.

FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS

1
 The first law of thermodynamics

 The first law of thermodynamics is the conservation of energy

principle which provides a sound basis for studying the
relationships among the various forms of energy and energy
interactions.

 The first law states that energy can be neither be created nor
destroyed in a process. It can only change in forms.

Fig 1: The increase in the energy of a potato in an

oven is equal to the amount of heat transferred to it.

2
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer Ein and Eout

 Energy can be transferred to or from a system in three forms:

heat, work, and mass flow.

 Energy interactions are recognized at the system boundary as

they cross it, and they represent the energy gained or lost by a
system during a process.

 The only two forms of energy interactions associated with a

fixed mass or closed system are heat transfer and work.

3
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer Ein and Eout

1. Heat Transfer (Q):

 Heat transfer to a system (heat gain) increases the energy of the
molecules and thus the internal energy of the system, and

 Heat transfer from a system (heat loss) decreases it since the

energy transferred out as heat comes from the energy of the
molecules of the system.

2. Work (W):
 An energy interaction that is not caused by a temperature
difference between a system and its surroundings is work.

 A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electrical wire crossing

the system boundaries are all associated with work interactions.
4
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer Ein and Eout

 Work transfer to a system (i.e., work done on a system) increases

the energy of the system, and work transfer from a system (i.e.,
work done by the system) decreases it since the energy
transferred out as work comes from the energy contained in the
system.

 Car engines and hydraulic, steam, or gas turbines produce work

while compressors, pumps, and mixers consume work.

3. Mass Flow (m):

 Mass flow in and out of the system serves as an additional
mechanism of energy transfer.

5
Mechanisms of Energy Transfer Ein and Eout

 When mass enters a system, the energy of the system increases

because mass carries energy with it (in fact, mass is energy).

 Likewise, when some mass leaves the system, the energy

contained within the system decreases because the leaving mass
takes out some energy with it.

 For example, when some hot water is taken out of a water heater
and is replaced by the same amount of cold water, the energy
content of the hot water tank (the control volume) decreases as a
result of this mass interaction.

6
 Energy balance for a control volume

Fig. 2: The energy content of a control volume can be changed by mass flow as
well as heat and work interactions.

7
 Energy balance for a control volume

 Noting that energy can be transferred in the forms of heat, work,

and mass, and that the net transfer of a quantity is equal to the
difference between the amounts transferred in and out, the
energy balance can be written as
Ein  Eout  E

(Qin  Win  Emass ,in )  (Qout  Wout  Emass ,out )

 E2  E1
. . .
(Qin  Win  E mass ,in ) 
. . . . .
(Q out  W out  E mass ,out )  E 2  E1

8
Energy balance for a control volume

9
Generalized energy balance principle

10
Generalized energy balance principle

11
Energy balance for a closed system

12
 Energy balance for a closed system

For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the

initial and final states are identical, and thus
ΔEsystem= E2− E1 = 0. Then the energy balance
for a cycle simplifies to

Ein− Eout= 0 or Ein= Eout.

Wnet,out= Qnet,in or 𝑊ሶ net,out = Qሶ net,in

( for a cycle)

Fig. 3 A cyclic process

on Pv plane

13
 Thermodynamic Processes

(a) Isobaric process (P = constant)

(b) Isochoric process (V =constant)

(c) Isothermal process (T = constant)

(d) Reversible adiabatic (PV𝛾=constant)

(e) Polytropic process (PVn=constant)

14
P-dV Work for different thermodynamic
processes

Fig. 4 Constant pressure process

15
b) Constant volume process (Isochoric process)

Fig.5 Constant volume process

16
 c) Hyperbolic Process

Hyperbolic process is one for which the quantity PV = constant.

• Note: For an ideal gas the hyperbolic process becomes an

isothermal process.

Fig.6 : Process in which PV=constant

17
 d) Polytropic Process

 Value of polytropic index (n): -∞ to ∞

 ‘n’ depends on process and it does not depend upon nature of gas.
 All process are polytropic with different values of ‘n’.

Fig.7 Values of n for different

processes

18
Cont..

19
 Cont..

• All processes are polytropic with different values of ‘n’.

V= constant (n= ∞)
P = constant (n =0)
T = constant (n=1)

Fig.8 Values of n for various process

20
 Cont.

 Energy balance can also be expressed in the differential form as

δEin - δEout = dEsystem or δein - δeout = desystem (KJ/KG)

 For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final states
are identical, and thus ΔEsystem= E2− E1 = 0. Then the energy
balance for a cycle simplifies to

Ein− Eout= 0 or Ein= Eout.

21
 Cont.

Noting that a closed system does

not involve any mass flow across
its boundaries, the energy balance
for a cycle can be expressed in
terms of heat and work
interactions as: Fig 9: For a cycle ΔE = 0,
thus Q = W.

Wnet,out= Qnet,in or 𝑾ሶ net,out = 𝑸ሶ net,in ( for a cycle)

22
 Problem 1

 A classroom that normally contains 40 people is to be air-

conditioned with window air conditioning units of 5-kW cooling
capacity. A person at rest may be assumed to dissipate heat at a rate
of about 360 kJ/h. There are 10 light bulbs in the room, each with a
rating of 100 W. The rate of heat transfer to the classroom through
the walls and the windows is estimated to be 15 000 kJ/h. If the
room air is to be maintained at a constant temperature of 21°C,
determine the number of window air conditioning units required.

23
 Solution
• Analysis The total cooling load of the room is
determined from
Qሶ cooling = Qሶ lights+ Qሶ people + Qሶ heat gain
where
Qሶ lights = 10 x 100W= 1 KW
Qሶ people = 40 X 360 KJ/h = 4 KW
Qሶ heat gain = 15000KJ/h =4.17 KW
Substituting,
Qሶ cooling = 1+4+4.17 = 9.17 KW

• Thus the number of air-conditioning units required is

9.17 kW / 5kW per unit = 1.83 2 UNITS Ans

24
 Problem 2

Consider a fan located in a 3 ft X 3 ft square duct. Velocities at

various points at the outlet are measured, and the average flow
velocity is determined to be 22 ft /s. Taking the air density to 0.075
lbm /ft3 ,estimate the minimum electric power consumption of the fan
motor.

25
 Solution

Assumptions 1. The fan operates steadily.

2. There are no conversion losses.

Properties The density of air is given to be ρ = 0.075 lbm/ft3.

For a control volume that encloses the fan-motor unit, the energy
balance can be written as

Ė𝑰𝑵 – Ė𝑶𝑼𝑻 = dEsystem/dt (steady) = 0 Ein= Eout.

• Rate of net energy Rate of Change in internal,
transfer by heat, kinetic, potential etc. energies
work and mass
𝑊ሶ elect,in = 𝑚ሶ air keout = 𝑚ሶ air V2out /2
26
 Solution

Where
𝑚ሶ air = ρVA = (0.075)(3×3)(22) = 14.85 lbm/s

Substituting, the minimum power input required is

determined to be
𝑊ሶ elect,in = 𝑚ሶ air V2out= (14.85 lbm/s) x (22ft/s)2 x 1btu/lbm
2 2 25037 ft2/s2
=0.1435 Btu/s =151W Ans

since 1Btu =1.055kJ and1kJ/s=1000W

27
 Problem 3

An engine is tested by means of a water brake at 1000 rpm. The

measured torque of the engine is 10000 mN and the water
consumption of the brake is 0.5 𝑚3 /s, its inlet temperature being
20°C. Calculate the water temperature at exit, assuming that the
whole of the engine power is ultimately transformed into heat which
is absorbed by the cooling water.

28
Solution

Ans

29
 Problem 4

A slow chemical reaction takes place in a fluid at the constant

pressure of 0.1 MPa. The fluid is surrounded by a perfect heat
insulator during the reaction which begins at state 1 and ends at state
2. The insulation is then removed and 105 kJ of heat flow to the
surroundings as the fluid goes to state 3. The following data are
observed for the fluid at states 1, 2 and 3.

State v(𝒎𝟑 ) t (℃)

1 0.003 20
2 0.3 370
3 0.6 20

For the fluid system, calculate E2 and E3, if E1 = 0.

30
Solution

Ans

31
 Energy balance for steady-flow systems

.  A large number of engineering devices such as turbines,

compressors, and nozzles operate for long periods of time
under the same conditions once the transient start-up period is
completed and steady operation is established, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.

 Processes involving such devices can be represented reasonably

well by a somewhat idealized process, called the steady-flow
process,

 Steady flow process can be defined as a process during which a

fluid flows through a control volume steadily. That is, the fluid
properties can change from point to point within the control
volume, but at any point, they remain constant during the entire
process.
32
 Energy balance for steady-flow systems

.  During a steady flow process the total energy of a control

volume remains constant (𝐸𝐶𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡). So the change in
total energy of the control volume is zero (∆𝐸𝐶𝑉 =0).

 So, the general energy balance equation reduces to

33
 Energy balance for steady-flow systems

Fig. 10: Under steady-flow conditions, Fig. 11: Under steady-flow conditions,
the mass and energy contents of a the fluid properties at an inlet or exit
control volume remain constant. remain constant (do not change with
time).

34
 Energy balance for steady-flow systems

35
 Mass balance for steady-flow systems

Fig. 11: Conservation of mass principle for a two-inlet–

one-exit steady-flow system.

36
 Mass balance for steady-flow systems

 The mass balance for a general steady-flow system can be

expressed in the rate form as

 For multiple inlets and multiple outlets,

 Most engineering devices such as nozzles, diffusers, turbines,

compressors, and pumps involve a single stream (one inlet and one
exit only).

37
 Mass balance for steady-flow systems

 For these cases, we denote the inlet state by the subscript 1 and the
exit state by the subscript 2, and drop the summation signs. Then
the mass balance for a single stream steady-flow system becomes

38
 Nozzles and Diffusers
 A nozzle is a steady-state device whose purpose is to create a
high-velocity fluid stream at the expense of the fluid pressure.

 It is contoured in an appropriate manner to expand a flowing

fluid smoothly to a lower pressure, thereby increasing its
velocity.

 A diffuser is a device that increases the pressure of a fluid by

slowing it down.

 That is, nozzles and diffusers perform opposite tasks.

 Nozzles and diffusers are commonly utilized in jet engines,

rockets, spacecraft, and even garden hoses.

39
 Nozzles and Diffusers

2
Vin2 Vout
h in   h out 
2 2
2
Vin2 Vout
h  h out - h in   Fig.12 Nozzle and Diffuser
2 2

40
 Nozzles and Diffusers

Nozzle Efficiency:
Compares the performance of a
actual nozzle or diffuser to the
performance of an ideal, isentropic
nozzle or diffuser operating
between the same pressures

 nozzle 
h actual 2
Voutlet
 2
2

 Vinlet 2
h ideal  
Voutlet, s  Vinlet
2
2

41
 Problem 5

Steam at 0.6 MPa and 200◦C enters an insulated nozzle with a

velocity of 50 m/s. It leaves at a pressure of 0.15 MPa and a
velocity of 600 m/s. Determine the final enthalpy if the steam is
superheated in the final state and the quality if it is saturated.

42
Solution

Ans

43
 Solution
The two properties of the fluid leaving that we now know are
pressure and enthalpy, and therefore the state of this fluid is
determined. Since ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 is less than hg at 0.15 MPa, the quality can
be calculated as

Ans

44
 Problem 6

A nozzle is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily

flowing stream. At the inlet to a certain nozzle, the enthalpy of the
fluid passing is 3000 kJ/kg and the velocity is 60 m/s. At the
discharge end, the enthalpy is 2762 kJ/kg. The nozzle is horizontal
and there is negligible heat loss from it.

(a) Find the velocity at exit from the nozzle.

(b) If the inlet area is 0.1𝑚2 and the specific volume at inlet is
0.187 𝑚3 /kg, find the mass flow rate.
(c) If the specific volume at the nozzle exit is 0.498 𝑚3 /kg, find
the exit area of the nozzle.

45
Solution

46
Solution

Ans

Ans

Ans

47
 Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors
 In steam, gas, or hydroelectric power plants, the device that
drives the electric generator is the turbine.

 As the fluid passes through the turbine, work is done against

the blades, which are attached to the shaft. As a result, the
shaft rotates, and the turbine produces work.

 The work done in a turbine is positive since it is done by the

fluid.

 Compressors, as well as pumps and fans, are devices used to

increase the pressure of a fluid.

48
Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors

Fig 13 Schematic diagram of a steam power plant

49
 Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors
 Work is supplied to these devices from an external source
through a rotating shaft. Therefore, compressors involve work
inputs.

 Even though these three devices function similarly, they do

differ in the tasks they perform.

 A fan increases the pressure of a gas slightly and is mainly

used to mobilize a air or gas.

 A compressor is capable of compressing the gas to higher

pressures.

 Pumps work very much like compressors except that they

handle liquids instead of gases
50
Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors

Fig.14 Example of turbines

51
Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors

Fig.15 Example of pumps

52
Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors

Fig.16 Working of a turbine

53
 Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors
 Turbine and compressor/pump efficiencies both compare the
performance of an actual device to the performance of an
ideal, isentropic device operating between the same pressures.

 Turbine Efficiency
 In turbines the actual power generation will be less than the
ideal power generation

54
 Turbines, Pumps, and Compressors
Pump/Compressor efficiency :
In pumps/compressors, the actual power consumption will be
greater than the ideal power consumption

55
 Problem 7

Calculate the power required to compress 10 kg/s of air from 1 atm

and 37 oC to 2 atm and 707 oC. For low pressure air:T = 310 K; h
= 290.4 kJ/kg T = 980 K; h = 1023 kJ/kg

56
 Problem 8

A turbine operates under steady flow conditions, receiving steam at

the following state: Pressure 1.2 MPa, temperature 188°C,
enthalpy 2785 kJ/kg, velocity 33.3 m/s and elevation 3 m. The
steam leaves the turbine at the following state: Pressure 20 kPa,
enthalpy 2512 kJ/kg, velocity 100 m/s, and elevation 0 m. Heat is
lost to the surroundings at the rate of 0.29 kJ/s. If the rate of steam
flow through the turbine is 0.42 kg/s, what is the power output of
the turbine in kW?

57
Solution

58
Solution

Ans

59
 Throttling Valves
 Throttling valves are any kind of flow-restricting devices that
cause a significant pressure drop in the fluid.

 Some familiar examples are ordinary adjustable valves,

capillary tubes, and porous plugs (Fig. 4.12).

 Unlike turbines, they produce a pressure drop without

involving any work.

 The pressure drop in the fluid is often accompanied by a large

drop in temperature, and for that reason throttling devices are
commonly used in refrigeration and air-conditioning
applications.

60
 Throttling Valves
 The magnitude of the temperature drop (or, sometimes, the
temperature rise) during a throttling process is governed by a
property called the Joule-Thomson coefficient.

Fig. 17: Throttling valves are devices that cause large pressure drops in the fluid

61
 Throttling Valves
Assumptions:
(1) adiabatic, Q = 0
(2) no volume changes, W = 0
(3) steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) change in potential energy negligible
(5) change in kinetic energy negligible

h in  h out Isenthalpic Process

62
 Heat Exchangers

 Heat exchangers are devices where two moving fluid streams

exchange heat without mixing.

 Heat exchangers are widely used in various industries, and

they come in various designs.

 The simplest form of a heat exchanger is a double-tube (also

called tube and-shell) heat exchanger, shown in Fig. 4.13.

 It is composed of two concentric pipes of different diameters.

 One fluid flows in the inner pipe, and the other in the annular
space between the two pipes.

63
 Heat Exchangers

 Heat is transferred from the hot fluid to the cold one through
the wall separating them.

 Sometimes the inner tube makes a couple of turns inside the

shell to increase the heat transfer area, and thus the rate of
heat transfer.

 Under steady operation, the mass flow rate of each fluid

stream flowing through a heat exchanger remains constant.

64
 Heat Exchangers

Fig. 18 : A heat exchanger can be as simple as two concentric pipes.

65
Heat Exchangers

Fig. 19 : Examples of heat exchangers

66
 Heat Exchangers

Assumptions: (1) Constant volume, W = 0

(2) Change in potential energy negligible
(3) Steady-state, d/dt = 0
(4) Change in kinetic energy negligible
(5) Adiabatic, Q = 0

67
 Unsteady-flow (transient) processes

 During a steady-flow process, no changes occur within the

control volume with time.

 Many processes of interest, however, involve changes within

the control volume with time. Such processes are called
unsteady-flow, or transient-flow, processes.

 When an unsteady-flow process is analyzed, it is important to

keep track of the mass and energy contents of the control
volume as well as the energy interactions across the boundary.

68
 Unsteady-flow (transient) processes

 Some familiar unsteady-flow processes are

 The charging of rigid vessels from supply lines (Fig. 4.15)

 Discharging a fluid from a pressurized vessel.

 Driving a gas turbine with pressurized air stored in a large

container.

 Inflating tires or balloons.

 Cooking with an ordinary pressure cooker

69
Unsteady-flow (transient) processes

Fig. 20 Charging of a rigid tank from a supply line is an unsteady

flow process since it involves changes within the control volume.

70
 Unsteady-flow (transient) processes

 Unlike steady-flow processes, unsteady-flow processes start

and end over some finite time period instead of continuing
indefinitely.

 Steady-flow systems are fixed in space, size, and shape, but

unsteady-flow systems are not fixed in space, size, and shape
as shown in fig.21.

 We deal with changes that occur over small time interval ∆t

instead of with rate of changes.

 They are usually stationary; that is, they are fixed in space,
but they may involve moving boundaries and thus boundary
work.
71
Unsteady-flow (transient) processes

Fig 21: The shape and size of a control volume may

change during an unsteady-flow process.

72
 Mass balance

 Unlike the case of steady-flow processes, the amount of mass

within the control volume does change with time during an
unsteady-flow process.

 The magnitude of change depends on the amounts of mass

that enter and leave the control volume during the process.

 The mass balance for a system undergoing any process can be

expressed as
𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

Where, 𝑚𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = 𝑚𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 is the change in the mass

of the system during the process

73
 Energy balance

 The energy content of a control volume changes with time during

an unsteady-flow process.

 The magnitude of change depends on the amount of energy transfer

across the system boundaries as heat and work as well as on the
amount of energy transported into and out of the control volume by
mass during the process.

 Note that unlike the steady-flow systems, the state of an unsteady-

flow system may change with time, and that the state of the mass
leaving the control volume at any instant is the same as the state of
the mass in the control volume at that instant.

74
 Energy balance

 The initial and final properties of the control volume can be

determined from the knowledge of the initial and final states,
which are completely specified by two independent intensive
properties for simple compressible systems.

 Then the energy balance for a uniform-flow system can be

expressed explicitly as

(𝑸𝒊𝒏 +𝑾𝒊𝒏 + σ 𝒎𝒊 Ɵ𝒊 ) − (𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 +𝑾𝒐𝒖𝒕 + σ 𝒎𝒆 Ɵ𝒆 ) = (𝒎𝟐 𝒆𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 𝒆𝟏)

Where, Ɵ = h+ke+pe is the energy of a flowing fluid at inlet or

exit per unit mass and e = u+ke+pe is the energy of the non
flowing fluid within the control volume per unit mass

75
 Energy balance

 The initial and final properties of the control volume can be

determined from the knowledge of the initial and final states,
which are completely specified by two independent intensive
properties for simple compressible systems.

 Then the energy balance for a uniform-flow system can be

expressed explicitly as

(𝑸𝒊𝒏 +𝑾𝒊𝒏 + σ 𝒎𝒊 Ɵ𝒊 ) − (𝑸𝒐𝒖𝒕 +𝑾𝒐𝒖𝒕 + σ 𝒎𝒆 Ɵ𝒆 ) = (𝒎𝟐 𝒆𝟐 − 𝒎𝟏 𝒆𝟏)

Where, Ɵ = h+ke+pe is the energy of a flowing fluid at inlet or

exit per unit mass and e = u+ke+pe is the energy of the non
flowing fluid within the control volume per unit mass

76
 Energy balance

 Note that if no mass enters or leaves the control volume during

a process (𝑚𝑖 = 0 ;𝑚𝑒 = 0, and 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = m), this equation
reduces to the energy balance relation for closed systems

Fig. 22: The energy equation of a uniform flow system reduces to that of a closed
system when all the inlets and exits are closed.

77
 Problem 9

A certain pressure cooker has a volume of 6 L and an operating

pressure of 75 kPa gage. Initially, it contains 1 kg of water. Heat is
supplied to the pressure cooker at a rate of 500 W for 30 min after
the operating pressure is reached. Assuming an atmospheric
pressure of 100 kPa, determine
(a) The temperature at which cooking takes place and
(b) the amount of water left in the pressure cooker at the end of
the process.

78
 Solution

Assumptions

1 This process can be analyzed as a uniform-flow process since the properties of

the steam leaving the control volume remain constant during the entire cooking
process.

2 The kinetic and potential energies of the streams are negligible, ke pe 0.

3 The pressure cooker is stationary and thus its kinetic and potential energy
changes are zero; that is, ∆KE = ∆PE = 0 and ∆𝐸𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 = ∆𝑈𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

79
 Solution

4 The pressure (and thus temperature) in the pressure cooker remains

constant.

5 Steam leaves as a saturated vapor at the cooker pressure.

6 There are no boundary, electrical, or shaft work interactions involved.

7 Heat is transferred to the cooker at a constant rate

80
 Solution

(a) The absolute pressure within the cooker is

𝑝𝑎𝑏𝑠 = 𝑝𝑔𝑎𝑔𝑒 +𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑚 = 75+100 = 175kPa

Since saturation conditions exist in the cooker at all times the cooking
temperature must be the saturation temperature corresponding to this pressure.
From steam table,

T = 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡@175𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 116.04 °C Ans

is which is about 16°C higher than the ordinary cooking temperature.

81
 Solution

b) Noting that the microscopic energies of flowing and non flowing fluids are
represented by enthalpy h and internal energy u, respectively, the mass and energy
balances for this uniform-flow system can be expressed as

82
 Solution
Steam leaves the pressure cooker as saturated vapor at 175 kPa at all times,Thus
ℎ𝑒 = = ℎ𝑔@175𝑘𝑃𝑎 = 2700.4 kPa

83
Solution

Ans

84