Network interface card (NIC) A network

interface card (NIC) is a hardware component, typically a circuit board or chip,

which is installed on a computer so that it can connect to a network. Modern
NICs provide functionality to computers such as support for I/O interrupt,
direct memory access (DMA) interfaces, data transmission, network traffic

engineering and partitioning.

A NIC provides a computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network
by implementing the physical layer circuitry necessary for communicating with
a data link layer standard, such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi. Each card represents a
device and can prepare, transmit and control the flow of data on the network.
The NIC uses the OSI model to send signals at the physical layer, transmit
data packets at the network layer and operate as an interface at

the TCP/IP layer. The network card

operates as a middleman between a computer and a data network. For
example, when a user requests a web page, the computer will pass the
request to the network card which converts it into electrical impulses. Those
impulses are received by a web server on the internet and responds by
sending the web page back to the network card as electrical signals. The card
gets these signals and translates them into the data that the computer
displays.

Originally, network controllers were implemented as expansion cards that

could be plugged into a computer port, router or USB device. However, more
modern controllers are built directly into the computer motherboard chipset.
Expansion card NICs can be purchased online or in retail stores if additional
independent network connections are needed. When purchasing a NIC,
specifications should correspond with the standard of the network.
The term network interface card is often considered interchangeable with the
terms network interface controller, network adapter and LAN adapter.

Types of network interface cards

 Wireless - These are NICs that use an antenna to provide wireless
reception through radio frequency waves. Wireless NICs are designed
for Wi-Fi connection.

 Wired - These are NICs that have input jacks made for cables. The most
popular wired LAN technology is Ethernet.

 USB - These are NICs that provide network connections through a device
plugged into the USB port.

 Fiber optics - These are expensive and more complex NICs that are used
as a high-speed support system for network traffic handling on server
computers. This could also be accomplished by combining multiple NICs.
Components of network interface cards
Network interface card components include the following:
Speed - All NICs have a speed rating in terms of Mbps that suggests the
general performance of the card when implemented in a computer network
with ample bandwidth. If the bandwidth is lower than the NIC or multiple
computers are connected with the same controller, this will slow down the
labeled speed. The average Ethernet NICs are offered in 10 Mbps, 100 Mbps,
1000 Mbps and 1 Gbps varieties.
Driver - This is the required software that passes data between the
computer's operating system (OS) and the NIC. When a NIC is installed on a
computer, the corresponding driver software is also downloaded. Drivers must
stay updated and uncorrupted to ensure optimal performance from the NIC.
MAC address - Unique, unchangeable MAC addresses, also known as a
physical network address, are assigned to NICs that is used to deliver
Ethernet packets to the computer.
Connectivity LED - Most NICs have an LED indicator integrated into the
connector to notify the user of when the network is connected and data is
being transmitted.
Router - A router is also sometimes needed to allow communication between
a computer and other devices. In this case, the NIC connects to the router
which is connected to the internet.
 MODEM
Modem is short for "Modulator-Demodulator." It is a hardware component
that allows a computer or another device, such as a router or switch, to
connect to the Internet. It converts or "modulates" an analog signal from a
telephone or cable wire to digital data (1s and 0s) that a computer can
recognize. Similarly, it converts digital data from a computer or other device
into an analog signal that can be sent over standard telephone lines.
The first modems were "dial-up," meaning they had to dial a phone number to
connect to an ISP. These modems operated over standard analog phone lines
and used the same frequencies as telephone calls, which limited their
maximum data transfer rate to 56 Kbps. Dial-up modems also required full
use of the local telephone line, meaning voice calls would interrupt the
Internet connection.
Modern modems are typically DSL or cable modems, which are considered
"broadband" devices. DSL modems operate over standard telephone lines,
but use a wider frequency range. This allows for higher data transfer rates
than dial-up modems and enables them to not interfere with phone calls.
Cable modems send and receive data over standard cable television lines,
which are typically coaxial cables. Most modern cable modems support
DOCSIS (Data Over Cable Service Interface Specification), which provides an
efficient way of transmitting TV, cable Internet, and digital phone signals over
the same cable line.
ADC or DAC. Modems are not needed for fiber optic connections because
the signals are transmitted digitally from beginning to end.
REPEATER
A repeater is a network device that retransmits a received signal with more power and
to an extended geographical or topological network boundary than what would be
capable with the original signal.
A repeater is implemented in computer networks to expand the coverage area of the
network, repropagate a weak or broken signal and or service remote nodes. Repeaters
amplify the received/input signal to a higher frequency domain so that it is reusable,
scalable and available.
Repeaters were introduced in wired data communication networks due to the limitation
of a signal in propagating over a longer distance and now are a common installation in
wireless networks for expanding cell size.
Repeaters are also known as signal boosters Every operational computer or data
communications network has a specific boundary in which it can service the connected
and authorized hosts/nodes. It is a planned network scope, but sometimes the network
needs to extend its routing domain further to accommodate a new/existing host, or to
improve the service level in a specific topological domain. In such scenarios, a network
uses the service of a repeater, which amplifies the received signal to an ideal or near-
ideal strength so that destination/receiving nodes can receive the data.
The installation of repeaters is critical in those domains, where attenuation and signal
loss is very crucial. Repeaters are generally considered to be nonlogical devices
because they propagate every signal regardless of its size, type, etc. Repeaters support
both analog and digital signals and can repeat electrical and light-based signals.
Application Layer
As for the application layer specifically, this layer is what deals with protocols such as
FTP and Telnet that relate to the handling of IP traffic. Web browsers, SNMP protocols
and HTTP protocols, or HTTP’s successor HTTPS, are other examples of application
layer systems.
Presentation Layer
Another way to understand how the application layer works is to look at the presentation
layer, which is often characterized as involving encryption and other formatting that will
support the application layer itself. Experts describe the presentation layer as the
“syntax layer” and explain that it transforms data into a form that the application layer
can accept.
One more simplified example of characterizing the seven network layers, including the
application layer, is to simply use the terminology. In other words, the session layer
deals with sessions between network components — where the presentation layer, as
mentioned, deals with encryption and formatting, and the application layer deals with
application activities. Further in, the data link layer, for example, is primarily related to
handling internal network activity between nodes.
Understanding the OSI seven-layer model better helps network administrators to refine
network builds and implement specific functionality and protocols that will accommodate
network performance. The application layer is useful in understanding how data flows
through a network at the application level.
The use of application programming interfaces also relates to the use of the application
layer. Some of the ways that applications “talk” to each other using APIs as a sort of
connective tissue will be worked out on the application layer level.
The OSI layer 7, the application layer, could also have lots of applications to the Internet
of Things (IoT) as IoT-connected devices proliferate. Some experts have predicted that
in a few years, we will have 500 billion connected devices communicating.

Some of the application layer functionality of the OSI model may also apply to “Web
3.0,” tomorrow’s theorized semantic web, in which different and new kinds of
connectivity will take place online.