one clock wide from another bus master requests the bus access
to 8086.

2. During T4 (current) or T1 (next) clock cycle, a pulse one clock wide from
8086 to the requesting master, indicates that the 8086 has allowed the local
bus to float and that it will enter the "hold acknowledge" state at next clock
cycle. The CPU's bus interface unit is likely to be disconnected from the local
bus of the system.

3. A one clock wide pulse from the another master indicates to 8086 that
the 'hold' request is about to end and the 8086 may regain control of the
local bus at the next clock cycle.

Minimum Mode 8086 System and Timings

In a minimum mode 8086 system, the microprocessor 8086 is
operated in minimum mode by strapping its MN/MX* pin to logic1. In this
mode, all the control signals are given out by the microprocessor chip itself.
There is a single microprocessor in the minimum mode system. The
remaining components in the system are latches, transreceivers, clock
generator, memory and I/O devices. Some type of chip selection logic may
be required for selecting memory or I/O devices, depending upon the
address map of the system.

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Latches:

The latches are generally buffered output D-type flip-flops, like,

74LS373 or 8282. They are used for separating the valid address from the
multiplexed address/data signals and are controlled by the ALE signal
generated by 8086.

Transreceivers

Transreceivers are the bidirectional buffers and some times they are
called as data amplifiers. They are required to separate the valid data from
the time multiplexed address/data signal. They are controlled by two
signals, namely, DEN* and DT/R*. The DEN* signal indicates that the valid
data is available on the data bus, while DT/R indicates the direction of data,
i.e. from or to the processor.

Memory:

The system contains memory for the monitor and users program
storage. Usually, EPROMS are used for monitor storage, while RAMs for
users program storage.

IO Devices:

A system may contain I/O devices for communication with the processor as
well as some special purpose I/O devices.

Clock Generator:

The clock generator generates the clock from the crystal oscillator
and then shapes it and divides to make it more precise so that it can be
used as an accurate timing reference for the system. The clock generator
also synchronizes some external signals with the system clock.

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The general system organization is shown in above fig .Since it has 20

address lines and 16 data lines, the 8086 CPU requires three octal address
latches and two octal data buffers for the complete address and data
separation.

The working of the minimum mode configuration system can be

better described in terms of the timing diagrams rather than qualitatively
describing the operations. The opcode fetch and read cycles are similar.
Hence the timing diagram can be categorized in two parts.

1) Timing diagram for read cycle

2) Timing diagram for write cycle.

Timing diagram for Read cycle :

The read cycle begins in T1 with the assertion of the address latch
enable (ALE) signal and also M/IO* signal. During the negative going edge of
this signal, the valid address is latched on the local bus. The BHE* and
A0 signals address low, high or both bytes. From Tl to T4, the M/IO* signal
indicates a memory or I/O operation. At T2 the address is removed from the
local bus and is sent to the output. The bus is then tristated. The read (RD*)
control signal is also activated in T2 .

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The read (RD) signal causes the addressed device to enable its data
bus drivers. After RD* goes low, the valid data is available on the data bus.

The addressed device will drive the READY line high, when the
processor returns the read signal to high level, the addressed device will
again tristate its bus drivers.

Timing diagram for write cycle:

A write cycle also begins with the assertion of ALE and the emission
of the address. The M/IO* signal is again asserted to indicate a memory or
I/O operation. In T2 after sending the address in Tl the processor sends the
data to be written to the addressed location. The data remains on the bus
until middle of T4 state. The WR* becomes active at the beginning of T2.

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The BHE* and A0 signals are used to select the proper byte or bytes
of memory or I/O word to be read or written. The M/IO*, RD* and WR*
signals indicate the types of data transfer as specified in Table

HOLD Response Sequence

The HOLD pin is checked at the end of the each bus cycle. If it is
received active by the processor before T4 of the previous cycle or during
T1 state of the current cycle, the CPU activities HLDA in the next clock cycle
and for the succeeding bus cycles, the bus will be given to another
requesting master The control control of the bus is not regained by the
processor until the requesting master does not drop the HOLD pin low.
When the request is dropped by the requesting master, the HLDA is
dropped by the processor at the trailing edge of the next clock as shown in
fig

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Maximum Mode 8086 System and Timings

In the maximum mode, the 8086 is operated by strapping the
MN/MX* pin to ground. In this mode, the processor derives the status
signals S2*, S1* and S0*. Another chip called bus controller derives the
control signals using this status information. In the maximum mode, there
may be more than one microprocessor in the system configuration. The
other components in the system are the same as in the minimum mode
system. The general system organization is as shown in the fig1.1

The basic functions of the bus controller chip IC8288, is to derive

control signals like RD* and WR* (for memory and I/O devices), DEN*,
DT/R*, ALE, etc. using the information made available by the processor on
the status lines. The bus controller chip has input lines S2*, S1* and S0* and
CLK. These inputs to 8288 are driven by the CPU. It derives the outputs ALE,
DEN*, DT/R*, MWTC*, AMWC*, IORC*, IOWC* and AIOWC*. The AEN*, IOB
and CEN pins are specially useful for multiprocessor systems. AEN* and IOB
are generally grounded. CEN pin is usually tied to +5V.

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INTA* pin is used to issue two interrupt acknowledge pulses to the

interrupt controller or to an interrupting device.IORC*, IOWC* are I/O read
command and I/O write command signals respectively. These signals enable
an IO interface to read or write the data from or to the addressed port. The
MRDC*, MWTC* are memory read command and memory write command
signals respectively and may be used as memory read and write signals. All
these command signals instruct the memory to accept or send data from or
to the bus. For both of these write command signals, the advanced signals
namely AIOWC* and AMWTC* are available. They also serve the same
purpose, but are activated one clock cycle earlier than the IOWC* and
MWTC* signals, respectively. The maximum mode system is shown in fig.
1.1.

The maximum mode system timing diagrams are also divided in two
portions as read (input) and write (output) timing diagrams. The
address/data and address/status timings are similar to the minimum mode.
ALE is asserted in T1, just like minimum mode. The only difference lies in
the status signals used and the available control and advanced command
signals. The fig. 1.2 shows the maximum mode timings for the read
operation while the fig. 1.3 shows the same for the write operation.

Fig. 1.2 Memory Read Timing in Maximum Mode

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Fig. 1.3 Memory Write Timing in Maximum Mode

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UNIT -II
 Instruction Set and Assembly Language Programming
of 8086
 Instruction formats, Addressing modes,
 Instruction Set
 Assembler Directives,
 Procedures, Macros
 Simple Programs involving Logical
 Branch and Call Instructions
 Sorting Evaluating Arithmetic Expressions
 String Manipulations

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UNIT-II
The instruction format contains two fields
 operation code / opcode
 Operand field

OPERATION CODE / OPCODE:

 It indicates the type of the operation to be performed by CPU

 Example : MOV , ADD …

OPERAND:
 The CPU executes the instruction using the information resides in these fields .

There are six general formats of instructions in 8086 instruction set.

The instruction of 8086 vary from 1to 6 bytes length
ONE BYTE INSTRUCTION:
 It is only one byte long and may have implied data or register operands.

 The least three significant 3 bits of the opcode are used for specifying register
operand if any otherwise all the 8 bits form an opcode and the operands are implied.
REGISTER TO REGISTER
 The format is 2 byte long
 The first byte of the code specifies the opcode and width
 The second byte of the code shows the register operand and R/M field
 The Register represented by REG is one of the operands . The R/M field specifies
another register or memory location .ie the other operand

REGISTER TO/FROM MEMORY WITH NO DISPLACEMENT

 The format is 2 byte long

 This is similar to the register to register format except for the MOD field is shown.

 The MOD field shows the mode of addressing

REGISTER TO/FROM MEMORY WITH DISPLACEMENT

 The format contains one or two additional bytes for displacement along with 2 bytes
Register to/from memory with no displacement.

IMMEDIATE OPERAND TO REGISTER

 The first byte as well as the 3 bits from the second byte which are used for REG field
in case of Register to register format or used for OPCODE.
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 It also contains one are two bytes of data.

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IMMEDIATE OPERAND TO MEMORY WITH 16 BIT DISPLACEMENTS

 It requires 5 to 6 bytes for coding

 The first two bytes contains the information regarding OPCODE,MOD and R/M fields
 The remaining 4 bytes contains 2 bytes of displacement and 2 bytes of data

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ADDRESSING MODES OF 8086

According two the flow of instructions may be categorized as
1. Sequential Control flow instructions
2. Control transfer instructions
Sequential control flow instructions are the instructions which after execution
transfer control to the next instruction appearing immediately. The control transfer
instructions transfer control to some predefined address or the address somehow
specified in the instruction after their execution.
What is addressing mode?
The different ways in which a source operand is denoted in an instruction are known
as addressing mode the addressing modes for sequential control flow instructions
are

1. Immediate Addressing Mode

2. Direct Addressing mode
3. Register Addressing mode
4. Register Indirect Addressing mode
5. Indexed Addressing Mode
6. Register Relative addressing mode
7. Based indexed addressing mode
8. Relative based indexed Addressing mode

IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING MODE

The addressing mode in which the data operand is a part of the instruction itself is
known as immediate addressing mode.

Example
MOV DL, 08H
The 8-bit data (08H) given in the instruction is moved to DL
(DL)  08H
MOV AX, 0A9FH
The 16-bit data (0A9FH) given in the instruction is moved to AX register
(AX)  0A9FH

DIRECT ADDRESSING MODE

The addressing mode in which the effective address of the memory location at which
the data operand is stored is given in the instruction. The effective address (Offset) is
just a 16-bit number written directly in the instruction.
Example:MOV BX, [1354H]
MOV BL, [0400H]

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The square brackets around the 1354H denote the contents of the memory location.
When executed, this instruction will copy the contents of the memory location into BX
register. This addressing mode is called direct because the displacement of the operand
from the segment base is specified directly in the instruction.

REGISTER ADDRESSING MODE

The instruction will specify the name of the register which holds the data to be operated by the
instruction. All registers except IP may be used in this mode

Example:

MOV CL, DH
The content of 8-bit register DH is moved to another 8-bit register CL
(CL) (DH)

REGISTER INDIRECT ADDRESSING MODE

This addressing mode allows data to be addressed at any memory location through an
offset address held in any of the following registers: BP, BX, DI & SI.

Example
MOV AX, [BX]; suppose the register BX contains 4895H, then the contents
; 4895H are moved to AX
ADD CX, {BX}

INDEXED ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the operands offset address is found by adding the contents of
SI or DI register and 8-bit/16-bit displacements. DS and ES are the default segments for
index registers SI and DI respectively. This is the special case of the of register indirect
addressing mode.

Example

MOV BX, [SI+16], ADD AL, [DI+16]

REGISTER RELATIVE ADDRESSING MODE

In register relative Addressing, BX, BP, SI and DI is used to hold the base value for
effective address and a signed 8-bit or unsigned 16-bit displacement will be specified in
the instruction. In case of 8-bit displacement, it is sign extended to 16-bit before adding
to the base value. When BX holds the base value of EA, 20-bit physical address is
calculated from BX and DS.When BP holds the base value of EA, BP and SS is used.
Example:
MOV AX, [BX + 08H] MOV AX, 08H [BX]

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BASED INDEXED ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the offset address of the operand is computed by summing the
base register to the contents of an Index register. The default segment registers may be
ES or DS
Example:
MOV DX, [BX + SI] MOV DX, [BX][SI]

RELATIVE BASED INDEXED ADDRESSING MODE

In this addressing mode, the operands offset is computed by adding the base register
contents. An Index registers contents and 8 or 16-bit displacement.
Example
MOV AX, [BX+DI+08]
ADD CX, [BX+SI+16]

CONTROL TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS ADDRESSING MODES /BRANCH ADDRESSING

MODE
The control transfer instructions transfer control to some predefined address or the
address somehow specified in the instruction after their execution
Examples : INT , CALL ,RET and JUMP instructions
The control transfer instruction the addressing modes depend upon whether destination
location is within the same segment or a different one .It also depends on the method of
passing the destination address to the processor
Basically there are two methods for passing control transfer instructions
1. Intersegment addressing mode
2. Intrasegment addressing mode
INTRASEGMENT ADDRESSING MODE
If the destination location is within the same segment the mode is called intrasegment
addressing mode
There are two types
1. Intrasegement direct mode
2. Intrasegment indirect mode
INTRASEGMENT DIRECT MODE:
In this mode the address to which the control is to be transferred lies within the
segment in which the control transfer instruction lies and appears directly in the
instruction as an immediate displacement value .The displacement is computed relative
to the content of the instruction pointer IP.
JMP SHORT LABEL;
is a control transfer instruction following intra segment direct mode. Here, SHORT LABEL
represents a signed displacement.
INTRASEGMENT INDIRECT MODE :
In this mode the displacement to which the control is to be transferred is in the same
segment in which the control transfer instruction lies but it is passed to the instruction
indirectly Here the branch address is found as the content of a register or a memory
location .
Example
JMP [AX]

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INTERSEGMENT ADDRESSING MODE

If the destination location is in the different segment the mode is called intersegment
addressing mode
There are two types
1. Intersegment direct mode
2. Intersegment indirect mode
INTERSEGMENT DIRECT MODE:
In this mode the address to which the control is to be transferred is in a different
segment this addressing mode provides a means of branching from one code segment to
another code segment. Here the CS and IP of the destination address are specified
directly in the instruction.
Example
JMP 2000H: 3000H;
INTERSEGMENT INDIRECT MODE :
In this the address to which the control is to be transferred lies in a different segment
and it is passed to the instruction indirectly .Content of memory block containing four
bytes IP(LSB) ,IP(MSB),CS(LSB) and CS(MSB) sequentially The starting address of the
memory block may be referred using any of the addressing mode except immediate
mode .
Example
JMP [5000H];
INSTRUCTION SET OF 8086
The 8086 microprocessor supports 8 types of instructions −

 Data Transfer Instructions

 Arithmetic Instructions
 logical Instructions
 String Instructions
 Program Execution Transfer Instructions (Branch & Loop Instructions)
 Processor Control Instructions
 Iteration Control Instructions
 Interrupt Instructions

1. DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS

These instructions are used to transfer the data from the source operand to the
destination operand. Following are the list of instructions under this group −

INSTRUCTION TO TRANSFER A WORD

 MOV − Used to copy the byte or word from the provided source to the provided
destination.
 PPUSH − Used to put a word at the top of the stack.
 POP − Used to get a word from the top of the stack to the provided location.
 PUSHA − Used to put all the registers into the stack.
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 POPA − Used to get words from the stack to all registers.

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 XCHG − Used to exchange the data from two locations.

 XLAT − Used to translate a byte in AL using a table in the memory.

INSTRUCTIONS FOR INPUT AND OUTPUT PORT TRANSFER

 IN − Used to read a byte or word from the provided port to the accumulator.

 OUT − Used to send out a byte or word from the accumulator to the provided
port.

INSTRUCTIONS TO TRANSFER THE ADDRESS

 LEA − Used to load the address of operand into the provided register.

 LDS − Used to load DS register and other provided register from the memory
 LES − Used to load ES register and other provided register from the memory.

INSTRUCTIONS TO TRANSFER FLAG REGISTERS

 LAHF − Used to load AH with the low byte of the flag register.

 SAHF − Used to store AH register to low byte of the flag register.

 PUSHF − Used to copy the flag register at the top of the stack.
 POPF − Used to copy a word at the top of the stack to the flag register.

2. ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS
These instructions are used to perform arithmetic operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.
Following is the list of instructions under this group −

INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM ADDITION

 ADD − Used to add the provided byte to byte/word to word.

 ADC − Used to add with carry.

 INC − Used to increment the provided byte/word by 1.
 AAA − Used to adjust ASCII after addition.
 DAA − Used to adjust the decimal after the addition/subtraction operation.

INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM SUBTRACTION

 SUB − Used to subtract the byte from byte/word from word.

 SBB − Used to perform subtraction with borrow.

 DEC − Used to decrement the provided byte/word by 1.
 NPG − Used to negate each bit of the provided byte/word and add 1/2’s
complement.
 CMP − Used to compare 2 provided byte/word.
 AAS − Used to adjust ASCII codes after subtraction.
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 DAS − Used to adjust decimal after subtraction.

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INSTRUCTION TO PERFORM MULTIPLICATION

 MUL − Used to multiply unsigned byte by byte/word by word.

 IMUL − Used to multiply signed byte by byte/word by word.

 AAM − Used to adjust ASCII codes after multiplication.

INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM DIVISION

 DIV − Used to divide the unsigned word by byte or unsigned double word by
word.
 IDIV − Used to divide the signed word by byte or signed double word by word.
 AAD − Used to adjust ASCII codes after division.
 CBW − Used to fill the upper byte of the word with the copies of sign bit of the
lower byte.
 CWD − Used to fill the upper word of the double word with the sign bit of the
lower word.

3. LOGICAL INSTRUCTIONS
These instructions are used to perform operations where data bits are involved,
i.e. operations like logical, shift, etc.
Following is the list of instructions under this group −

INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM LOGICAL OPERATION

 NOT − Used to invert each bit of a byte or word.

 AND − Used for adding each bit in a byte/word with the corresponding bit in
another byte/word.
 OR − Used to multiply each bit in a byte/word with the corresponding bit in
another byte/word.
 XOR − Used to perform Exclusive-OR operation over each bit in a byte/word with
the corresponding bit in another byte/word.
 TEST − Used to add operands to update flags, without affecting operands.

INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM SHIFT OPERATIONS

 SHL/SAL − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards left and put zero(S) in LSBs.

 SHR − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards the right and put zero(S) in
MSBs.
 SAR − Used to shift bits of a byte/word towards the right and copy the old MSB
into the new MSB.

INSTRUCTIONS TO PERFORM ROTATE OPERATIONS

 ROL − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the left, i.e. MSB to LSB and to
Carry Flag [CF].
 ROR − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the right, i.e. LSB to MSB and to

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Carry Flag [CF].

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 RCR − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the right, i.e. LSB to CF and CF to
MSB.
 RCL − Used to rotate bits of byte/word towards the left, i.e. MSB to CF and CF to
LSB.

4. STRING INSTRUCTIONS
String is a group of bytes/words and their memory is always allocated in a
sequential order.
Following is the list of instructions under this group −
 REP − Used to repeat the given instruction till CX ≠ 0.
 REPE/REPZ − Used to repeat the given instruction until CX = 0 or zero flag ZF = 1.
 REPNE/REPNZ − Used to repeat the given instruction until CX = 0 or zero flag ZF
= 1.
 MOVS/MOVSB/MOVSW − Used to move the byte/word from one string to
another.
 COMS/COMPSB/COMPSW − Used to compare two string bytes/words.
 INS/INSB/INSW − Used as an input string/byte/word from the I/O port to the
provided memory location.
 OUTS/OUTSB/OUTSW − Used as an output string/byte/word from the provided
memory location to the I/O port.
 SCAS/SCASB/SCASW − Used to scan a string and compare its byte with a byte in
AL or string word with a word in AX.
 LODS/LODSB/LODSW − Used to store the string byte into AL or string word into
AX.

5. PROGRAM EXECUTION TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS (BRANCH AND LOOP INSTRUCTIONS)

These instructions are used to transfer/branch the instructions during an execution. It
includes the following instructions −
Instructions to transfer the instruction during an execution without any condition −
 CALL − Used to call a procedure and save their return address to the stack.
 RET − Used to return from the procedure to the main program.
 JMP − Used to jump to the provided address to proceed to the next instruction.
Instructions to transfer the instruction during an execution with some conditions −
 JA/JNBE − Used to jump if above/not below/equal instruction satisfies.
 JAE/JNB − Used to jump if above/not below instruction satisfies.
 JBE/JNA − Used to jump if below/equal/ not above instruction satisfies.
 JC − Used to jump if carry flag CF = 1
 JE/JZ − Used to jump if equal/zero flag ZF = 1
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 JG/JNLE − Used to jump if greater/not less than/equal instruction satisfies.

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 JGE/JNL − Used to jump if greater than/equal/not less than instruction satisfies.

 JL/JNGE − Used to jump if less than/not greater than/equal instruction satisfies.
 JLE/JNG − Used to jump if less than/equal/if not greater than instruction
satisfies.
 JNC − Used to jump if no carry flag (CF = 0)
 JNE/JNZ − Used to jump if not equal/zero flag ZF = 0
 JNO − Used to jump if no overflow flag OF = 0
 JNP/JPO − Used to jump if not parity/parity odd PF = 0
 JNS − Used to jump if not sign SF = 0
 JO − Used to jump if overflow flag OF = 1
 JP/JPE − Used to jump if parity/parity even PF = 1
 JS − Used to jump if sign flag SF = 1

6. PROCESSOR CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS

These instructions are used to control the processor action by setting/resetting the flag
values.
Following are the instructions under this group −
 STC − Used to set carry flag CF to 1
 CLC − Used to clear/reset carry flag CF to 0
 CMC − Used to put complement at the state of carry flag CF.
 STD − Used to set the direction flag DF to 1
 CLD − Used to clear/reset the direction flag DF to 0
 STI − Used to set the interrupt enable flag to 1, i.e., enable INTR input.
 CLI − Used to clear the interrupt enable flag to 0, i.e., disable INTR input.

7. ITERATION CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS

These instructions are used to execute the given instructions for number of times.
Following is the list of instructions under this group −
 LOOP − Used to loop a group of instructions until the condition satisfies, i.e., CX
=0
 LOOPE/LOOPZ − Used to loop a group of instructions till it satisfies ZF = 1 & CX =
0
 LOOPNE/LOOPNZ − Used to loop a group of instructions till it satisfies ZF = 0 &
CX = 0
 JCXZ − Used to jump to the provided address if CX = 0

8. INTERRUPT INSTRUCTIONS

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These instructions are used to call the interrupt during program execution.

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 INT − Used to interrupt the program during execution and calling service
specified.
 INTO − Used to interrupt the program during execution if OF = 1
 IRET − Used to return from interrupt service to the main program

ASSEMBLER DIRECTIVES
Assembler directives are the Instructions to the Assembler, linker and loader
regarding the program being executed. also called ‘pseudo instructions. Control the
generation of machine codes and organization of the program; but no machine codes
are generated for assembler directives.
They are used to
› specify the start and end of a program
› attach value to variables
› allocate storage locations to input/ output data
› define start and end of segments, procedures, macros etc..
ASSUME
Used to tell the assembler the name of the logical segment it should use for a
specified segment. You must tell the assembler that what to assume for any segment
you use in the program.
Example
ASSUME: CODE
Tells the assembler that the instructions for the program are in segment named CODE.
DB – Defined Byte
Used to declare a byte type variable or to set aside one or more locations of type byte in
memory.
Example
PRICES DB 49H, 98H, 29H:
Declare array of 3 bytes named PRICES and initialize 3 bytes as shown.
DD – Define Double Word
Used to declare a variable of type doubleword or to reserve a memory location which
can be accessed as doubleword.
DQ – Define Quadword
Used to tell the assembler to declare the variable as 4 words of storage in memory.
DT – Define Ten Bytes
Used to tell the assembler to declare the variable which is 10 bytes in length or reserve
10 bytes of storage in memory.
DW – Define Word
Used to tell the assembler to define a variable type as word or reserve word in memory.
DUP: used to initialize several locations and to assign values to location
END – End the Program
To tell the assembler to stop fetching the instruction and end the program execution.
ENDP – it is used to end the procedure.
ENDS – used to end the segment.
EQU – EQUATE
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Used to give name to some value or symbol.

EVEN – Align On Even Memory Address

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Tells the assembler to increment the location counter to the next even address if it is not
already at an even address.
EXTRN
Used to tell the assembler that the name or labels following the directive are in some
other assembly module.
GLOBAL – Declares Symbols As Public Or Extrn
Used to make the symbol available to other modules.It can be used in place of EXTRN or
PUBLIC keyword.
GROUP – Group related segment
Used to tell the assembler to group the logical segments named after the
directive into one logical segment. This allows the content of all the segments to be
accessed from the same group.
INCLUDE – include source code from file
Used to tell the assembler to insert a block of source code from the named file
into the current source module. This shortens the source code.
LABEL
Used to give the name to the current value in the location counter. The LABEL directive
must be followed by a term which specifies the type you want associated with that
name.
LENGTH
Used to determine the number of items in some data such as string or array.
NAME
Used to give a specific name to a module when the programs consisting of several
modules.
OFFSET
It is an operator which tells the assembler to determine the offset or displacement of
named data item or procedure from the start of the segment which contains it.
ORG – Originate
Tells the assembler to set the location counter value.
Example, ORG 7000H sets the location counter value to point to 7000H location in
memory.
$ is often used to symbolically represent the value of the location counter. It is
used with ORG to tell the assembler to change the location according to the current
value in the location counter. E.g. ORG $+100.

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UNIT -III
I/O Interface
 8255 PPI
 Various Modes of Operation and Interfacing to 8086
 D/A and A/D Converter
 Stepper motor
 Interfacing of DMA controller 8257
Interfacing with advanced devices
 Memory Interfacing to 8086
 Interrupt Structure of 8086
 Interrupt Vector Table, Interrupt Service Routine
 architecture of 8259.
Communication Interface
 Serial Communication Standards
 Serial Data Transfer Schemes
 8251 USART Architecture and Interfacing.

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UNIT-3

I/O Interface
Introduction:

Any application of a microprocessor based system requires the transfer of data

between external circuitry to the microprocessor and microprocessor to the external
circuitry. User can give information to the microprocessor based system using keyboard
and user can see the result or output information from the microprocessor based system
with the help of display device. The transfer of data between keyboard and
microprocessor, and microprocessor and display device is called input/output data
transfer or I/O data transfer. This data transfer is done with the help of I/O ports.

Input port:

It is used to read data from the input device such as keyboard. The simplest form
of input port is a buffer. The input device is connected to the microprocessor through
buffer, as shown in the fig.1. This buffer is a tri-state buffer and its output is available
only when enable signal is active. When microprocessor wants to read data from the
input device (keyboard), the control signals from the microprocessor activates the buffer
by asserting enable input of the buffer. Once the buffer is enabled, data from the input
device is available on the data bus. Microprocessor reads this data by initiating read
command.

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Output port:

It is used to send data to the output device such as display from the
microprocessor. The simplest form of output port is a latch. The output device is
connected to the microprocessor through latch, as shown in the fig.2. When
microprocessor wants to send data to the output device is puts the data on the data bus
and activates the clock signal of the latch, latching the data from the data bus at the
output of latch. It is then available at the output of latch for the output device.

Serial and Parallel Transmission:

In telecommunications, serial transmission is the sequential transmission of

signal elements of a group representing a character or other entity of data. Digital serial
transmissions are bits sent over a single wire, frequency or optical path sequentially.
Because it requires less signal processing and less chance for error than parallel
transmission, the transfer rate of each individual path may be faster. This can be used
over longer distances as a check digit or parity bit can be sent along it easily.
In telecommunications, parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of
the signal elements of a character or other entity of data. In digital communications,
parallel transmission is the simultaneous transmission of related signal elements over
two or more separate paths. Multiple electrical wires are used which can transmit
multiple bits simultaneously, which allows for higher data transfer rates than can be
achieved with serial transmission. This method is used internally within the computer,
for example the internal buses, and sometimes externally for such things as printers, The
major issue with this is "skewing" because the wires in parallel data transmission have
slightly different properties (not intentionally) so some bits may arrive before others,

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which may corrupt

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the message. A parity bit can help to reduce this. However, electrical wire parallel data
transmission is therefore less reliable for long distances because corrupt transmissions
are far more likely.

Interrupt driven I/O:

In this technique, a CPU automatically executes one of a collection of special

routines whenever certain condition exists within a program or a processor system.
Example CPU gives response to devices such as keyboard, sensor and other components
when they request for service. When the CPU is asked to communicate with devices, it
services the devices. Example each time you type a character on a keyboard, a keyboard
service routine is called. It transfers the character you typed from the keyboard I/O port
into the processor and then to a data buffer in memory.

The interrupt driven I/O technique allows the CPU to execute its main program
and only stop to service I/O device when it is told to do so by the I/O system as shown in
fig.3. This method provides an external asynchronous input that would inform the
processor that it should complete whatever instruction that is currently being executed
and fetch a new routine that will service the requesting device. Once this servicing is
completed, the processor would resume exactly where it left off.

An analogy to the interrupt concept is in the classroom, where the professor serves
as CPU and the students as I/O ports. The classroom scenario for this interrupt analogy
will be such that the professor is busy in writing on the blackboard and delivering his
lecture.

The student raises his finger when he wants to ask a question (student requesting for
service). The professor then completes his sentence and acknowledges student‟s
request by saying “YES” (professor acknowledges the interrupt request). After
acknowledgement from the professor, student asks the question and professor gives
answer to the question (professor services the interrupt). After that professor continues
its remaining lecture form where it was left.

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PIO 8255:

The parallel input-output port chip 8255 is also called as

programmableperipheral input-output port. The Intel‟s 8255 are designed for use with
Intel‟s 8-bit, 16-bit and higher capability microprocessors. It has 24 input/output
lineswhich may be individually programmed in two groups of twelve lines each, orthree
groups of eight lines.

The two groups of I/O pins are named as Group A and Group B. Each of thesetwo
groups contains a subgroup of eight I/O lines called as 8-bit port and anothersubgroup of
four lines or a 4-bit port. Thus Group A contains an 8-bit port Aalong with a 4-bit port C
upper.

The port A lines are identified by symbols PA0-PA7 while the port C lines are
identified as PC4-PC7 similarly. Group B contains an 8-bit port B, containing lines PB0-
PB7 and a 4-bit port C with lower bits PC0-PC3. The port C upper and port C lower can be
used in combination as an 8-bit port C. Both the port Cs is assigned the same address.
Thus one may have either three 8-bit I/O ports or two 8-bit and two 4-bit I/O ports from
8255. All of these ports can function independently either as input or as output ports.
This can be achieved by programming the bits of an internal register of 8255 called as
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control word register (CWR). The internal block diagram and the pin configuration of
8255 are shown in figs.

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The 8-bit data bus buffer is controlled by the read/write control logic. The read/write
control logic manages all of the internal and external transfer of both data and control
words. RD, WR, A1, A0 and RESET are the inputs, provided by the microprocessor to
READ/WRITE control logic of 8255. The 8-bit, 3-state bidirectional buffer is used to
interface the 8255 internal data bus with the external system data bus. This buffer
receives or transmits data upon the execution of input or output instructions by the
microprocessor. The control words or status information is also transferred through the
buffer.

Pin Diagram of 8255A

The pin configuration of 8255 is shown in fig.

The port A lines are identified by symbols PA0-PA7 while the port C lines are
Identified as PC4-PC7. Similarly, Group B contains an 8-bit port B, containing
lines PB0-PB7 and a 4-bit port C with lower bits PC0- PC3. The port C upper
and port C lower can be used in combination as an 8-bit port C.
Both the port C is assigned the same address. Thus one may have either three
8-bit I/O ports or two 8-bit and two 4-bit ports from 8255. All of these ports
can function independently either as input or as output ports. This can be

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achieved by programming the bits of an internal register of 8255 called as

control word register (CWR).
The 8-bit data bus buffer is controlled by the read/write control logic. The read/write
control logic manages all of the internal and external transfers of both data and
control words.
RD,WR, A1, A0 and RESET are the inputs provided by the microprocessor to the
READ/ WRITE control logic of 8255. The 8-bit, 3-state bidirectional buffer is used to
interface the 8255 internal data bus with the external system data bus.
This buffer receives or transmits data upon the execution of input or output
instructions by the microprocessor. The control words or status information is also
transferred through the buffer.

The signal description of 8255 is briefly presented as follows:

PA7-PA0: These are eight port A lines that acts as either latched output or buffered
input lines depending upon the control word loaded into the control word register.
PC7-PC4: Upper nibble of port C lines. They may act as either output latches or input
buffers lines.
This port also can be used for generation of handshake lines in mode1 or mode2.
PC3-PC0: These are the lower port C lines; other details are the same as PC7-PC4
lines.
PB0-PB7: These are the eight port B lines which are used as latched output lines or
buffered input lines in the same way as port A.
RD: This is the input line driven by the microprocessor and should be low to indicate
read operation to 8255.
WR: This is an input line driven by the microprocessor. A low on this line indicates
write operation.
CS: This is a chip select line. If this line goes low, it enables the 8255 to respond to RD
and WR signals, otherwise RD and WR signal are neglected.
D0-D7: These are the data bus lines those carry data or control word to/from the
microprocessor.
RESET:Logic high on this line clears the control word register of 8255. All ports are
set as input ports by default after reset.
A1-A0: These are the address input lines and are driven by the microprocessor.
These lines A1-A0 with RD, WR and CS from the following operations for 8255. These
address lines are used for addressing any one of the four registers, i.e. three ports
and a control word register as given in table below.

In case of 8086 systems, if the 8255 is to be interfaced with lower order data bus,
the A0 and A1 pins of 8255 are connected with A1 and A2 respectively.

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Modes of Operation of 8255

These are two basic modes of operation of 8255. I/O mode and Bit Set-Reset mode
(BSR).
In I/O mode, the 8255 ports work as programmable I/O ports, while in BSR mode only
port C (PC0-PC7) can be used to set or reset its individual port bits.
Under the I/O mode of operation, further there are three modes of operation of 8255,
so as to support different types of applications, mode 0, mode 1 and mode 2.
BSR Mode: In this mode any of the 8-bits of port C can be set or reset depending on D0
of the control word. The bit to be set or reset is selected by bit select flags D3, D2 and D1
of the CWR as given in table.

I/O Modes:

a) Mode 0 (Basic I/O mode): This mode is also called as basic input/output Mode. This
mode provides simple input and output capabilities using each of the threeports. Data
can be simply read from and written to the input and output portsrespectively, after
appropriate initialization.

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The salient features of this mode are as listed below:

1. Two 8-bit ports (port A and port B) and two 4-bit ports (port C upper and lower)
are available. The two 4-bit ports can be combined used as a third 8-bit port.
2. Any port can be used as an input or output port.
3. Output ports are latched. Input ports are not latched.
4. A maximum of four ports are available so that overall 16 I/O configurations
arepossible.

All these modes can be selected by programming a register internal to 8255known as

CWR.
The control word register has two formats. The first format is valid for I/O modesof
operation, i.e. modes 0, mode 1 and mode 2 while the second format is validfor bit
set/reset (BSR) mode of operation.

These formats are shown in followingfig.

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b) Mode 1: ( Strobed input/output mode ) In this mode the handshaking control the
input and output action of the specified port. Port C lines PC0-PC2, provide strobe
orhandshake lines for port B. This group which includes port B and PC0-PC2 is called
asgroup B for Strobed data input/output. Port C lines PC3-PC5 provides strobe lines for
portA.This group including port A and PC3-PC5 from group A. Thus port C is utilized
forgenerating handshake signals.

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The salient features of mode 1 are listed as follows:

1. Two groups – group A and group B are available for strobed data transfer.
2. Each group contains one 8-bit data I/O port and one 4-bit control/data port.
3. The 8-bit data port can be either used as input and output port. The inputs
andoutputs both are latched.
4. Out of 8-bit port C, PC0-PC2 are used to generate control signals for port B
andPC3-PC5 are used to generate control signals for port A. the lines PC6, PC7
may be used as independent data lines.

The control signals for both the groups in input and output modes areexplained as
follows:

Input control signal definitions (mode 1):

• STB (Strobeinput) – If this lines falls to logic low level, the data available at 8-
bit input port is loaded into input latches.
• IBF (Input buffer full) – If this signal rises to logic 1, it indicates that data
hasbeen loaded into latches, i.e. it works as an acknowledgement. IBF is set
by a lowon STB and is reset by the rising edge of RD input.
• INTR (Interruptrequest) – This active high output signal can be used
tointerrupt the CPU whenever an input device requests the service. INTR is
set by ahigh STBpin and a high at IBF pin. INTE is an internal flag that can be
controlledby the bit set/reset mode of either PC4 (INTEA) or PC2 (INTEB) as
shown in fig.
• INTR is reset by a falling edge of RD input. Thus an external input device can
berequest the service of the processor by putting the data on the bus and
sending thestrobe signal.

Output control signal definitions (mode 1):

• OBF (Output buffer full) – This status signal, whenever falls to low,
indicatesthat CPU has written data to the specified output port. The OBF flip-
flop will beset by a rising edge of WR signal and reset by a low going edge at
the ACKinput.
• ACK (Acknowledgeinput) – ACK signal acts as an acknowledgement to begiven
by an output device. ACK signal, whenever low, informs the CPU that thedata
transferred by the CPU to the output device through the port is received
bythe output device.
• INTR (Interruptrequest) – Thus an output signal that can be used to
interruptthe CPU when an output device acknowledges the data received
from the CPU.INTR is set when ACK, OBF and INTE are 1. It is reset by a

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fallingedge on WRinput. The INTEA and INTEB flags are controlled by the bit
set-reset mode ofPC6 and PC2 respectively.

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c) Mode 2 (Strobed bidirectional I/O): This mode of operation of 8255 is alsocalled as

strobed bidirectional I/O. This mode of operation provides 8255 with additional features for
communicating with a peripheral device on an 8-bit databus. Handshaking signals are
provided to maintain proper data flow andsynchronization between the data transmitter
and receiver. The interruptgeneration and other functions are similar to mode 1.

In this mode, 8255 is a bidirectional 8-bit port with handshake signals. The Rdand WR signals
decide whether the 8255 is going to operate as an input port oroutput port.

The Salient features of Mode 2 of 8255 are listed as follows:

1. The single 8-bit port in group A is available.

2. The 8-bit port is bidirectional and additionally a 5-bit control port is available.

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3. Three I/O lines are available at port C.( PC2 – PC0 )

4. Inputs and outputs are both latched.

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5. The 5-bit control port C (PC3-PC7) is used for generating / accepting

handshakesignals for the 8-bit data transfer on port A.

Control signal definitions in mode 2:

INTR – (Interrupt request) As in mode 1, this control signal is active high and
isused to interrupt the microprocessor to ask for transfer of the next data
byteto/from it. This signal is used for input (read) as well as output (write)
operations.
Control Signals for Output operations:
OBF (Output buffer full) – This signal, when falls to low level, indicates that
theCPU has written data to port A.
ACK (Acknowledge) This control input, when falls to logic low level,
Acknowledges that the previous data byte is received by the destination and
nextbyte may be sent by the processor. This signal enables the internal tristate
buffersto send the next data byte on port A.
INTE1 ( A flag associated with OBF ) This can be controlled by bit set/resetmode
with PC6.

Control signals for input operations:

STB (Strobe input)a low on this line is used to strobe in the data into the
inputLatches of 8255.
IBF (Input buffer full) when the data is loaded into input buffer, this signal risesto
logic „1‟. This can be used as an acknowledge that the data has been receivedby
the receiver.
The waveforms in fig show the operation in Mode 2 for output as well as
inputport.
Note: WR must occur before ACK and STB must be activated before RD.

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The following fig shows a schematic diagram containing an 8-bit

bidirectionalport, 5-bit control port and the relation of INTR with the control
pins. Port B caneither be set to Mode 0 or 1 with port A( Group A ) is in Mode
2.
Mode 2 is not available for port B. The following fig shows the control word.
The INTR goes high only if IBF, INTE2, STB and RD go high or OBF,
INTE1, ACK and WR go high. The port C can be read to know the status of
theperipheral device, in terms of the control signals, using the normal
I/Oinstructions.

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Interfacing Analog to Digital Data Converters:

 In most of the cases, the PIO 8255 is used for interfacing the analog to digital
converters with microprocessor.
 We have already studied 8255 interfacing with 8086 as an I/O port, in previous section.
This section we will only emphasize the interfacing techniques of analog to digital
converters with 8255.
 The analog to digital converters is treated as an input device by the microprocessor
that sends an initializing signal to the ADC to start the analogy to digital data
conversation process. The start of conversation signal is a pulse of a specific duration. 

 The process of analog to digital conversion is a slow

 Process and the microprocessor have to wait for the digitaldata till the conversion is
over. After the conversion isover, the ADC sends end of conversion EOC signal toinform
themicroprocessor that the conversion is over andthe result is ready at the output
buffer of the ADC. Thesetasks of issuing an SOC pulse to ADC, reading EOC signalfrom
the ADC and reading the digital output of the ADCare carried out by the CPU using
8255 I/O ports.
 The time taken by the ADC from the active edge of SOCpulse till the active edge of EOC
signal is called as theconversion delay of the ADC.
 It may range anywhere from a few microseconds in caseof fast ADC to even a few
hundred milliseconds in case ofslow ADCs.
 The available ADC in the market use different conversiontechniques for conversion of
analog signal to digitals.Successive approximation techniques and dual
slopeintegration techniques are the most popular techniquesused in the integrated
ADC chip.
 General algorithm for ADC interfacing contains thefollowing steps:
 Ensure the stability of analog input, applied to the ADC.
 Issue start of conversion pulse to ADC
 Read end of conversion signal to mark the end ofconversion processes.
 Read digital data output of the ADC as equivalent digitaloutput.
 Analog input voltage must be constant at the input of theADC right from the start of
conversion till the end of theconversion to get correct results. This may be ensured by
asample and hold circuit which samples the analog signaland holds it constant for
specific time duration. Themicroprocessor may issue a hold signal to the sample
andhold circuit.
 If the applied input changes before the completeconversion process is over, the digital
equivalent of theanalog input calculated by the ADC may not be correct.

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ADC 0808/0809:

 The analog to digital converter chips 0808 and 0809 are 8-bit CMOS,
successive approximation converters. This technique is one of the fast
techniques for analog to digital conversion. The conversion delay is 100µs at a
clock frequency of 640 KHz, which is quite low as compared to other
converters. These converters do not need any external zero or full scale
adjustments as they are already taken care of by internal circuits.
 These converters internally have a 3:8 analog multiplexer so that at a time
eight different analog conversion by using address lines - ADD A, ADD B,
ADD C, as shown. Using these address inputs, multichannel data acquisition
system can be designed using a single ADC. The CPU may drive these lines
using output port lines in case of multichannel applications. In case of
single input applications, these may be hardwired to select the proper
input.
 There are unipolar analog to digital converters, i.e. they are able to convert
only positive analog input voltage to their digital equivalent. These chips do
not contain any internal sample and hold circuit.
 If one needs a sample and hold circuit for the conversion of fast signal into
equivalent digital quantities, it has to be externally connected at each of the
analog inputs.

Fig (1) and Fig (2) show the block diagrams and pin diagrams for ADC 0808/0809.

Table.1

Address lines
Analog I/P selected
C B A
I/P 0 0 0 0
I/P 1 0 0 1
I/P 2 0 1 0
I/P 3 0 1 1
I/P 4 1 0 0
I/P 5 1 0 1
I/P 6 1 1 0
I/P 7 1 1 1

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Fig.1 Block Diagram of ADC 0808/0809

Fig.2 Pin Diagram of ADC 0808/0809

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Some Electrical Specifications Of The ADC 0808/0809 Are Given In Table.2.

Table.2

The Timing Diagram Of Different Signals Of Adc0808 Is Shown In Fig.3

Fig.3 Timing Diagram Of ADC 0808.

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Interfacing ADC0808 with 8086

Interfacing Digital To Analog Converters:

The digital to analog converters convert binary numbers into their analog
equivalent voltages. The DAC find applications in areas like digitally controlled gains,
motor speed controls, programmable gain amplifiers, etc.

DAC0800 8-bit Digital to Analog Converter

The DAC 0800 is a monolithic 8-bit DAC

manufactured by National Semiconductor.
It has settling time around 100ms and can operate
on
a range of power supply voltages i.e. from 4.5V to +18V.
Usually the supply V+ is 5V or +12V.
The V-pin can be kept at a minimum of -12V.

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Pin Diagram of DAC 0800

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Interfacing DAC0800 with 8086

Ad 7523 8-Bit Multiplying DAC:

Intersil‟s AD 7523 is a 16 pin DIP, multiplying digital to analog converter,

containing R-2R ladder(R=10KΩ) for digital to analog conversion along with
single pole double through NMOS switches to connect the digital inputs to
the ladder.

Pin Diagram of AD7523

The supply range extends from +5V to +15V , while Vref may be anywhere
between -10V to +10V. The maximum analog output voltage will be +10V,
when all the digital inputs are at logic high state. Usually a Zener is connected
between OUT1 and OUT2 to save the DAC from negative transients.
An operational amplifier is used as a current to voltage converter at the output
of AD 7523 to convert the current output of AD7523 to a proportional output
voltage.

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111

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It also offers additional drive capability to the DAC output. An external

feedback resistor acts to control the gain. One may not connect any external
feedback resistor, if no gain control is required.

Interfacing AD7523 with 8086

Stepper Motor Interfacing:

A stepper motor is a device used to obtain an accurate position control of

rotating shafts. It employs rotation of its shaft in terms of steps, rather than
continuous rotation as in case of AC or DC motors. To rotate the shaft of the
stepper motor, a sequence of pulses is needed to be applied to the windings of
the stepper motor, in a proper sequence.
The number of pulses required for one complete rotation of the shaft of the
stepper motor is equal to its number of internal teeth on its rotor. The stator
teeth and the rotor teeth lock with each other to fix a position of the shaft.
With a pulse applied to the winding input, the rotor rotates by one teeth position
or an angle x. The angle x may be calculated as:

X=3600/no. of rotor teeth

After the rotation of the shaft through angel x, the rotor locks itself with the next
tooth in the sequence on the internal surface of stator.
The internal schematic of a typical stepper motor with four windings is shown in
fig.1.
The stepper motors have been designed to work with digital circuits. Binary level
pulses of 0-5V are required at its winding inputs to obtain the rotation of shafts.
The sequence of the pulses can be decided, depending upon the required motion

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of the shaft.

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Fig.2 shows a typical winding arrangement of the stepper motor.

Fig.3 shows conceptual positioning of the rotor teeth on the surface of rotor, for
a six teeth rotor.

Fig.1 Internal schematic of a four winding stepper motor

Fig.2 Winding arrangement of a stepper motor.

Fig.3 Stepper motor rotor

The circuit for interfacing a winding Wn with an I/O port is given in fig.4. Each of
the windings of a stepper motor needs this circuit for its interfacing with the
output port. A typical stepper motor may have parameters like torque 3 Kg-cm,
operating voltage 12V, current rating 0.2 A and a step angle 1.80 i.e. 200
steps/revolution (number of rotor teeth).

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A simple schematic for rotating the shaft of a stepper motor is called a wave
scheme. In this scheme, the windings Wa, Wb, Wc and Wd are applied with the
required voltages pulses, in a cyclic fashion. By reversing the sequence of
excitation, the direction of rotation of the stepper motor shaft may be reversed.
Table.1 shows the excitation sequences for clockwise and anticlockwise rotations.
Another popular scheme for rotation of a stepper motor shaft applies pulses to
two successive windings at a time but these are shifted only by one position at a
time. This scheme for rotation of stepper motor shaft is shown in table2.

Fig.4 interfacing stepper motor winding.

Table.1 Excitation sequence of a stepper motor using wave switching scheme.

Motion step A B C D
1 1 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0
Clock wise 3 0 0 1 0
4 0 0 0 1
5 1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0 0
2 0 0 0 1
Anticlock
3 0 0 1 0
wise
4 0 1 0 0
5 1 0 0 0

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Table.2 An alternative scheme for rotating stepper motor shaft

Motion step A B C D
1 0 0 1 1
2 0 1 1 0
Clock wise 3 1 1 0 0
4 1 0 0 1
5 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
2 1 0 0 1
Anticlock
3 1 1 0 0
wise
4 0 1 1 0
5 0 0 0 0

Keyboard Interfacing

 In most keyboards, the key switches are connected in a matrix of Rows and Columns.

 Getting meaningful data from a keyboard requires three major tasks:

1. D e t e c t a k e y p r e s s
2. D e b o u n c e t h e k e y p r e s s .
3. Encode the keypress (produce a standard code for the pressed key).

Logic „0‟ is read by the microprocessor when the key is pressed.

Key Debounce:

Whenever a mechanical push-bottom is pressed or released once,the mechanical

components of the key do not change the positionsmoothly; rather it generates a
transient response. These may be interpreted as the multiple pressures and responded
accordingly.

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The rows of the matrix are connected to four output Port lines, &columns are
connected to four input Port lines.
When no keys are pressed, the column lines are held high by the pull-up resistors
connected to +5v.
Pressing a key connects a row & a column.
To detect if any key is pressed is to output 0‟s to all rows & then check columns
to see it a pressed key has connected a low (zero) to a column.
Once the columns are found to be all high, the program enters another loop,
which waits until a low appears on one of the columns i.e indicating a key press.
A simple 20/10 msec delay is executed to debounce task.
After the debounce time, another check is made to see if the key is still pressed.
If the columns are now all high, then no key is pressed & the initial detection was
caused by a noise pulse.
To avoid this problem, two schemes are suggested:
1. Use of Bistablemultivibrator at the output of the key to debounce it.
2. The microprocessor has to wait for the transient period (at least for 10
ms), so that the transient response settles down and reaches a steady
state.

If any of the columns are low now, then the assumption is made that it was a
valid key press.
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The final task is to determine the row & column of the pressed key &convert this
information to Hex-code for the pressed key.
The 4-bit code from I/P port & the 4-bit code from O/P port (row &column) are
converted to Hex-code.

Interfacing 4x4 keyboard

Display Interface

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Interfacing multiplexed 7-segment display

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Interfacing with Advanced devices

MEMORY AND I/O INTERFACING

(Ref: Interfacing through Microprocessors by K. Subba Rao, Hi-tech publishers, P. 163-166)

I/O Interface
Any application of a microprocessor system requires the
transfer of data between microprocessor and external environment and also with in the
microprocessor. This is known as Input/Output. There are three different ways that the data transfer
can take place. They are

(1) Program controlled I/O

(2) Interrupt Program Controlled I/O
(3) Hardware controlled I/O

In program controlled I/O data transfer scheme the transfer of

data is completely under the control of the microprocessor program. In this case an I/O operation
takes place only when an I/O transfer instruction is executed.
In an interrupt program controlled I/O an external device
indicates directly to the microprocessor its readiness to transfer data by a signal at an interrupt input
of the microprocessor. When microprocessor receives this signal the control is transferred to ISS
(Interrupt service subroutine) which performs the data transfer.
Hardware controlled I/O is also known as direct memory
access DMA. In this case the data transfer takes place directly between an I/O device and memory but
not through microprocessors. Microprocessor only initializes the process of data transfer by indicating
the starting address and the number of words to be transferred.
The instruction .set of any microprocessor contains
instructions that transfer information to an I/O device and to read information from an I/O device. In
8086 we have IN, OUT instructions for this purpose. OUT instruction transfers information to an I/O
device where as IN instruction is used to read information from an I/O device. Both the instructions
perform the data transfer using accumulator AL or AX. The I/O address is stored in register DX.
The port number is specified along with IN or OUT instruction.
The external I/O interface decodes to find the address of the I/O device. The 8 bit fixed port number
appears on address bus A0 - A7 with A8 - A15 all zeros. The address connections above A15 are
undefined for an I/O instruction. The 16 bit variable port number appears on address connections A 0 -
A15. The above notation indicates that first 256 I/O port addresses 00 to FF are accessed by both the
fixed and variable I/O instructions. The I/O addresses from 0000 to FFFF are accessed by the variable
I/O address.
I/O devices can be interfaced to the microprocessors using
two methods. They are I/O mapped I/O and memory mapped I/O. The I/O mapped I/O is also known
as isolated I/O or direct I/O. In I/O mapped I/O the IN and OUT instructions transfer data between the
accumulator or memory and I/O device. In memory mapped I/O the instruction that refers memory
can perform the data transfer.

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I/O mapped I/O is the most commonly used I/O transfer technique. In this method I/O locations are
placed separately from memory. The addresses for isolated I/O devices are separate from memory.
Using this method user can use the entire memory. This method allows data transfer only by using
instructions IN, OUT. The pins M/ IO and W/R are used to indicate I/O read or an I/O write operations.
The signals on these lines indicate that the address on the address bus is for I/O devices.
Memory mapped I/O does not use the IN, OUT instruction it
uses only the instruction that transfers data between microprocessor and memory. A memory
mapped I/O device is treated as memory location. The disadvantage in this system is the overall
memory is reduced. The advantage of this system is that any memory transfer instruction can be used
for data transfer and control signals like I/O read and I/O write are not necessary which simplify the
hardware.

Memory interfacing
Memory is an integral part of a microcomputer system. There
are two main types of memory.
(i) Read only memory (ROM): As the name indicates this memory is available only for
reading purpose. The various types available under this category are PROM, EPROM,
EEPROM which contain system software and permanent system data.
(ii) Random Access memory (RAM): This is also known as Read Write Memory. It is a volatile
memory. RAM contains temporary data and software programs generally for different
applications.

While executing particular task it is necessary to access

memory to get instruction codes and data stored in memory. Microprocessor initiates the necessary
signals when read or write operation is to be performed. Memory device also requires some signals to
perform read and write operations using various registers. To do the above job it is necessary to have
a device and a circuit, which performs this task is known as interfacing device and as this is involved
with memory it-is known as memory interfacing device. The basic concepts of memory interfacing
involve three different tasks. The microprocessor should be able to read from or write into the
specified register. To do this it must be able to select the required chip, identify the required register
and it must enable the appropriate buffers.

Any memory device must contain address lines and Input,

output lines, selection input, control input to perform read or write operation. All memory devices
have address inputs that select memory location with in the memory device. These lines are labeled as
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AO ........... AN. The number of address lines indicates the total memory capacity of the memory device. A
1K memory requires 10 address lines A0-A9. Similarly a 1MB requires 20 lines A0-A19 (in the case of
8086). The memory devices may have separate I/O lines or a common set of bidirectional I/O lines.
Using these lines data can be transferred in either direction. Whenever output buffer is activated the
operation is read whenever input buffers are activated the operation is write. These lines are labelled

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as I/O,......... I/On or DO ..................... Dn. The size of a memory location is dependent upon the number of
data bits. If the number of data lines are eight D 0 - D7 then 8 bits or 1 byte of data can be stored in
each location. Similarly if numbers of data bits are 16 (D 0 - D15) then the memory size is 2 bytes. For
example 2K x 8 indicates there are 2048 memory locations and each memory location can store 8 bits
of data.
Memory devices may contain one or more inputs which are
used to select the memory device or to enable the memory device. This pin is denoted by CS (Chip
select) or CE (Chip enable). When this pin is at logic '0' then only the memory device performs a read
or a write operation. If this pin is at logic ‘1’ the memory chip is disabled. If there are more than one
CS input then all these pins must be activated to perform read or write operation.
All memory devices will have one or more control inputs.
When ROM is used we find OE output enable pin which allows data to flow out of the output data
pins. To perform this task both CS and OE must be active. A RAM contains one or two control inputs.
They are R / W or RD and WR . If there is only one input R/ W then it performs read
operation when R/ W pin is at logic 1. If it is at logic 0 it performs write operation. Note that this is
possible only when CS is also active.

Memory Interface using RAMS, EPROMS and EEPROMS

(Ref: Advanced Microprocessors and Peripherals by A.K. Ray & K.M. Bhurchandi, McGraw-Hill, 2nd Edition.P.158-
164)

Semiconductor Memory Interfacing:

Semiconductor memories are of two types, viz. RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only
Memory).

Static RAM Interfacing:

The semiconductor RAMs are of broadly two types-static RAM and dynamic RAM. The
semiconductor memories are organised as two dimensional arrays of memory locations. For example,
4K x 8 or 4K byte memory contains 4096 locations, where each location contains 8-bit data and only
one of the 4096 locations can be selected at a time. Obviously, for addressing 4K bytes of memory,
twelve address lines are required. In general, to address a memory location out of N memory locations
, we will require at least n bits of address, i.e. n address lines where n = Log2 N. Thus if the
microprocessor has n address lines, then it is able to address at the most N locations of memory,
where 2n = N. However, if out of N locations only P memory locations are to be interfaced, then the
least significant p address lines out of the available n lines can be directly connected from the
microprocessor to the memory chip while the remaining (n-p) higher order address lines may be used
for address decoding (as inputs to the chip selection logic). The memory address depends upon the
hardware circuit used for decoding the chip select ( CS ). The output of the decoding circuit is
connected with the CS pin of the memory chip. The general procedure of static memory interfacing
with 8086 is briefly described as follows:
1. Arrange the available memory chips so as to obtain 16-bit data bus width. The upper 8-bit
bank is called ‘odd address memory bank’ and the lower 8-bit bank is called ‘even address memory
bank’.
2. Connect available memory address lines of memory chips with those of the microprocessor
and also connect the memory RD and WR inputs to the corresponding processor control signals.

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Connect the 16-bit data bus of the memory bank with that of the microprocessor 8086.
3. The remaining address lines of the microprocessor, BHE and A0 are used for decoding the
required chip select signals for the odd and even memory banks. CS of memory is derived from the
O/P of the decoding circuit.

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As a good and efficient interfacing practice, the address map of the system should be
continuous as far as possible, i.e. there should be no windows in the map. A memory location should
have a single address corresponding to it, i.e. absolute decoding should be preferred, and minimum
hardware should be used for decoding. In a number of cases, linear decoding may be used to minimise
the required hardware.Let us now consider a few example problems on memory interfacing with
8086.

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SERIAL COMMUNICATION STANDARDS

(Ref: Interfacing through Microprocessors by K. Subba Rao, Hi-tech publishers, P. 250-260)

Most of devices are parallel in nature. These devices transfer data simultaneously on data
lines. But parallel data transfer process is very complicated and expensive. Hence in some situations
the serial I/O mode is used where one bit is transferred over a single line at a time. In this type of
transmission parallel word is converted into a stream of serial bits which is known as parallel to serial
conversion. The rate of transmission in serial mode is BAUD, i.e., bits per second. The serial data
transmission involves starting, end of transmission, error verification bits along with the data. Any
serial I/O involves the following concepts.

(a) Interfacing requirements (b) Alphanumeric codes (c) Transmission format (d) Error checks in data

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communication (e) Data communication over lines (f) Standards in serial I/O

The microprocessor has to identify the port address to perform read or write operation. Serial
I/O uses only one data line, chip select, read, write control signals.

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Data transfer takes place using ASCII code (American standard code for Information
Interchange) which is 7 bit code with 128 combinations. The data can be transmitted by taking various
parameters into consideration such as synchronization or asynchronization, direction of data flow
speed, errors, medium of data transmission etc. In synchronous transmission both transmitter and
receiver operate, in synchronous to each other.
Synchronization used for high speed operations. In asynchronous data transmission data is
transmitted between Start and Stop bits with logic 1 as mark logic 0 as space. In asynchronous we get
around 11 bits for data transmission one start, 8 bits of data, 2 stop bits. A synchronous data
transmission is used for less than 20 Kbits /second transmission.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SYNCHRONOUS AND ASYNCHRONOUS TRANSMISSION

5.2 UNIVERSAL SYNCHRONOUS/ASYNCHRONOUS

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RECEIVER/TRANSMITTER (USART)

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The 8251A is Universal Synchronous/Asynchronous Receiver/Transmitter (USART) designed

for the data communication with Intel's family of microprocessor such as 8085, 8086 and 8088. Like
other I/O devices in a microcomputer system, its functional configuration is programmed by the
system's software for maximum flexibility. The USART accepts data characters from the CPU in the
parallel format and converts them into continuous serial data stream for transmission.
Simultaneously, it can receive serial data streams arid convert them into parallel data characters for
the CPU. The CPU can read the complete status of USART at any time, these includes data
transmission errors, control signals etc.

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Fig. 5.7 Block diagram of 8251

Fig. 5.7 shows the block diagram of 8251 A. The block diagram shows all the elements of a
programmable chip; it includes the interfacing signals, the control register and the status register. The
functions of various blocks are described below:

(A) Data bus buffer: This 3-state, bidirectional buffer is used to interface the 8251A to the system data
bus. Data is transmitted or received by the buffer upon execution of input and output instruction of
the CPU Command words and status information are also transferred through the data bus buffer. The
command, status and data in and data out are separate 8-bit registers to provide double buffering.
The functional block accepts inputs form the control bus and generates control signals for
overall device operation. It contains the control word register and command word register that store
the various control formats for the device functional definition.

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For example
If Baud rate equals 220 Baud
TXC equals 220 Hz in the 1x mode.
TXC equals 3.52 KHz in the 16x mode.
TXC equals 14.08 KHz in the 64x mode.

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The falling edge of

8251A.

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TXC shifts the serial data out of the

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INTERFACING STANDARDS
(Ref: Interfacing through Microprocessors by K. Subba Rao, Hi-tech publishers, P. 266)

Serial I/O is used to interface various devices or for connecting various equipment to the
system. Common understanding is necessary among various manufacturers such that a standard
notation is followed for interfacing these components. These standards may be provided by IEEE or by
any standard professional organisation. The serial I/O standards must specify clearly voltage levels,
speed of data transfer, length of cables etc. In serial I/O data can be transmitted as either current or
voltage 20 mA or 60 mA current loops are used if data is transmitted using current. Current flow takes
place when the system is at logic 1. The current flow is stopped when the system is at logic 0. In the
current loop method the signals are relatively noise-free and they are best suited for long distance
transmission.
RS-232 is developed long before which is used for communication between terminals and
modems. Using RS-232C data can be transmitted as voltage. The data terminals equipment and data
communication equipment are used to communicate using RS-232C cable. RS-232C is not compatible
with TTL logic and cannot be used for long distance transmission.

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RS-232C Serial Data Standard

(Ref: Microprocessors and interfacing by Douglas V. Hall, 2nd edition, TMH, P.494-495)

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OVERVIEW
Modems were developed so that terminals could use phone lines to communicate with
distant computers. As we stated earlier, modems and other devices used to send serial data are often
referred to as data communication equipment or DCE. The terminals or computers that are sending or
receiving the data are referred to as data terminal equipment or DTE. In response to the need for
signal and handshake standards between DTE and DCE, the Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
developed EIA standard RS-232C. This standard describes the function of 25 signal and handshake pins
for serial-data transfer. It also describes the voltage levels, impedance levels, rise and fall times,
maximum bit rate, and maximum capacitance for these signal lines.
RS-232C specifies 25 signal pins, and it specifies that the DTE connector should be a male and
the DCE connector should be a female. A specific connector is not given, but the most commonly used
connectors are the DB-25P male shown in Figure 14-7a. For systems where many of the 25 pins are
not needed, a 9-pin DIN connector such as the DE-9P male connector shown in Figure 14-7b is used.

The voltage levels for all RS-232C signals are as follows. A logic high, or mark, is a voltage
between -3V and -15 V under load (-25 V no load). A logic low or space is a voltage between +3 V and
+15 V under load (+ 25 V no load). Voltages such as ±12 V are commonly used.

RS-232C to TTL INTERFACING

Obviously a USART such as the 8251A is not directly compatible with RS-232C signal levels. The
standard way to interface between RS-232C and TTL levels is with MCI488 quad TTL-to-RS-232C
drivers and MCI489 quad RS-232C-to-TTL receivers shown in Figure 14-8.

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The MCI488s require + and - supplies, but the MCI489s require only+ 5 V. Note the capacitor
to ground on the outputs of the MCI488 drivers is to reduce cross talk between adjacent wires, the
rise and fall times for RS-232C signals are limited to 30 V/µs.

RS-232C SIGNAL DEFINITIONS

Figure 14-9 shows the signal names, signal direction, and a brief description for each of the 25
pins denned for RS-232C. For most applications only a few of these pins are used.
Note that the signal direction is specified with respect to the DGE, this convention is part of the
standard. Note that there is both a chassis ground (pin 1) and a signal ground (pin 7). To prevent large

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ac-induced ground currents in the signal ground, these two should be connected together only at the
power supply in the terminal or the computer.

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The TxD, RxD, and handshake signals shown with common names in Figure 14-9 are the ones most often
used for simple systems. These signals control what is called the primary or forward communications
channel of the modem. Some modems allow communication over a secondary or backward channel,
which operates in the reverse direction from the forward channel and at a much lower baud rate. Pins
12, 13, 14, 16, and 19 are the data and handshake lines for this backward channel. Pins 15, 17, 21, and
24 are used for synchronous data communication.

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