Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

436- 353 MECHANICS 2 UNIT 2
MECHANICS OF A RIGID BODY

J.M. KRODKIEWSKI 2008
THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

. 1
MECHANICS OF A RIGID BODY Copyright C 2008 by J.M. Krodkiewski ISBN 0-7325-1535-1 The University of Melbourne Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering
CONTENTS
1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE. 1.1 MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN TERMS OF THE INERTIAL FRAME. 1.1.1 Absolute linear velocity and absolute linear acceleration 1.2 MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 Motion in terms of translating system of coordinates. . 1.2.2 Motion in terms of rotating system of coordinates. . . 1.2.3 Motion in terms of translating and rotating system of coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS OF A RIGID BODY 2.1 GENERAL MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 ROTATION ABOUT A POINT THAT IS FIXED IN THE INERTIAL SPACE (ROTATIONAL MOTION) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 KINETICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES. 3.1 MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS - LINEAR MOMENTUM. . . . . 3.2 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Moment of momentum about a xed point in the inertial space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Moment of momentum about a moving point in an inertial space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Moment of relative momentum. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR FIRST INTEGRALS. . . 3.3.1 Conservation of momentum principle. . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Conservation of angular momentum principle. . . . . . 3.3.3 Impulse momentum principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 PROBLEMS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 KINETICS OF RIGID BODY. 4.1 LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM. . 4.2 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OF INERTIA. 4.2.1 Parallel axis theorem. . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Principal axes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6 6 8 8 10 22 24 41 41 43 44 80 82 83 83 85 87 88 88 89 90 91
96 . 96 . 99 . 100 . 102
CONTENTS
4.2.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106 4.3 KINETIC ENERGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.3.1 Rotational motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127 4.3.2 General motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 4.3.3 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 4.4 EQUATIONS OF MOTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 4.4.1 Eulers equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146 4.4.2 Modied Eulers equations of motion . . . . . . . . . . . 149 4.4.3 Problems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 4.5 MOTION OF THE GYROSCOPE WITH THREE DEGREE OF FREEDOM. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 4.5.1 Modelling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182 4.5.2 Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 5 APPENDIXES 191 5.1 APPENDIX 1. REVISION OF THE VECTOR CALCULUS 191 5.2 APPENDIX 2. CENTRE OF GRAVITY, VOLUME AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES. . . . . . . . . 194
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION.
The purpose of this text is to provide the students with the theoretical background and engineering applications of the three dimensional mechanics of a rigid body. It is divided into four chapters. The rst one, Three-Dimensional Kinematics of A Particle, deals with the geometry of motion of an individual particle in terms of the inertial as well as in terms of the non-inertial system of coordinates. The introduced in this chapter translating, rotating as well as the translating and rotating system of coordinates allows motion of the rigid body with respect to the inertial frame to be determined and classied. The second chapter, entitled Three-Dimensional Kinematics of A Rigid Body, provides procedures for determination of the absolute velocity and the absolute acceleration of any point that belong to the rigid body. Both, the general motion and the motion about a xed point is considered. The last two chapters are related with the relationships between motion and forces that act on bodies. The chapter Kinetics of A System of Particles oers general principles that can be apply to any system of particles regardless of their number and internal forces acting between the individual particles. Because each continuum (uid, gas, rigid or elastic body) can be considered as a system of particles, the derived equations form a base for development of many branches of mechanics (uid mechanics, solid mechanics, rigid body mechanics etc.). The developed principles are widely utilized in the chapter entitled Kinetics of A Rigid Body. This chapter gives procedures for determination of matrix of inertia of a rigid body and its principal axes. This makes possible to produce expression for the kinetic energy of the moving rigid body as well as to derive its equations of motion. Both, the general motion as well as rotation of a rigid body is considered. Each chapter is ended with several engineering problems. Solution to some of them is provided. Students should produce solution to the other problems during tutorials and in their own time.
Chapter 1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE.

1.1 MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN TERMS OF THE INERTIAL FRAME.
Z Za O X Oa Xa Y a v Y
Figure 1 To consider motion of a particle we assume the existence of so-called absolute (motionless) system of coordinates Xa Ya Za (see Fig. 1). DEFINITION: Inertial system of coordinated is one that does not rotate and which origin is xed in the absolute space or moves along straight line at a constant velocity. Inertial systems of coordinates are usually denoted by upper characters, e.g. XY Z, to distinguish them from non-inertial systems of coordinates which are usually denoted by lower characters, e.g. xyz. 1.1.1 Absolute linear velocity and absolute linear acceleration Let us assume that a motion of a particle is given by a set of parametric equations 1.1 which determine the particle coordinates for any instant of time. rX = rX (t) rY = rY (t) rZ = rZ (t)
(1.1)
MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN TERMS OF THE INERTIAL FRAME.
Z r(t)
K I
r(t+ t) J rZ (t) O Y r (t) rY (t) X
Figure 2 These coordinates represent scalar magnitude of components of so called absolute position vector r along the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. r = IrX (t) + JrY (t) + KrZ (t) (1.2)
were I, J, K are unit vectors of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Vector of the absolute velocity, as the rst derivative of the absolute position vector r with respect to time, is given by the following formula. r rX rY rZ = I lim + J lim + K lim = IrX + JrY + KrZ tO t tO t tO t tO t (1.3) Similarly, vector of the absolute acceleration is dened as the second derivative of the position vector with respect to time. v = r = lim a = = lim r v = IX + JY + KZ r r r tO t (1.4)
Scalar magnitude of velocity v (speed) can be expressed by formula q v = |v| = v v = rX + rY + rZ 2 2 2 Scalar magnitude of acceleration is a = |a| = q a a = rX + rY + rZ 2 2 2
(1.5)
(1.6)
The distance done by the particle in a certain interval of time 0 < < t is given by the formula 1.7. Z tp Z t v d = rX ( )2 + rY ( )2 + rZ ( )2 d = s(t) (1.7) s=
0 0
MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).
1.2

z z o O Y x x X y O o o y O Y Y y Z Z z
a
X
b
X
Figure 3 DEFINITION:System of coordinates which can not be classied as inertial is called non-inertial system of coordinates. The non-inertial systems of coordinates are denoted by lower characters (e.g. xyz) to distinguish it from inertial one. DEFINITION: If a non-inertial system of coordinates does not rotate (its axes xyz are always parallel to an inertial system) the system is called translating system of coordinates (Fig. 3 a). DEFINITION: If a non-inertial system of coordinates rotates about origin of an inertial system of coordinates, the system is called rotating system of coordinates (Fig. 3b) In a general case a non-inertial system of coordinates may translate and rotate. DEFINITION: System of coordinates which can translate and rotate is called translating and rotating system of coordinates (Fig.3c) 1.2.1 Motion in terms of translating system of coordinates.
Z rP ro O x X
Figure 4
P rP,o
o Y
Let XY Z be the inertial system of coordinates and xyz be the translating system of coordinates. The relative motion of xyz system with respect to XY Z is usually dened by a position vector ro (Fig.4). Let us consider a particle P which moves with respect to the translating system of coordinates and its relative motion is given by the position vector rP,o . The position vector of the particle P in the XY Z frame can be composed from vectors ro and rP,o . rP = ro + rP,o = IroX + JroY + KroZ + irP,ox + jrP,oy + krP,oz (1.8)
Hence, the absolute velocity of the particle P , as the rst derivative of vector rP with respect to time is rP = IroX + JroY + KroZ + IroX + JroY + KroZ +irP,ox + jrP,oy + krP,oz + P,ox + jrP,oy + krP,oz ir Since, I = J = K = = j = k = 0 i rP = IroX + JroY + KroZ + irP,ox + jrP,oy + krP,oz (1.10)
(1.9)
In the expression for the absolute velocity one may distinguish two parts called velocity of transportation and relative velocity. DEFINITION: Velocity of transportation is the velocity of the particle it would have if it would be motionless with respect to the non-inertial frame (rP,o = const) DEFINITION: Relative velocity is the velocity of the particle it would have if the non-inertial system of coordinates would be motionless (ro = const). According to the above denitions the velocity of transportation in the case considered is vT = ro = IroX + JroY + KroZ (1.11) and the relative velocity is vR = irP,ox + jrP,oy + krP,oz Hence, the absolute velocity vP = rP = vT + vR (1.13) (1.12)
Similarly, one can prove that the absolute acceleration of the particle P is r aP = P = aT + aR (1.14)
where aT and aR stand for the acceleration of transportation and the relative acceleration respectively. DEFINITION: Acceleration of transportation is the acceleration of the particle it would have if it would be motionless with respect to the noninertial frame (rP,o = const)
10
DEFINITION: Relative acceleration is the acceleration of the particle it would have if the non-inertial system of coordinates would be motionless (ro = const). In the case considered aT = o = IoX + JoY + KoZ r r r r aR = iP,ox + jP,oy + kP,oz r r r 1.2.2 Motion in terms of rotating system of coordinates.
Z z K k O I i X x o j J y Y
(1.15) (1.16)
Figure 5 As it was mention before, the rotating system of coordinates has its origin coinciding the origin of an inertial system of coordinates (Fig.5). First of all, we have to establish matrix which transfers components of a vector from rotating system of coordinates xyz to the inertial XY Z. Matrix of direction cosines. Let the relative motion of a particle P be determined by a position vector r, which components in the rotating system of coordinates xyz (Fig.6) are r = irx + jry + krz (1.17)
Components of the vector r along the inertial system of coordinates XY Z may be obtained as scalar products of the vector r and unit vectors IJK. rX = = rY = = rZ = = r I = rx i I + ry j I + rz k I rx cos iI + ry cos jI + rz cos kI r J = rx i J + ry j J + rz k J rx cos iJ + ry cos jJ + rz cos kJ r K = rx i K + ry j K + rz k K rx cos iK + ry cos jK + rz cos kK
(1.18)
11
Z r K k
rz rZ j y r x Y rX
kI O I i iI r Y o
J jI ry
x
Figure 6
The last relationship can be written in the a matrix form rX rx cos iI cos jI cos kI rx rY = cos iJ cos jJ cos kJ ry = [Cri ] ry rZ rz rz cos iK cos jK cos kK
(1.19)
The transfer matrix [Cri ] is called matrix of direction cosines. From the manner we have developed the matrix of direction cosines it is easy to notice that the inverse matrix equal the transpose one. [Cri ]1 = [Cri ]T = [Cir ] (1.20)
Another useful relationship should be noticed from Fig. 7. Cosine of angle between two unit vectors e.g. i and J is equal to the component of one on the other.
Jx iJ iY i
Figure 7 Jx iY = iY = = Jx i J
cos iJ =
(1.21)
12
Z i iZ O i Y iX Y
Figure 8 From Fig. 8 one can see that components iX, iY, iZ ,which are equal to corresponding direction cosines, full the following relationship. i2 + i2 + i2 = cos2 iI + cos2 iJ + cos2 iK = 1 X Y Z (1.22)
There exists six such relationships. Hence, only three direction angles can be chosen independently. The three independent angles, which uniquely determined the position of the rotating system of coordinates with respect to the inertial one, are called Eulers angles. Euler angles.
Z ,z
O,o
Y, y
X, x
Figure 9 Let us assume that the rotating system of coordinates xyz coincide the inertial one XY Z. as shown in Fig.9. Now, let us turn the system of coordinates xyz with respect to the inertial one XY Z about axis Z by an angle , so the system xyz takes position x1 y1 z1 (Fig. 10). The matrix of direction cosines between system x1 y1 z1 and XY Z is
13
Z ,z1 y1 O,o
X x1
Figure 10 cos sin 0 [Cr1 i ] = sin cos 0 0 0 1
(1.23)
In the next step, let us turn the system xyz about axis x1 by an angle . The new position of the system xyz is shown in Fig. 11 as x2 y2 z2 . The matrix of direction cosines between system x2 y2 z2 and x1 y1 z1 has the following form.
z2
Z ,z1 y2
O,o
y1
X x1 ,x 2
Figure 11
In the last step, the system xyz is turned by an angle about axis z2 to its nal position xyz (Fig. 12). The matrix of direction cosines between xyz and x2 y2 z2 is
1 0 0 [Cr2 r1 ] = 0 cos sin 0 sin cos
(1.24)
14
z2 ,z
Z ,z1
O,o
y2
y1

X x2
Figure 12
Hence the matrix of direction cosines between rotating system xyz and the inertial XY Z is [Cri ] = [Cr1 i ][Cr2 r1 ][Crr2 ] (1.30) The last formula allows to express the direction cosines as function of three independent angles known as Eulers angles. The angle is called angle of precession, angle is called angle of mutation and the angle is called angle of spin.
Introducing Eq. 1.28 into Eq. 1.27) and than Eq. 1.27) into Eq. 1.26) one may obtained rx rx rX rY = [Cr1 i ][Cr2 r1 ][Crr2 ] ry = [Cri ] ry (1.29) rZ rz rz
According to Eq. 1.19, one can write the following relationships rx1 rX rY = [Cr1 i ] ry1 rZ rz1 rx2 rx1 ry1 = [Cr2 r1 ] ry2 rz1 rz2 rx rx2 ry2 = [Crr2 ] ry rz2 rz
cos sin 0 [Crr2 ] = sin cos 0 0 0 1
(1.25)
(1.26)
(1.27)
(1.28)
15
Angular velocity and angular acceleration.

Z A2 r 1 r2 A2 X O r0 A0 Y O r2 r0 r 1 A0 A1 Y Z
A1
a
X
Figure 13 The introduced Euler angles can not be considered as vectorial values. To show it let us consider transformation of point Ao due to rotation about axes x and y by 90o . If we turn the vector ro by 90o rst about axis x and then about axis y, the nal position of the point Ao is represented by vector r2 (Fig.13a). Let us do the same, but now the vector ro is turned about axis y rst and then about axis x (Fig. 13 b). We can see that the nal position depend on the order of rotation. Hence, angular displacement can not be considered as a vector because at least the commutative law would be violated.
Figure 14 It is easy to show, but the proof is here omitted, that the innitesimal angular displacement can be considered as vectorial magnitude. Vector of the innitesimal angular displacement is perpendicular to the plane of rotation and its sense is determined by the law of right-handed screw (Fig. 14). Such vectors which have determined only direction and sense are called free vectors to distinguish them from linear vectors (sense and line of action is determined) and position vectors ( position of its tail, direction and sense is determined). According to the above rules the innitesimal angular increments of Eulers angles d, d and d may be drawn as shown in Fig. 15.
16
The instantaneous axis of rotation Z d d d d y O d x X x1

Figure 15
The vectorial sum d = d + d + d (1.31) of the three innitesimal angular increments of Eulers angles determines direction of so called instantaneous axis of rotation, having such a property that the rotation by the angle d about this axis is equivalent to rotation by angles d, d, d about axes Z x1 z respectively. The instantaneous axis go through origin of the rotating system of coordinates.
z Z l d d h r dr A y Y x X
Figure 16 Now, let us consider point A xed in the xyz system of coordinates determined by a position vector r (Fig. 16). And let the axis l be the instantaneous axis of rotation of the system xyz with respect to the inertial one. Let d be an innitesimal
17
angular displacement of the system of coordinates xyz. Hence, the point A at the instance considered moves along circle of radius h = r sin (1.32)
The innitesimal increment of vector r is tangential to the circle and is placed in plane perpendicular to the axis l. Its scalar magnitude is dr = h d = r d sin (1.33)
Hence, the innitesimal increment dr can be considered as a vector product of vector d and r. dr = d r (1.34) The velocity of the point A is v= The vector
d dt
dr d = r dt dt
(1.35)
is called vector of angular velocity . =

d dt
(1.36)
and the velocity of A can be expressed as follow. v =r (1.37)
If motion of the rotating system of coordinates is determined by Eulers angles, its angular velocity, according to the above denition and Eq. ??, is = d d Kd + i1 d + kd d d = =K + i1 + k dt dt dt dt dt (1.38)
The angular speed as well as its individual components are shown in Fig. 17.
z The instantaneous axis of rotation Z d dt O d dt X x1 d dt y
Y x
Figure 17
18
The vector can be resolved along any system of coordinates. In particular it can be resolved along axes of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z = I X + JY + KZ (1.39)
The scalar magnitude of the components X, Y, Z can be expressed as functions of Eulers angles and their rst derivatives. X = I K Y Z d d d + I i1 + I k dt dt dt d d d = J K + J i1 + J k dt dt dt d d d = K K + K i1 + K k dt dt dt
(1.40)
Having the components of angular speed as explicit function of time it is possible to nd the vector of angular velocity for any instant of time. The locus of the lines of action of the vector of angular speed in the inertial system of coordinates is called space cone (Fig. 18 a)
space cone Z t0 ti i z t0 ti i body cone instantaneous axis of rotation Z z t0 ti i
Y O
o O
y Y
b
Figure 18
The vector of angular speed can be as well resolved along axes of the system of coordinates xyz (1.41) = ix + jy + kz and the components can be expressed as a function of time. x = i K y z d d d + i i1 + i k dt dt dt d d d = j K + j i1 + j k dt dt dt d d d = k K + k i1 + k k dt dt dt
(1.42)
19
The components x, y, z determine for any instant of time direction of the angular velocity in the rotating system of coordinates. The locus of these lines make up so called body cone (Fig. 18 b). The rotational motion of the system xyz with respect to the XY Z, can be hence considered as rolling without slipping of the body cone on the space cone (Fig. 18 c). The angular acceleration is dened as the rst derivative of the vector of angular velocity with respect to time. =
d dt
(1.43)
Derivative of a vector expressed in terms of a rotating system of coordinates According to the consideration carried out in the previous paragraphs the rotational motion of a system of coordinates xyz with respect to the inertial one can be dened by three independent angles (e.g. Euler angles) or, alternatively the rotational motion can be determined by its initial position and the vector of its angular velocity . Let be the absolute angular velocity of the rotating system of coordinates xyz (Fig. 19).
z Z Az Ax o O A Ay y Y
Figure 19 Consider a vector A which is given by its components along the rotating system of coordinates xyz. A = iAx + jAy + kAz (1.44) Let us dierentiate this vector with respect to time. d A = (iAx + jAy + kAz ) dt Hence A = iAx + jAy + kAz + x + jAy + kAz iA (1.46) The rst three terms represent vector which can be obtained by direct dierentiating of the components Ax , Ay , Az with respect to time. This vector will be denoted by A0 . A0 = iAx + jAy + kAz (1.47) (1.45)
20
Thus A = A0 + x + jAy + kAz iA (1.48) According to denition of vector derivative, the rst derivative of the unit vector i is the ratio of the innitesimal vector increment di and dt (Fig. 20).
z Z
y O i vi X x Y
Figure 20 = di = vi dt = vi i dt dt were vi is a velocity of head of the vector i. But, according to Eq. 1.37 vi = i Hence =i i Similarly j=j and k=k (1.52) Introducing the above expressions into Eq. 1.48 we have A = A0 + iAx + jAy + kAz = A0 + (iAx + jAy + kAz ) and eventually one may gain A = A0 + A where: A0 = iAx + jAy + kAz - is the absolute angular velocity of the rotating system of coordinates xyz along which the vector A was resolved to produce vector A0 A - is the dierentiated vector. The last formula provides the rule for dierentiation of a vector that it is resolved along a non-inertial system of coordinates. It can be applied to any vector (eg position vector, velocity, angular velocity etc.) (1.54) (1.53) (1.51)
(1.49)
(1.50)
21
Motion in terms of rotating system of coordinates. Let relative motion of a particle P (see Fig. 21) with respect to the rotating system of coordinates xyz be determined by position vector rP . rP = irP x + jrP y + krP z where rP x , rP y , rP z components of the vector rP along system of coordinates xyz. The system xyz itself has its own rotational motion determined by absolute angular velocity . We are interested in the absolute velocity and absolute acceleration of this particle.
z Z P rP
(1.55)
y o O Y
Figure 21 The absolute velocity of the particle P is vP = rP = r0P + rP (1.56)
In a similar manner, as it was done in case of translating system of coordinates, we introduce notions of the relative velocity and the velocity of transportation. For the case of a particle motionless in the rotating system of coordinates, according to Eq. 1.56 the velocity of transportation is vT = rP (1.57)
For the case of motionless system of coordinates xyz ( = 0), according to Eq. 1.56 the relative velocity is (1.58) vR = r0P Hence vP = vR + vT (1.59) The absolute acceleration one may obtain dierentiating equation 1.56 with respect to time. P = r d 0 d rP + ( rP ) = r00 + r0P + rP + (r0P + rP ) P dt dt (1.60)
22
Introducing Eq. 1.43 and developing the last term we have aP = P = r00 + rP + ( rP ) + 2 r0P r P (1.61)
Assuming that the point P is motionless (rP = constant) one may obtain the following expression for acceleration of transportation aT = rP + ( rP ) (1.62)
Here, the term rP is called tangential acceleration of transportation and the term ( rP ) is called normal acceleration of transportation. Assumption, that the system of coordinates is motionless yields expression for the relative acceleration. aR = r00 (1.63) The last term in equation 1.61 is called Coriolis acceleration aC . aC = 2 r0 (1.64)
Now, we can state that the absolute acceleration is composed of acceleration of transportation, relative acceleration and Coriolis acceleration. aP = aT + aR + aC (1.65)
1.2.3 Motion in terms of translating and rotating system of coordinates. Let us dene motion of the translating and rotating system of coordinates xyz by the position vector ro and the vector of the angular velocity (see Fig..22). The relative motion of a point P with respect to the rotating and translating system of coordinates xyz is determined by a position vector rP,o . Hence, the absolute position vector rP in this case is rP = ro + rP,o (1.66)
z P Z rP ro O x X o rP,o y Y
Figure 22
23
Let us assume that the relative position vector rP,o is determined by its components along the translating and rotating system of coordinates xyz. rP,o = irP,ox + jrP,oy + krP,oz (1.67)
According to the previously developed rules, the absolute velocity of the point P is rP = ro + r0P,o + rP,o where ro + rP,o velocity of transportation r0P,o relative velocity The second derivative yields the absolute acceleration r P = o + r00 + r0P ,o + rP,o + (r0P ,o + rP,o ) r P,o = o + rP,o + rP,o + r00 + 2 r0P ,o r P,o Here: o + rP,o + rP,o = aT acceleration of transportation r r00 = aR relative acceleration P,o 2 r0P ,o = aC Coriolis acceleration.
(1.68)
PROBLEMS.
24
1.3
PROBLEMS.
Problem 1
Z z1 z2 1 2 1 21 y1 y2 X 1 t x1 Y
2 1t
x
2
Figure 23 The frame 1 of the system shown in Fig. 23 rotates about the vertical axis Z with a constant angular velocity 1 whereas the disc 2 has its own constant relative angular velocity 21 . Calculate components of the absolute angular velocity 2 of the disc 2 and its absolute acceleration 2 . Solution. System of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the frame 1 and system x2 y2 z2 is body 2 system of coordinates. Absolute angular velocity of the body 2 is 2 = k1 1 + j1 21 (1.69)
Its rst vector derivative with respect to time yields absolute angular acceleration. i1 j1 k1 (1.70) 2 = 2 = 02 + 1 2 = k1 0 + j1 0 + 0 0 1 = i1 1 21 0 21 1
PROBLEMS.
25
Problem 2
O o1
y1 Y
o t
z2 P X
. x1 x2 Z z1
y2
o y1
2 1
Figure 24 A radar antenna rotates about the vertical axis Z at the constant angular speed o . At the same time the angle is being changed as follow = a sin At Produce the components of the angular velocity and the angular acceleration of the antenna 1. along the inertial XY Z system of coordinates 2. the body 2 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 the magnitude of the angular velocity and acceleration of the antenna.. the components of velocity and acceleration of the probe P along the body 2 system of coordinates. the magnitude of velocity and acceleration of the probe P .
PROBLEMS.
26
Solution. A. Matrices of direction cosines. Fig. 24 permits to produce matrices of direction cosines between the inertial system of coordinates XY Z, the rotating system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 and the rotating system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . x1 X cos o t sin o t 0 X y1 = sin o t cos o t 0 Y = [CI1 ] Y (1.71) 0 0 1 Z z1 Z x1 1 0 0 x1 x2 y2 = 0 cos sin y1 = [C12 ] y1 (1.72) 0 sin cos z2 z1 z1 x2 X y2 = [C12 ][CI1 ] Y z2 Z 1 0 0 cos o t 0 cos sin sin o t = 0 0 sin cos sin o t cos o t sin o t cos cos o t cos = sin o t sin cos o t sin
B. Angular velocities. The angular velocity of the body 2 is determined by the following vector equation. 2 = o k1 + i1 (1.74) Its components along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 may be calculated with help of Eq. 1.72. 2x2 1 0 0 2x1 1 0 0 2y2 = 0 cos sin 2y1 = 0 cos sin 0 2z2 2z1 0 sin cos 0 sin cos o o sin = (1.75) o cos = asinAt the above components are 2x2 = aA cos At 2y2 = o sin(a sin At) 2z2 = o cos(a sin At) (1.76)
sin o t 0 X cos o t 0 Y 0 1 Z 0 X Y sin cos Z
(1.73)
Since
(1.77)
PROBLEMS.
27
Introduction of Eq. 1.76 into Eq. 1.78 yields the parametric equations of the space cone. 2X = aA cos At cos o t 2Y = aA cos At sin o t 2Z = o
The above equations may be considered as parametric equations of the body cone. Parametric equations of the space cone are determined by components of the angular velocity 2 along inertial system of coordinates. These components may be obtained with help of the equation 1.71. 2X 2x1 cos o t sin o t 0 2Y = [CI1 ]1 2y1 = sin o t cos o t 0 0 0 0 1 o 2Z 2z1 cos o t = sin o t (1.78) o
(1.79)
Both, the space cone and body cone, are presented in Fig. 25. They were computed for the following data a = 1[m],
Y
2 1 0 -1 -2 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 -3 -2 -1 2 1
o = 1[1/s],
A = 3[1/s]
y2
0 -1 -2 0 1 2 3
x2
z2
x2
a)
Figure 25
b)
Magnitude of the absolute angular velocity 2 is q q q 2 2 2 2 2 + ( cos )2 = 2 + 2 2 = 2x2 + 2y2 + 2z2 = + ( o sin ) o o C. Angular acceleration.
(1.80)
PROBLEMS.
28
The absolute angular acceleration of the antenna can be obtained by dierentiation of the vector 2 Eq. 1.75. 2 = 2 = 02 + 2 2 = i2 + j2 o cos k2 o sin Hence, its magnitude is q p 2 = 2 + (o cos )2 + ( o sin )2 = 2 + o 2 where = aA cos At = aA2 sin At D. Velocity of the point P . Position of the point P is determined by the position vector l. l = k2 l (1.84) (1.81)
(1.82)
(1.83)
Its rst derivative with respect to time yields the absolute velocity of the point P . i2 j2 k2 0 l (1.85) vP = = l + 2 l = o sin o cos = i2 o l sin j2 l 0 0 1 Hence, magnitude of velocity of the point P is p vP = ( o l sin )2 + (l)2 (1.86)
where and are determined by formulae 1.76 and 1.83. E. Acceleration of the point P . The absolute acceleration of point P may be obtained by dierentiation of the vector of its absolute velocity.
0 aP = vP = vP + 2 vP
i2 j2 k2 o sin o cos = i2 ( o l cos ) j2 (l ) + o l sin l 0 = i2 ( o l cos + o l cos ) 2 +j2 (l + o l sin cos ) +k2 (l2 2 l sin2 ) o = i2 aPx2 + j2 aPy2 + k2 aPz2 q a2 x2 + a2 y2 + a2 z2 P P P
(1.87)
Hence, its magnitude is aP =
(1.88)
PROBLEMS.
29
Problem 3
4 3
L v
2 1
Figure 26 The belt conveyor 1 shown in Fig. 26 is mounted at the constant angle = 30o with respect to the horizontal plane on the rotating table 2. The table rotates with the constant angular speed = 1rad/s whereas the belt 3 moves with the constant linear velocity v = 2m/s in the direction shown. Calculate magnitude of velocity and acceleration of the particle 4 travelling without slipping for the position dened by the distance L = 5m.
PROBLEMS.
30
Solution.
X x t Z z 4 3
Y y v R
2 1
Figure 27 Axes XY Z form the inertial system of coordinates. Axes xyz are xed to the rotating table 2 and have its origin at O. Angular velocity of the system of coordinates xyz is vertical and its components along xyz system of coordinates are 2 = j sin + k cos Position vector which determines a position of the particle 4 is R = jL (1.90) (1.89)
The rst derivative of the absolute velocity yields the absolute acceleration of the particle. i j k 0 0 sin cos R = R + 2 R = iv cos + L cos v 0 = i2v cos j 2 L cos2 + kL 2 sin cos (1.93)
Hence, magnitude of the velocity is p p |R| = (L cos )2 + v2 = (5 1 cos30o )2 + 22 = 4.76 m/s
Its rst derivative with respect to time produces the absolute velocity of the particle 4. i j k 0 (1.91) R = R + 2 R = jL + 0 sin cos = iL cos + jv 0 L 0 (1.92)
PROBLEMS.
31
Its magnitude may be calculated according to the following formula. p (2v cos )2 + (L 2 cos2 )2 + (L 2 sin cos )2 |R| = p = (2 1 2 cos 30o )2 + (5 12 cos2 30o )2 + (5 12 sin 30o cos30o )2 = 5.545 m/s2 (1.94)
PROBLEMS.
32
Problem 4
1 L A C D A 2
Figure 28 Wheel of radius is free to rotate about axle CD which turns about the vertical axis with a constant speed . The wheel rolls without slipping on the horizontal plane. Determine, as a function of its angular position , the magnitudes of velocity and acceleration of the shown in the Fig. 28 point A . Given are: , l, .
PROBLEMS.
33
Solution.
O z1
t
Z Y y1 x1
X 2
1 L F D L x2 A C z1 z2 y1 y2
x1
21 G O
Figure 29 Axes XYZ, in Fig. 29, form the inertial system of coordinates. Axis x1 y1 z1 are rigidly attached to the axle 1 and form the body 1 system of coordinates. Its axis x1 coincides axis X of the inertial system of coordinates. Therefore the angular speed of this system of coordinates is 1 = I = i1 (1.95)
Axes x2 y2 z2 are xed to the wheel 2 and its axis x2 goes through the point A whereas its axis z2 coincides axis z1 . Its absolute angular velocity 2 is assembled of the absolute angular velocity 1 and the relative velocity 21. 2 = 1 + 21 (1.96)
Direction of the relative angular velocity 21 , according to the imposed constraints, coincide axis z2 . Since the cone CEF may by considered as the body 2 cone and the cone CEG may be considered as the space cone, the absolute angular velocity of the body 2 mast have direction of the common generating line EC. Therefore 21 = 1 cot = 1 L (1.97)
Since the vector 21 has opposite direction to the positive direction of axis z1 , vector of the absolute angular velocity 2 is L 2 = i1 + k1 ( ) (1.98)
PROBLEMS.
34
Position vector of the point A is r = L + = k1 L + i2 (1.99)
Components of the above position vector along system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 are as follows rx1 = r i1 = k1 i1 L + i2 i1 = cos ry1 = r j1 = k1 j1 L + i2 j1 = sin rz1 = r k1 = k1 k1 L + i2 k1 = L
(1.100)
Absolute velocity of the point A as the rst derivative of the vector r is i1 j1 k1 0 0 vA = r = r0 + 1 r = i1 sin + j1 cos + cos sin L = i1 ( sin ) + j1 ( cos L) + k1 ( sin ) (1.101) Magnitude of the absolute velocity is p r |vA | = | | = ( sin )2 + ( cos L)2 + ( sin )2 (1.102)
Similarly, the rst derivative of the absolute velocity yields the absolute acceleration of the point A. i1 j1 k1 0 0 0 aA = vA = vA + 1 vA = i1 vAx1 + j1 v Ay1 + k1 v Az1 + v Ax1 vAy1 v Az1 = i1 (vAx1 ) + j1 (vAy1 vAz1 ) + k1 (vAz1 + vAy1 ) (1.103) where, according to (1.101) vAx1 = sin vAy1 = cos L vAz1 = sin Hence, the magnitude of absolute acceleration is q aA = (vAx1 )2 + (vAy1 vAz1 )2 + (vAz1 + vAy1 )2
(1.104)
(1.105)
PROBLEMS.
35
Problem 5
Figure 30 A crane shown in Fig. 30 is revolving about vertical axis with the constant angular speed = 1rad/s in the direction shown. Simultaneously the boom is being lowered at the constant angular speed = 0.5rad/s. Calculate the magnitude of the velocity and acceleration of the end P of the boom for the instant when it passes the position = 30o . The boom has the length l = 10m. Answer: v = 7.07m/s
PROBLEMS.
36
Problem 6
0 y2 X 1 2 x1 z3
M 3 Y y1
b
x2 x 3 z1 z2
t
o1 l y2
y3
Figure 31 The turret on a tank (see Fig. 31) rotates about the vertical axis at angular speed t and the barrel is being raised at a constant angular speed b . The tank has constant forward speed v. When the barrel is in position dened by angles t and b a shell leaves the barrel with muzzle velocity vs and acceleration as . Determine the absolute velocity vm and acceleration am of the barrel muzzle as well as absolute velocity v and acceleration a of the shell when it leaves the barrel. Answer: The components of the absolute position vector of the point M that belong to the barrel rMbx2 = vt sin t rMby2 = vt cos t + l cos b rMbz2 = l sin b where l = constant The components of the absolute velocity of the point M that belong to the barrel vMbx2 = rMbx2 t l cos b t vt cos t vMby2 = rMby2 +t vt sin t vMbz2 = rMbz2 The components of the absolute acceleration of the point M that belong to the barrel aMbx2 = vMbx2 t vMby2 aMby2 = vMby2 + t vMbx2 aMbz2 = vMbz2 The components of the absolute position vector of the point M that belong to the shell rMsx2 = vt sin t rMsy2 = vt cos t + l(t) cos b rMsz2 = l(t) sin b = vs = as where l l The components of the absolute velocity of the point M that belong to the shell vMsx2 = rMsx2 t l cos b t vt cos t vMsy2 = rMsy2 +t vt sin t vMsz2 = rMsz2 The components of the absolute acceleration of the point M that belong to the barrel aMsz2 = vMsz2 aMsx2 = vMsx2 t vMsy2 aMsy2 = vMsy2 + t vMsx2
PROBLEMS.
37
Problem 7
O y
X x
z1
21 t
P R O
Z z z1 l
21
y1
x1
O 2 1
Figure 32 The link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 32 performs the rotational motion about the absolute axis Z. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angle . The link 2 rotates with respect to the link 1 with the constant relative angular velocity 21 . Point P belongs to the body 2. Given are: l, R, 21 , , (t) Produce the expression for: 1. the components of the linear absolute velocity of the point P along the body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . Answer: vx1 = R 21 cos 21 t + R sin cos 21 t l cos vy1 = R cos sin 21 t vz1 = R 21 sin 21 t R sin sin 21 t 2. the components of the absolute acceleration of the point P along the body system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . Answer: ax1 = vx1 + vz1 sin vy1 cos ay1 = vy1 + vx1 cos az1 = vz1 vx1 sin
PROBLEMS.
38
Problem 8
Z,z 1
X x1 Z,z 1 1 R 2
y1 Y
y1
Figure 33 The link 1, shown in Fig. 33, rotates about the vertical axis Z and its instantaneous angular position is determined by the angle . The bead 2 moves along the circular slide of radius R and its relative angular position with respect to the link 1 is determined by the angle . Produce 1. the expressions for the components of the absolute linear velocity along system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 Answer: v = i1 ((R + R cos )) + j1 (R sin ) + k1 (R cos ) 2. the expression for the absolute linear acceleration of the bead along system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 Answer: 2 a = i1 ( (R + R cos ) + 2R sin ) + j1 (R sin R cos 2 (R + R cos )) + 2 k1 (R cos R sin ) .
PROBLEMS.
39
Problem 9
o 1 o 2 X O y 1
Y x 2 x 1 y2 P
Z z2 z1 L 2 1
o 1 o 2 D
O y 1
Figure 34 The base 1 of the crane shown in Fig. 34 rotates about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its motion is determined by the angular displacement . The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is attached to the base 1. At the same time the boom 2 is being raised. This relative motion about the axis x1 is determined by the angular displacement . The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is attached to the boom. Given are: L, D, (t), (t) Produce the expressions for 1. the components of the absolute angular velocity of the boom 2 along the x2 y2 z2 system of coordinates Answer: 2x2 = 2y2 = sin 2z2 = cos 2. the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the boom 2 along the x2 y2 z2 system of coordinates Answer: 2x2 = 2y2 = sin + cos 2z2 = cos sin
PROBLEMS.
40
3. the components of the absolute linear velocity of the point P along the x2 y2 z2 system of coordinates Answer: vP x2 = D L cos vP y2 = 0 vP z2 = L 4. the components of the absolute linear acceleration of the point P along the x2 y2 z2 system of coordinates Answer: 2 aP z2 = aP x2 = D L cos + 2L sin aP y2 = D2 cos L2 cos2 L L D2 sin + L2 sin cos
Chapter 2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS OF A RIGID BODY

DEFINITION: A body which by assumption does not deform and therefore the distances between two of its points remains unchanged, regardless of forces acting on the body, is called rigid body.
z P Z rP ro i O x X Y o k rP,o j G rG,o y
Figure 1 To analyze motion of a rigid body usually we attach to the body a system of coordinates xyz at an arbitrarily chosen point o (see Fig.1). Such a system of coordinates is called body system of coordinates. The body system of coordinates, in a general case, may translate and rotate. Hence, motion of the rigid body may be determined in the same manner as the motion of the translating and rotating system of coordinates. As we remember, motion of the translating and rotating system of coordinates can be determined by a position vector ro and a vector of the angular velocity . The angular velocity of the body system of coordinates is called angular velocity of the rigid body. 2.1 GENERAL MOTION
DEFINITION: If the body system of coordinates translates and rotates, it is said that the body performs the general motion. Let the position of a point P with respect to the body system of coordinates (see
GENERAL MOTION
42
Fig.1) be dened by a position vector rP,o . Since components of the vector rP,o along the system of coordinates xyz are constant, the relative velocity of P with respect to the body system of coordinates, r0P ,o ,is always 0. Therefore its absolute velocity is vP = rP = ro + rP,o = ro + r0P ,o + rP,o = ro + rP,o Similarly, The absolute velocity of the point Q is vQ = ro + rQ,o Hence, the relative velocity of the point Q with respect to the point P is vQP = vQ vP = ro + rQ,o ( o + rP,o ) = (rQ,o rP,o ) = r (2.3) rQ,P The absolute acceleration of P is aP = P = o + rP,o + ( rP,o ) r r The relative acceleration of the point Q with respect to the point P is aQP = aQ aP = o + rQ,o + ( rQ,o ) o rP,o ( rP,o ) = r r (2.5) = + rQ,P + ( rQ,P ) The rst term is called the tangential relative acceleration and the second one an = ( rQ,P ) QP (2.7) at = rQ,P QP (2.6) (2.4) (2.2) (2.1)
is called the normal relative acceleration. For the kinetics purposes we are often interested in components of the absolute velocity of the centre of mass G along the body coordinates xyz. If position of the centre of mass is dened by a vector rG,o , the components of its absolute velocity along the body axes are vGx = i ( o + rG,o ) r r vGy = j ( o + rG,o ) r vGz = k ( o + rG,o The components of angular velocity along the body coordinates are x = i y = j z = k Absolute angular acceleration may be obtained as follow = = 0 + = 0 (2.10)
(2.8)
(2.9)
ROTATION ABOUT A POINT THAT IS FIXED IN THE INERTIAL SPACE (ROTATIONAL MOTION) 43
2.2
ROTATION ABOUT A POINT THAT IS FIXED IN THE INERTIAL SPACE (ROTATIONAL MOTION)
DEFINITION: If one point of the body considered is motionless with respect to the inertial frame, it is said that the body performs rotational motion. This motionless point is called centre of rotation and usually this centre is chosen as the origin of the body system of coordinates (see Fig. 2).
G rG O X x
Figure 2
P rP y Y
The linear velocity of an arbitrarily chosen point P of the rigid body as well as its acceleration is determined by the angular velocity of the body . Indeed vP = rP = r0P + rP = rP r aP = P = rP + ( rP ) (2.11) (2.12)
PROBLEMS.
44
2.3
PROBLEMS.
Problem 10
Y X 2 1
1 x1 1 Z z1 G
y1
y1
1
Figure 3 Base 1 of the ventilator shown in Fig. 3, performs an oscillatory motion about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. This motion is determined by the following equation = o sint. The axis of relative rotation of the rotor 2 is xed at the constant angle with respect to the horizontal plane. The rotor 2 rotate with a constant angular velocity in the direction shown. The centre of gravity G of the rotor is displaced from its axis of rotation by distance . Determine: 1. components of the absolute angular velocity of the rotor along a system of coordinates xed to the rotor. 2. components of the absolute velocity of the centre of gravity of the rotor along the same system of coordinates. Given are: o , , L, , , .
PROBLEMS.
45
Solution.
Y
1 y1 2 z1 t
z2 X
1 x1
y12 y2
2 z1
1 z1
y12 L
2 x1
2 1 x 1 x1
y1
x2
Figure 4
1 1 In Fig. 4, system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 is rigidly attached to the base 1 and 1 rotates about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The angular displacement determines uniquely its instantaneous position. System of 2 2 coordinates x2 , y1 , z1 is rigidly attached to the base 1 and it is turned by angle about 1 axis x1 . System of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 is xed to the rotor 2. Its axis y2 coincides 1 2 axis y1 and its instantaneous position is determined by the angular displacement t. Absolute angular velocity of the rotor 2 is
2 = 1 + 2,1 = k1 + j2 = (k2 cos + j2 sin ) + j2 1 1 1 = ((k2 cos t i2 sin t) cos + j2 sin ) + j2 = i2 ( cos sin t) + j2 ( sin + ) + k2 ( cos cos t) Position vector of the centre of gravity G, according to Fig. 4, is RG = L + = j2 L + k2 = j2 L + k2 1 Hence, its st derivative with respect to time yields its absolute velocity i2 j2 k2 G = R0G + 2 RG = cos sin t sin + cos cos t R 0 L = i2 (( sin + ) L cos cos t) +j2 ( cos sin t) +k2 (L cos sin t)
(2.13)
(2.14)
(2.15)
PROBLEMS.
46
Problem 11
Z 3 B 1 A X
Figure 5 Fig. 5 shows the kinematic diagram of a spatial mechanism. Its link 1 can move along axis X and is free to rotate about that axis. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the point A and at the point B is connected to the link 3 through a ball joint. The link 3 can move in plane Y Z along axis which is parallel to Y . Given are: 1. Motion of the point A (its position vector rA ). 2. Distance c between the point B and axis Y . 3. Length of the link 2 lAB . Determine: 1. Positions of individual links. 2. Linear velocity of the link 3. 3. Angular velocity of the link 1. 4. Angular velocity of the link 2.
O c 2
lAB Y
PROBLEMS.
47
Solution.
Z 3 z1 , z2 B y2
1 rA
C rC O c
rBC rBA 2 y1
A X x1
x2
Figure 6
Introduction of Eq. 2.17 into Eq. 2.16 yields matrix of direction cosines between the body 2 system of coordinates and the inertial one. X 1 0 0 cos sin 0 x2 Y = 0 cos sin sin cos 0 y2 z2 Z 0 sin cos 0 0 1 cos sin 0 x2 cos sin cos cos sin y2 (2.18) = z2 sin sin sin cos cos
In the same manner we can easily derive matrix of direction cosines between body 2 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 and system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . x1 cos sin 0 x2 y1 = sin cos 0 y2 (2.17) z1 z2 0 0 1
Let x1 y1 z1 be the body 1 system of coordinates. Its angular position with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z, may be determined by angle . Since the link 2 can rotate with respect to the link 1 about axis z1 only, the relative position of the body 2 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is uniquely determined by angle . A. Matrices of direction cosines. From Fig. 6 one can see that the matrix of direction cosines between system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 and inertial system of coordinates XY Z has the following form X 1 0 0 x1 Y = 0 cos sin y1 (2.16) z1 Z 0 sin cos
PROBLEMS.
48
B. Positions of individual links. To nd positions of individual links let us consider the following vector equation rC + rBC = rA + rBA or Kc + JrBC = IrA + j2 lAB (2.20) The above equation is equivalent to 3 scalar equations which may be obtained by subsequent multiplication its both sides by unit vectors I, J, K. 0 = rA + I j2 lAB rBC = J j2 lAB c = K j2 lAB (2.19)
(2.21)
The dot products, appearing in the above equations, can be taken directly from matrix 2.18. 0 = rA lAB sin rBC = lAB cos cos c = lAB sin cos Hence, = arcsin(rA /lAB ) = arcsin(c/lAB cos ) rBC = lAB cos cos (2.25) (2.26) (2.27) (2.22) (2.23) (2.24)
The three above equations determine position of all links for any instant of time. C. Angular velocities of individual links. Since the link 1 performs rotational motion about axis X, its absolute angular velocity 1 may be obtained by dierentiation of 2.26 with respect to time. 1 = I Angular velocity of the link 2 is 2 = 1 + 21 Since 21 = k2 the absolute angular velocity 2 takes the following form 2 = I + k2 It components along body system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 are 2x2 = I i2 + k2 i2 = cos = sin 2y2 = I j2 + k2 j2 = I k2 + k2 k2 = 2
z2
(2.28)
(2.29) (2.30)
(2.31)
(2.32)
PROBLEMS.
49
where and are derivatives of expressions 2.25 and 2.26 respectively. D. Velocity of the point B. Velocity of the point B can be obtained by direct dierentiation of expression 2.27 with respect to time. rB = vB = JrBC = JlAB ( sin cos cos sin ) (2.33)
PROBLEMS.
50
Problem 12 The point A of the body 1 shown in Fig. 7 can move along the vertical slide 2 which is located along the axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Motion of the point A is determined by the following function of time ZA = ZA (t) The point B of the body 1 can move along the horizontal slide located in the plane Y Z. This slide is by a apart from axis Y . The point C is in a constant contact with the plane XY . According to the described constraints,motion of the body 1 is uniquely determined by the function ZA . Produce: 1. Components of the linear velocity of the point B and the point C. 2. Components of the absolute angular velocity of the body 1.
Z a
90 o Z(t)
O a X C 1
Figure 7
PROBLEMS.
51
Solution. A. direction cosines
Z a x A rA rCA O a X rC rBA 90 o r
a Z(t)
rCB C y
Figure 8
Let us consider the following vector equation (see Fig. 8). rB = rA + rBA or JrBY + Ka = KZA (t) + ka Hence k=J (2.35) (2.34)
ZA rBY +K(1 ) (2.36) a a Multiplication of the above vector equation by the units vectors associated with the inertial system of coordinates I, J and K yields the direction cosines between the axis z and axes of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. k I = coskI =0 rBY k J = coskJ = a k K = coskK = 1 Since we have that (0) +
2
ZA a
(2.37)
cos2 kI + cos2 kJ + cos2 kK = 1 r

BY
(2.38) (2.39)
2 ZA + 1 =1 a
PROBLEMS.
52
To determine the direction cosines between the axis y and axes of the inertial system of coordinates, let us consider equation rC = rA + rCA or IXC + JYC = KZA + ja Since according to the above equation j=I the wanted direction cosines are rCX a rCY j J = cosjJ = a ZA j K = cosjK = a j I = cosjI = The following property of the direction cosines cos2 jI + cos2 jJ + cos2 jK = 1 yields
2 2 2 rCX + rCY + ZA = a2
The last relationship permits the unknown component rBY to be determined as the explicit function of time q 2 rBY = 2aZA ZA ) (2.40)
(2.41) (2.42)
rCX rCY ZA +J K a a a
(2.43)
(2.44)
(2.45) (2.46)
The second equation for determination of the unknown rCX and rCY one may obtain by consideration of the following vector equation rC = rB + rCB It follows that rCB = rB rC (2.48) Multiplication of the above equation by unit vectors I, J and K respectively yields components of the vector rCB along the initial system of coordinates. rCBX = rB I rC I = rCX rCBY rCBZ = rB K rC K =a = rB J rC J =rBY rCY = q 2 2aZA ZA rCY (2.47)
(2.49)
As one can see from Fig. 7 the length of the vector rCB is equal to
2 2 2 rCBX + rCBY + rCBZ = 2a2
2a. Hence (2.50)
PROBLEMS.
53
The above equation together with Eq. 2.46 form set of two equations that determine the components rCX and rCY as explicit functions of time. They are s 2(a ZA ) rCX = a 2a ZA ZA (a ZA ) rCY = p ZA (2a ZA ) rCZ = 0 (2.52) These equations allow the trajectory of the point C to be computed. This trajectory is shown in Fig. 9 for a = 1
0.35 0.3 0.25 r CY 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 0 0.5 1
Therefore the second equation for determination of the components rCX and rCY takes form 2 q 2 2 2aZA ZA rCY + a2 = 2a2 (2.51) rCX +
r CX
Figure 9 The unit vector associated with axis x can be produced as a vector product of unit vectors j and k. i=jk (2.53) where j = I cos jI + J cos jJ + K cos jK k = I cos kI + J cos kJ + K cos kK Therefore I J K i = cos jI cos jJ cos jK 0 cos kJ cos kK = I(cos jJ cos kK cos jK cos kJ) +J( cos jI cos kK) +K( cos jI cos kJ)
(2.54)
(2.55)
PROBLEMS.
54
Hence, the direction cosines between the axis x and axes XY Z are cos iI = cos jJ cos kK cos jK cos kJ cos iJ = cos jI cos kK cos iK = cos jI cos kJ
(2.56)
B. Linear velocities The linear velocity of the point B can be obtained by dierentiation of the position vector rB which according to Eq. 2.40 q 2 (2.57) rB = J 2aZA ZA + Ka Hence a ZA vB = J p Z 2 A 2aZA ZA (2.58)
Hence where
Similarly, dierentiation of the vector rC yields velocity of the point C. The position vector rC according to Eq. 2.52 s 2(a ZA ) ZA (a ZA ) rC = Ia + Jp (2.59) 2a ZA ZA (2a ZA ) vC = IvCX + JvCY 2 1 2 ZA p = a 2 2 2a ZA (2a2 3aZA + ZA ) a 3aZA + ZA = ZA p 3 ZA (2a ZA )
2 2
(2.60)
vCX vCY
(2.61)
Angular velocities. The angular velocity of the link 1 may be obtained from the following vector relationship vB = vA + rBA (2.62) or rBA = vB vA rBAX = rBA I =ak I =acoskI =0 rBAY = rBA J =ak J =acoskJ =rBY (2.63) The components of the vector rBA along the inertial system of coordinates are q 2 = 2aZA ZA )
rBAZ = rBA K =ak K =acoskK =a ZA
(2.64)
PROBLEMS.
55
The above vector equation is equivalent to the following three scalar equation q 2 y (a ZA ) z 2aZA ZA ) = 0 x (a ZA ) = vBY q 2 x 2aZA ZA ) = ZA
Hence, the equation 2.63 yields I J K x z = I(0 0) + J(vBY 0) + K(0 ZA ) p y 2 0 2aZA ZA ) a ZA = I(0) + J(vBY ) + K( ZA ) (2.65)
(2.66)
ZA x = p (2.67) 2 2aZA ZA ) To produce the remaining components of the angular velocity let as consider the vector relationship between the point C and A belonging to the same body 1. or vC = vA + rCA (2.68)
Hence
(2.69) rCA = vC vA The developed earlier direction cosines (Eq. 2.44) permits the components of the relative position vector to be obtain as an explicit function of time. rCAX = rCA I =aj I =acosjI =rCX rCAY = rCA J =aj J =acosjJ =rCY rCAZ = rCA K =aj K =acosjK = ZA
(2.70)
where rCX and rCY are given by equation 2.52.Introducing them into Eq. 2.69 one can get the following vector equation. I J K x y z = I(vCX 0) + J(vCY 0) + K(0 ZA ) rCX rCY ZA (2.71) = I(vCX ) + J(vCY ) + K( ZA ) that is equivalent to three scalar equation of form 2.72 y ZA z rCY = vCX z rCX + x ZA = vCY x rCY y rCX = ZA
(2.72)
Hence, the wanted components of the angular velocity are vCY x ZA z = rCX ZA + x rCY y = rCX
PROBLEMS.
56
Problem 13
Z z1 y1
1
X Z x1 z1 Y P
32
a s 21 O 1 2 y1 3 l
Figure 10 The base 1 of a robot shown in Fig. 10 rotates about the vertical Z and its angular position is determined by the angle 1 . The link 2 can move along the vertical slide of the base and its relative position is determined by s21 . The link 3 is hinged to the link 2 and the angle 32 determines its relative position. Upon assuming that 1 , s21 , 32 are given functions of time and a, l, are given parameters, derive expressions for components of: 1. absolute angular velocity and acceleration of the link 3 along a body 3 system of coordinates. 2. linear velocity of the point P along the same system of coordinates.
PROBLEMS.
57
Solution.
Z z1
1
X Z x1 z 1 z2 z3 a a s 21 s21 O 1 2 Y
y1
P l r
y3
32
l y2
3 y1
Figure 11 In Fig. 11, the following systems of coordinates were introduced: XY Z inertial system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 body 1 rotating system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 body 2 rotating and translating system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 body 3 rotating and translating system of coordinates. The angular velocity of the body 3 is 3 = 1 + 21 + 32 Since 21 = 0 one may obtain the following expression for the angular velocity of the link 3. 3 = 1 + 32 = k2 1 + i3 32 = (k3 cos 32 + j3 sin 32 )1 + i3 32 = i3 32 + j3 1 sin 32 + k3 1 cos 32 (2.73) The angular acceleration of the body 3 can be obtain as vector derivative of 3 with respect to time. 3 = 3 = 03 + 3 3 = 03 = i3 32 + j3 ( 1 sin 32 + 1 32 cos 32 ) + k3 ( 1 cos 32 1 32 sin 32(2.74) ) The position vector of the point P , according to Fig. 11 is r = s21 + a + l = k2 s21 + j2 a + j3 l = (k3 cos 32 + j3 sin 32 )s21 + (j3 cos 32 k3 sin 32 )a + j3 l = j3 (s21 sin 32 + a cos 32 + l) + k3 (s21 cos 32 a sin 32 )
(2.75)
PROBLEMS.
58
Its rst derivative with respect to time represents the wanted velocity of the point P . r = r0 + 3 r where r0 = j3 (s21 sin 32 + s21 32 cos 32 a32 sin 32 ) +k3 (s21 cos 32 s21 32 sin 32 a32 cos 32 ) (2.76)
(2.77)
i3 j3 k3 1 sin 32 1 cos 32 3 r = 32 0 s21 sin 32 + a cos 32 + l s21 cos 32 a sin 32 = i3 [(s21 cos 32 a sin 32 )1 sin 32 (s21 sin 32 + a cos 32 + l)1 cos 32 ] +j3 [(s21 cos 32 a sin 32 )32 ] (2.78) +k3 [(s21 sin 32 + a cos 32 + l)32 ] Upon adding the two above expression together, one may obtain components of velocity of the point P in the following form r = i3 (a1 l1 cos 32 ) + j3 (s21 sin 32 ) + k3 (s21 cos32 + l32 ) (2.79)
PROBLEMS.
59
Problem 14
X X P l r O Q Z3 O Z 1 2 3 P x1
x z y
l Q Z3 z2 Z z1
a)
y1
b)
Figure 12 Fig. 12 shows the kinematic scheme of a mechanism. Its link 1 rotates with the constant angular velocity about the horizontal axis Z of the motionless system of coordinates XY Z. The link 3 is free to slide along and to rotate about axis Z3 . The axis Z3 is xed in the plane XZ and its position is determined by angle . The link 2 joins point P of the link 1 and point Q of the link 3 by means of kinematic constraints as is shown in Fig. 12. Derive the analytical expression for the linear velocity of the link 3. Given are: angular velocity of the link 1. r distance between points O and P . l length of the link 2. angle between axis Z and Z3
PROBLEMS.
60
Solution.
X rP P x1
x z y
l
rQP Q rQ Z3 z2 Z z1
= t r
O
Y y1
Figure 13 From Fig. 13 one can see that rQ = rP + rQP The above vectors can be expressed as follows. rP = i1 r rQ = K rQ cos + I rQ sin rQP = k2 l = i1 l cos x + j1 l cos y + k1 l cos z (2.81) (2.82) (2.83) (2.80)
where x , y and z are angles between the axis z2 and axes of the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 .Introduction of the above expressions into Eq. 2.80 yields KrQ cos + IrQ sin = i1 r + i1 l cos x + j1 l cos y + k1 l cos z (2.84)
Multiplication of the equation Eq. 2.84 by the unit vectors i1 , j1 and k1 respectively oers three scalar equations. rQ cos sin = r + l cos x rQ sin sin = l cos y rQ cos = l cos z Hence cos x = (rQ cos sin r)/l cos y = (rQ sin sin )/l cos z = (rQ cos )/l (2.88) (2.89) (2.90) (2.85) (2.86) (2.87)
PROBLEMS.
61
The direction cosines have to full the following relationship cos2 x + cos2 y + cos2 z = 1 Introduction of Eqs.. 2.88, 2.89 and 2.90 into Eq. (2.91) yields (rQ cos sin r)2 + (rQ sin sin )2 + (rQ cos )2 = l2 After simple manipulation, the equation 2.15 takes form 2.93.
2 rQ + (2r cos sin )rQ + (r2 l2 ) = 0
(2.91)
(2.92)
(2.93)
Hence, the instantaneous position of the point Q is determined by the following expression. (2.94) rQ = r cos sin (r2 cos2 sin2 r2 + l2 )1/2 Since axis Z3 is motionless, the st derivative with respect to time of the above expression yields absolute velocity of the point Q. rQ = r sin sin r2 cos sin sin2 /(r2 cos2 sin2 r2 + l2 )1/2 (2.95)
There are two possible solution. One corresponds to sign + and the other corresponds to sing -.
X P l r QQ+ Z3 Z 1 2 3
Figure 14 The physical interpretation of those two solutions is given in Fig. 14.
PROBLEMS.
62
Problem 15
y2 P A
3 2
x3
21 t
O o2 r x2 x1 X z1 z2 2 Z
y1
y3
z3 2 z1 z2 o2 A o3 3 s
y2
l 1 O o1
y1
Figure 15 A sketch of the Ferris Wheel is shown in Fig. 15. Its base 1 oscillates about the horizontal axis X of the XY Z inertial system of coordinates. The instantaneous position of this base is determined by the angular position . The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the base 1. The relative angular velocity of the wheel 2 with respect to the base 1 is constant and is equal to 21 . The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is rigidly attached to the wheel 2. The seat 3 is hinged to the wheel at the point A. The instantaneous position of the seat 3 with respect to the wheel 2 is determined by the angular displacement . The system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 is rigidly attached to the seat 3. Produce expression for components of: 1. the absolute angular velocity of the seat 3 along the system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 2. the absolute angular acceleration of the seat 3 along the system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 3. the absolute linear velocity of the point P along the system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 Given are: r, l, s, 21 , (t), (t).
PROBLEMS.
63
Solution
3 2 A x3 P y2
21t
O o2 r x2 x1 X z1 z2 2 o2 1 O o1 Z
y1
y3
z3 2 z1 z2 o2 l y1 A o3 3 s
y2
Figure 16 The absolute angular velocity of the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . 1 = i1 The absolute angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . 2 = 1 + 21 = i1 + k2 21 The absolute angular velocity of the system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 3 = 2 + 32 = i1 + k2 21 + i3 Since i1 = i2 cos 21 t j2 sin 21 t = i3 cos 21 t (j3 cos k3 sin ) sin 21 t = (2.99) = i3 cos 21 t + j3 ( cos sin 21 t) + k3 (sin sin 21 t) k2 = j3 sin + k3 cos the components of the angular velocity along the system of coordinates are x3 y3 z3 3 = (i3 cos 21 t + j3 ( cos sin 21 t) + k3 (sin sin 21 t)) + (j3 sin + k3 cos ) 21 + i3 = i3 cos 21 t + + j3 ( cos sin 21 t + 21 sin ) (2.97) (2.96)
(2.98)
+k3 ( sin sin 21 t + 21 cos ) (2.100)
PROBLEMS.
64
The absolute angular velocity of the seat 3 is equal to 3 . The absolute angular acceleration of the seat is equal to the absolute angular acceleration of the system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 = 3 = 3 + 3 3 = = i3 ( cos 21 t 21 sin 21 t + +j3 cos sin 21 t + cos sin 21 t 21 cos cos 21 t + 21 cos cos sin 21 t + 21 sin cos 21 t 21 sin(2.101) +k3 sin sin 21 t + RP = k2 l + j2 r + k3 (s) = (j3 sin + k3 cos ) l + (j3 cos k3 sin ) r + k3 (s) = i3 (0) + j3 (l sin + r cos ) + k3 (l cos r sin s)
0
According to Fig. 16 the absolute position vector of the point P is
(2.102)
The rst derivative of this vector yields the absolute liner velocity of the point P. vP = RP = R0P + 3 RP = j3 l cos r sin ) + k3 l sin r cos i3 j3 k3 + cos 21 t + cos sin 21 t + 21 sin sin sin 21 t + 21 cos 0 l sin + r cos l cos r sin s = i3 vP x3 + j3 vP y3 + k3 vP z3 (2.103)
PROBLEMS.
65
Problem 16
O
z1 X
Y y 1
y 2
32 x2
P o2
x 1 1 b 2 3
Figure 17 Fig. 17 shows a diagram of a wheel excavator. Its base 1 rotates about the vertical axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. System of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the base 1. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angle . The arm 2 rotates with respect to the base 1 about axis that is parallel to z1 . System of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is rigidly attached to the arm 2. Its relative angular position is determined by an angle . The wheel 3 rotates with respect to the arm 2 about axis that is parallel to z1 with the angular velocity 32 . Given are: (t), (t), 32 (t), a, b. Produce 1. the expressions for the components of the absolute angular velocity of the wheel 3 along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: + 32 3x2 = sin 3y2 = cos 3z2 = 2. the expressions for the components of the absolute linear velocity of the point P along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: vP x2 = 0 vP y2 = b vP z2 = a b cos 3. the expressions for components of the absolute acceleration of the point P along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: aP x2 = vP z2 cos vP y2 aP y2 = vP y2 vP z2 sin aP z2 = vP z2 + vP y2 sin
PROBLEMS.
66
Problem 17
Z z3
z1
y3 4 B
y1
1 G rA 2 A l/2 l 3
Figure 18 Fig. 18 shows the kinematic scheme of a mechanism. Its link 1 rotates with a constant angular velocity 1 about the vertical axis Z. The link 2 can translate with respect to the link 1 and its motion is determined by position vector of the point A. rA = k1 rA Given are: 1 angular velocity of the link 1 rA (t) position of the point A as a function of time. l length of the link 3 Produce expressions for 1. the components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 3 along the body 3 system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 . Answer: 3x3 = 3y3 = sin 3z3 = 1 cos rA 1 = rA where = arcsin l 2 2
l rA
2. the components of the absolute velocity of the point B along the body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . Answer: p r 2 vBx1 = 1 l2 rA vBy1 = A rA 2 vBz1 = 0 2
l rA
3. the components of the absolute velocity of the point G along the body 3 system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 . Answer: l l vGx1 = 2 1 cos vGy1 = rA sin vGz1 = rA cos + 2
PROBLEMS.
67
Problem 18
y1
Y X z2 Z x1 z1 z3 y3
L P y1
y2
3 2 1
Figure 19 The base 1 of the Ferris Wheel shown in Fig. 19 rotates about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its angular position is determined by the angular displacement (t) which is a given function of time. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to this base. The wheel 2 of radius R performs rotational motion about axis x1 with respect to the base 1. This relative motion is determined by function (t). The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is rigidly attached to the wheel 2. The seat 3 is hinged to the wheel 2. The relative angular position of the seat 3 with respect to the wheel 2 is determined by angle (t). The system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 is rigidly attached to the seat 3. 1. Derive expressions for the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the seat 3 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . 2. Derive expressions for the components of the absolute linear velocity of the point P along system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Given are: (t), (t), (t), R, L
PROBLEMS.
68
Problem 19
Z 1
z1
2 y1 C x2 x1 z2 R Y L P C O z1
21
x1
y1 y2 C
Figure 20 The link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 20 is free to rotate about axis X of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angle 1 . The system of coordinates is rigidly attached to the link 1. The link 2 can rotates with respect to the link 1 and its relative angular position is determined by the angle 21 . Derive expression for the components of 1. the absolute angular acceleration of the link 2 along the body 2 system of coordinates 2. the absolute linear velocity of the point P along the body 2 system of coordinates . Given are: 1 , 21 ,L, R
PROBLEMS.
69
Problem 20
1 t
X Z x1 P Y P
y1
z1
y2
z2 o2
O 1 c
2 P y1 a y2
x2
o2
b
Figure 21 The helicopter blade 2 is hinged at to the helicopter rotor 1 as shown in Fig. 21. The distance between the hinge and the rotor axis is c. The helicopter body is stationary with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its rotor 1 rotates with a constant angular velocity 1 about the vertical axis Z. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the rotor 1. The relative position of the blade 2 with respect to the rotor 1 is determined by the angular displacement . This relative angular displacement is a given function of time. The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is rigidly attached to the blade 2. The position of the point P which belong to the blade is determined by its coordinates a and b along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Produce: 1. the components of the absolute velocity and the absolute acceleration of the point P along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 2. the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the blade 2 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2
PROBLEMS.
70
Problem 21
0
E a
vA 2,1 y1 o1 b
F z1
o1
r P
X 1
x1
2 x1
Figure 22 The point A of the plane 1, shown in Fig. 22, follows the circular path of radius R with the constant linear velocity vA . Its longitudinal axis E F is always tangential to the path of the point A. This path belongs to the horizontal plane of the inertial space XY Z. System of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 is rigidly attached to the plane 1. Its propeller 2 rotates with the constant angular velocity 2,1 with respect to the plane 1. Produce: 1. Components of the absolute velocity of the tip P of the propeller 2 along the system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 as a function of the angular displacements and . Answer: vP x1 = r sin b vP y1 = (R + a + r cos ) vP z1 = r cos 2. Components of the absolute acceleration of the tip P along the system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 as a function of the angular displacements and . Answer: aP x1 = vP x1 vP y1 aP y1 = vP y1 vP x1 aP z1 = vP z1 3. Components of the angular acceleration of the propeller 2 along the system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 as a function of the angular displacements and . Answer: x1 = 2,1 y1 = 0 z1 = 0
PROBLEMS.
71
Problem 22
z1 z2 z 3
z1
3 1 x1 x2 x3 2 o
z1
z2
A b
x1
y2 y1 2 y3
y2
a)
Figure 23
b)
x3
3
x2
Fig. 23a) shows the self-steering mechanism of the yacht 1. The system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 is attached to the yacht. The shaft 2 of this mechanism is free to rotate about the axis x1 . The system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 is attached to this shaft. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angle 2 (see Fig. 23b)). The link 3 is hinged to the link 2 at the point o. The instantaneous position of the body 3 system of coordinates x3 , y3 , z3 with respect to the system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 is determined by the angle 3 . The yacht is travelling along a straight line with velocity v. Given are: a, b, v(t), 2 (t), 3 (t). Produce the expression for 1. the components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 3 along the system of coordinates x3 , y3 , z3 Answer: 3x3 = 2 cos 3 3y3 = 2 sin 3 3z3 = 3 2. the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the link 3 along the system of coordinates x3 , y3 , z3 Answer: 3x3 = 2 cos 3 2 3 sin 3 3y3 = 2 sin 3 2 3 cos 3 3z3 = 3 3. the components of the absolute velocity of the point A shown in Fig. 23a) along the system of coordinates x3 , y3 , z3 . Answer: vAx3 = v cos 3 b2 sin 3 vAy3 = v sin 3 a3 b2 cos 3 vAz3 = a2 sin 3
PROBLEMS.
72
Problem 23
y2
z1
2 3 1
z2
Y y1
P a x1 x2
Figure 24 The ship 1 (Fig. 24) rotates about the axis Y of the absolute system of coordinates XY Z. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angle . System of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 is rigidly attached to the ship. The housing 2 performs the rotational motion about axis x1 . The relative position of the housing with respect to the ship is given by the angular displacement . System of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 is xed to the housing. The gyroscope 3 rotates about axis with respect to the housing. Its relative angular velocity is . Produce: 1. components of the absolute angular velocity of the gyroscope along the system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 2. components of the absolute angular acceleration of the gyroscope along system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 3. components of the absolute linear velocity of the point P along the system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 4. components of the absolute linear velocity of the point P along the system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1
PROBLEMS.
73
Problem 24
z2 z3 z1 z1 3 o3 y3
2 x1 o1 Z R L
x3
o1 y1 o2 y2
21
y1
x1 x2
O X Y
Figure 25 Fig. 25 shows the sketch of a Ferris Wheel. Its base 1 oscillates about the horizontal axis X of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angular displacement . The wheel 2 of radius R rotates with respect to the base 1 with the constant velocity 21 about axis y1 of the body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is rigidly attached to the wheel 2. The seat 3 is free to rotate about axis y3 and its relative position is determined by the angular position . Produce the expressions for 1. the components of the absolute angular velocity of the seat 3 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 Answer: 3 = i2 ( cos ) + j2 ( 21 + ) + k2 ( sin ) 2. the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the seat 3 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 Answer: 3 = i2 ( cos 21 sin sin ) + j2 () + k2 ( sin + 21 cos cos ) 3. the components of the absolute linear velocity of the point o3 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 Answer: vo3 = i2 (21 R) + j2 (L R cos ) + k2 (0)
PROBLEMS.
74
Problem 25
y1 y1 Y A A x1 f O y1 y2 Y O z1 X 1 2
2 A L
1 f Z z1 z2 P
x2
Z z1 P z2

X x1
OA
x1
x2
a)
b)
Figure 26 The link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 26 rotates about the horizontal axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angular displacement . The system of coordinates x1 y1 z is attached to the link 1. The link 2 is free to rotate about the axis y1 and its relative angular position is determined by the angle . The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is attached to the link 2. The dimensions f and L locate position of the point P with respect to this system of coordinates. Produce 1. the components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: 2 = i2 ( sin ) + j2 () + k2 ( cos ) 2. the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 .
PROBLEMS.
75
Answer: 2 = i2 ( sin cos ) + j2 () + k2 ( cos sin ) 3. the components of the absolute linear velocity of the point P along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: vP = i2 (L f cos ) + j2 (L sin ) + k2 (f sin )
PROBLEMS.
76
Problem 26
z1 Z z1
0 y1 x1 o1
O Y(t )
o1
Y z2 L
P y2 o2 x2 o2
Figure 27 Figure 27 shows the suspension of the casting ladle 2. The point o1 of the carriage 1 moves along the horizontal axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Its motion is determined by the displacement Y (t). This carriage is free to rotate about the axis x1 of the body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . Its angular position is given by the function of time (t). The ladle 2 rotates about the axis y2 of the body 2 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Its relative angular position is determined by the angle (t). Produce: 1. the expression for the components of the absolute angular velocity of the ladle 2 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: 2 = i2 cos + j2 + k2 sin 2. the expression for the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the ladle 2 along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 . Answer: 2 = i2 ( cos sin ) + j2 + k2 ( sin + cos ) 3. the components of the absolute velocity of the point P along the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 .
PROBLEMS.
77
Answer: vP = i2 (Y sin sin + Y cos sin + Y sin cos + L cos )+ +j2 (Y cos Y sin )+ sin cos Y cos cos + Y sin sin + L sin )+ +k2 (Y i2 j2 k2 + cos sin Y sin sin + L sin a Y cos Y sin cos L cos + b
PROBLEMS.
78
Problem 27
Z z1 z2 G a O R 1 A
2 P
y2 3 y1
c b Y
a x1 X
Figure 28
x2
Fig. 28 shows the physical model of a mechanical system. The link 1 of this system rotates about the vertical axes Z of the inertial frame XYZ. Its instantaneous position is given by the absolute angular displacement . The system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 is rigidly attached to the link 1. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the point A. The other end of this link P always stays in contact with the cylindrical surface 3 of radius R (b>R). The system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 is attached to the body 2 and coincides with its principal axes. The link 2 possesses the mass m and its principal moments of inertia about the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 are I x2 , I y2 and I z2 . Its centre of gravity G is located by the distance c. The angular displacement determines the relative position of the link 2 with respect to the system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 . Produce: 1. The expression for the components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and 2. The expression for the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and 3. The expression for the components of the absolute velocity of the point P
PROBLEMS.
79
along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and 4. The kinetic energy of the link 2 as a function of and . 5. The expression for the angular displacement as a function of .
Chapter 3 KINETICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES.

Z
m r F
O Y X
Figure 1 Newton second law for a single particle (see Fig. 1) can be formulated in the following form d F = (m ) r (3.1) dt where F - is the resultant force acting on the particle m - mass of the particle r - is its absolute velocity. If the mass is constant, the second law can be rewritten in more simple way. F = m r (3.2)
If the position vector r and force F are determined by its components along the absolute rectangular system of coordinates (r = IrX + JrY + KrZ , F = IFX + JFY + KFZ ) the above equation is equivalent to three scalar equations. r FX = mX FY = mY r FZ = mZ r
(3.3)
If number of particles n is relatively low, we are able to produce free body diagram for each particle separately and create 3n dierential equations which permit each
KINETICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES.
81
dynamic problem to be solved. But, if number of particles approaches innity this way of solving dynamic problems fails. This chapter is concerned with formulation of equations of motion of any system of particles regardless of their number and internal forces acting between the individual particles. Because each continuum (uid, gas, rigid or elastic body) can be considered as system of particles, the derived equations form a base for development of many branches of mechanics (uid mechanics, solid mechanics, etc.).
Fi Z ri O Y X
Figure 2
Fij
mi r ij rj mj Fji Fj
Since the internal forces are to be eliminated from equations of motion, the resultant P force F have to be resolved into resultant of all internal forces N Fij and resultant j=1 of all external forces Fi acting on the i th particle (see Fig. 2). F = Fi + Here N represents number of particles involved Fi represents resultant of all forces coming from sources external to the system considered (gravity force or any force explicitly determined in time). Fij - represents internal force acting on a particle i as result of interaction with a particle j. Hence, the second Newton law may be adopted in the following form r mi = Fi +
N X j=1 N X j=1
Fij
(3.4)
Fij
(3.5)
According to the third Newton law we can assume that Fij = Fji and Fii = Fjj = 0 (3.6)
MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS - LINEAR MOMENTUM.
82
3.1
MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS - LINEAR MOMENTUM.
Let us consider system of N particles in an inertial space. The motion of an individual particle mi is dened by the position vector ri (Fig. 3).
mi ri rG G
O Y X
Figure 3
DEFINITION: The following vector P= PN

i=1
mi ri
(3.7)
is called inertial linear momentum of the system of particles. The rst derivative of the linear momentum is P= According to Newton second law P=
N N N N N X X X XX (Fi + Fij ) = Fi + Fij i=1 j=1 i=1 i=1 j=1 N X i=1
mii r
(3.8)
(3.9)
Taking into account that according to Eq. 3.6 Fij = Fji and Fii = Fjj = 0 the formula 3.9 can be rewritten in form P= PN
i=1
Fi = Fex
(3.10)
The last formula permits to formulate the following statement. STATEMENT: The rate of change of the linear momentum of a system of particles is equal to the resultant of all external forces acting on the system of particles.
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM.
83
Let vector rG be the position vector of the centre of mass of a system of particles (Fig. 3 ). According to the denition of a centre of particles we have rG m = where
N X i=1
ri mi
(3.11)
P m = N mi - is the total mass of the system of particles. i=1 Dierentiating the equation 3.11 with respect to time one can obtain rG m =
N X i=1
ri mi = P
(3.12)
Second dierentiation yields G m = P r Hence, according to Eq. 3.10 is G m = Fex r The last result permits the following statement to be formulated. STATEMENT: The centre of mass of a system of particles moves as if the entire mass of the system was concentrated at that point and all external forces were applied there. 3.2 MOMENT OF MOMENTUM. (3.14) (3.13)
Considering system of particles, always three kinds of moment of momentum (angular momentum) are introduced. 1. Angular momentum about a xed point in the inertial space. 2. Angular momentum about a moving point in the inertial space. 3. Relative angular momentum about a moving point in the inertial space. In this paragraph the three above types of angular momentum are dened and discussed. 3.2.1 Moment of momentum about a xed point in the inertial space. Let mi be a particle which belongs to a system of N particles and ri be its position vector in the inertial space XY Z (Fig. 4). DEFINITION: The following vector HO = PN
i=1 ri
(mi ri )
(3.15)
is called angular momentum about the xed point O. The rst derivative of angular momentum is HO =
N N N X X X ( i (mi ri )) + r (ri (mii )) = r (ri (mii )) r i=1 i=1 i=1
(3.16)
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM.
84
mi ri
O Y X
Figure 4 Applying the second Newton law to the equation 3.16 we have HO =
N X i=1
ri (Fi +
N X j=1
Fij ) =
N X i=1
ri Fi +
N N XX i=1 j=1
ri Fij
(3.17)
To show that the last term is equal to zero, let us consider two particles mi and mj (Fig. 5)
Fij ri
mi r ij rj Y mj
X
Figure 5
From the above gure one can see that ri Fij + rj Fji = ri Fij rj Fij = (ri rj ) Fij = rij Fij Since vectors rij and Fij are parallel then ri Fij + rj Fji = 0 Taking into account the above equation, one may say that
N N XX i=1 j=1
(3.18)
(3.19)
ri Fij = 0
(3.20)
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM.
85
and the equation 3.17 takes form HO =

N X i=1
ri Fi
(3.21)
The left hand side of equation 3.21 represents resultant moment MO of all external forces acting on the system of particles with respect to the xed point O. Hence, we may conclude this paragraph with the following statement. STATEMENT: The rate of change of the angular momentum of a system of particles about a xed point is equal to the sum of moments of all external forces acting on the system of particles about that point. HO = MO (3.22)
3.2.2 Moment of momentum about a moving point in an inertial space. Let motion of the point C (6) be dened by the position vector rC and let us denote by mi an arbitrarily chosen particle of a system assembled out of N particles.
Z mi r i,C ri O Y X rC C
Figure 6
If the motion of the particle mi is determined by vector ri , the relative motion of the particle mi with respect to the point C is determined by the formula (3.23). ri,C = ri rC DEFINITION: The following vector HC = PN
i=1 ri,C
(3.23)
(mi ri )
(3.24)
is called angular momentum about the moving point C. Its rst derivative is HC =
N X i=1 N X i=1
ri,C (mi ri ) +
ri,C (mii ) r
(3.25)
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM.
86
Introducing Eq. 3.23 into Eq. 3.25 and taking advantage from the second Newton law, the rst derivative of the angular momentum can be written as follow. HC = But
N X i=1
ri (mi ri )
N X i=1
rC (mi ri ) +
N X i=1
ri,C (Fi +
N X j=1
Fij )
(3.26)
PN r (mi ri ) = 0 since ri is parallel to mi ri, PN Pi=1 i N i=1 ri,C j=1 Fij = 0 because ri,C Fij + rj,C Fji = (ri,C rj,C ) Fij = rij Fij = 0 (see Fig. 7)
mj Z Fi,j ri O Y X rC ri,j mi rj r i,C rj,C C c
Figure 7
Hence HC = where
N X i=1
rC (mi ri ) +
N X i=1
ri,C Fi = C P + MC r
(3.27)
P P = N (mi ri ) - is the linear momentum of the system considered i=1 PN MC = i=1 ri,C Fi - is resultant moment of all external forces about the moving point C. According to consideration curried out in chapter 2 section 1, P = rG m. Hence r HC = C rG m + MC (3.28)
If the arbitrarily chosen point C coincides the gravity centre G ( C = rG ), the above r formula yields HG = MG (3.29) The last relationship allows to formulate the following statement. STATEMENT: The rate of change of angular momentum about centre of gravity of a system of particles is equal to moment about that centre of all external forces acting on the system of particles.
MOMENT OF MOMENTUM.
87
3.2.3 Moment of relative momentum. Let us once more consider a system of particles shown in Fig. 8 and the arbitrarily chosen point C.
Z mi ri O Y X rC G r i,C r G,C C
Figure 8
DEFINITION: The following vector hC = PN

i=1 ri,C
( i,C mi ) r
(3.30)
is called moment of relative momentum. Its rst derivative is hC = But, according to Fig 8, ri,C = ri rC Hence ri,C = ri rC and i,C = i C r r r (3.33) The rst term in the right hand side of equation 3.31 is equal to 0. Hence, introduction of Eq. 3.33 into it yields hC = =
N X i=1 N X i=1 N X i=1 N X i=1
ri,C ( i,C mi ) + r
N X i=1
ri,C (i,C mi ) r
(3.31)
(3.32)
ri,C (i mi ) r ri,C (Fi +
N X j=1
N X i=1
ri,C (C mi ) r
N X (ri,C mi ) i=1
Fij ) + C r
N X i=1
ri,C Fi + C r
(ri,C mi ) (3.34)
= MC + C mrG,C r
EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR FIRST INTEGRALS.
88
If C always coincides the centre of gravity G (rG,C = 0), moment of the relative angular momentum about the systems centre of gravity is hG = MG The above considerations allows to formulate the following statement. STATEMENT: The rate of change of the relative angular momentum about the centre of gravity is equal to moment of all external forces acting on the system of particles about that centre. Taking into account that the right hand sides of equations 3.35 and 3.29 are equal, we arrive to conclusion that HG = hG and HG = hG (3.36) (3.35)
The last expression is obvious because for motionless system of particles both moments of momentum are equal to 0. 3.3 EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR FIRST INTEGRALS.
In the previous sections of this chapter four vectorial equations has been derived. Not all of them are independent. The independent pairs of equations are. P=F P=F P=F (3.37) HG = MG HO = MO hG = MG Depending on the dynamic problem to be solved, we can choose one of these three pairs of equations. Each of them is equivalent to six scalar equations. It means, that these problems can only be solved, without additional equations expressing interaction between individual particles, which have six scalar unknown only. Very small range of dynamic problems full these requirements. 3.3.1 Conservation of momentum principle. Let us assumed that the component of the resultant of all external forces F along the xed in the inertial space axis dened by the unit vector is equal to zero.
Z
O Y X
Figure 9
89
The scalar multiplication of P = F by the unit vector yields the following scalar equation P=F=0 (3.38) Hence, P = const (3.39)
STATEMENT: If component of a resultant of all external forces along a xed in an inertial space axis is equal to zero, its momentum is conserved along that axis ( P = const). 3.3.2 Conservation of angular momentum principle. Let us assumed that the component of the resultant moment MO of all external forces F along the xed in the inertial space axis dened by the unit vector is equal to zero.
Z MO
O Y X
Figure 10
The scalar multiplication of equation HO = MO by the unit vector , results in the following scalar relationship HO = MO = 0 Hence, HO = const (3.41) (3.40)
STATEMENT: If component of a resultant moment MO of all external forces along a xed in an inertial space axis is equal to zero, its angular momentum is conserved along that axis.
90
can be integrated with respect to time. Z t Z t Z t Z t Pdt = HO dt = Fdt, MO dt, to to to to Z t Z t Z t Z t G dt = G dt = H MG dt, MG dt h

to to to to
3.3.3 Impulse momentum principle. If the resultant force and moment of all external forces are explicit functions of time, the derived equations of motion P=F P=F P=F (3.42) HO = MO HG = MG hG = MG
(3.43)
- increment of the linear momentum Z t HO dt = HO (t) HO (to ) = HO

to
The following expression are called respectively Z t Pdt = P(t) P(to ) = P

to
(3.44)
(3.45)
- increment of the angular momentum about point O Z t HG dt = HG (t) HG (to ) = HG

to
(3.46)
- increment of the angular momentum about G Z t hG dt = hG (t) hG (to ) = hG

to
(3.47)
- increment of the relative angular momentum about G Z t Fdt = UF

to
(3.48)
- the linear impulse
-the angular impulse about point O Z
MO dt = UMO
t
(3.49)
to
MG dt = UMG
(3.50)
to
-the angular impulse about point G Introduction of the above notations into 3.43 yields P = UF , HO = UMO , HG = hG = UMG (3.51) The above formulae allows to formulate the following statement STATEMENT: For any system of particles an increment of the linear (angular) momentum is equal to the linear (angular) impulse of all external forces.
PROBLEMS.
91
3.4
PROBLEMS.
Problem 28
Figure 11 On a massless and free to rotate about the vertical axis Z table, two dogs take position at B and S as shown in Fig. 11. The dog B has a mass mB greater then that of the dog S (mB > mS ).At the instant t = 0, when a food was placed outside the table at F , the dogs as well as the table were motionless. Show, that regardless of relative velocities developed by the dogs with respect to the table, the small dog S will reach the food rst.
PROBLEMS.
92
Solution
. RB B RB F . RS RS O S Y
Figure 12 According to the introduced denition (see Eq. 3.15), the angular momentum of the system considered about xed in the inertial space point O (see Fig. 12) in arbitrarily chosen instance of time is HO = RB mB RB + RS mS RS = K(mB RB RB + mS RS RS )
(3.52)
This angular momentum has to be equal to zero since the system is conserved about the vertical axis Z and at the beginning the system was motionless. Taking into account that RS = RB = R, we have mB RS = RB mS (3.53)
Since mB > 1, the absolute velocity of the small dog RS is always greater then the mS absolute velocity of the big dog RB .
PROBLEMS.
93
Problem 29
1
2 D
A R d
Figure 13 The sprinkler shown in Fig. 13 distributes water of density at the volume rate Q. Each of the two nozzles has the exit area equal to A. The friction moment between the rotating part 1 and the stationary one 2 is equal M. Produce expression for the steady state angular velocity of the rotating part 1. The diameter d of the nozzle as well as D are small as compare with the distance R shown in the drawing 13.
PROBLEMS.
94
Solution
F O x G p E
B vR
F O
Z,z
A R
Z,z
B vA
X M x X O
B vT
y Y
y Y
a)
Figure 14
b)
Let us consider the system of particles limited by the boundary shown in Fig. 14a) by the dash-dot line. This system is assembled of the rotating part 1 and water that is shadowed in Fig. 14a). Axes XY Z forms the inertial system of coordinates and axes xyz are attached to the part 1. The forces F represents external forces acting on the system of particles due to its interaction with the stationary part 2. The resultant force due to gravitation is denoted by G. The friction between the rotating and stationary part of the sprinkler is represented by moment M. The pressure p is due to interaction of particles of water that belong to the system and the cut-o stream of water. All the above specied forces should be classied as external with respect to the system considered. The atmospheric pressure is evenly distributed over the entire outer surface of the system of particles. Since its resultant is always equal to zero, it is not shown in this diagram. Position of the particles shown in the Fig. 14a) corresponds to an arbitrarily chosen instant of time t. Fig. 14b) presents position of these particles after a small increment in time t. The increment in the linear momentum associated with the increment of time t is due to volume of water B and C as well as loss of water in the volume E. Let us produce expression for the linear momentum of particles in the volume B. If the diameter of the nozzle is small with respect to the distance R, one can assume B that all particles that belong to the volume B have the same absolute velocity vA . Therefore the increment in the linear momentum is
B PB = mB vA
(3.54)
PROBLEMS.
95
HE = 0 (3.60) O Hence the total increment in the angular momentum is Q B C E 2 (3.61) HO =HO + HO + HO = k m(R R cos ) A where m is m = mB + mC = Q t (3.62) To solve the problem, one may take advantage of the angular momentum - angular impulse principle. HO = UMO (3.63) where UMO = kMt (3.64) Introduction of 3.61, 3.62 and 3.64 into 3.63 yields Q Q t(R2 R cos )t = Mt (3.65) A Hence the wanted angular speed of the sprinkler is =
Q2 R cos A
where mB stands for total mass of particles in the volume B and is equal to 1 mB = Qt (3.55) 2 B B The absolute velocity vA is equal to sum of the velocity of transportation vT and the B relative velocity vR . i j k Q Q B B B 0 0 + j( ) = vA = vT + vR = R + i = A A R cos R sin 0 Q (3.56) = i(R sin ) + j(R cos ) + k(0) A Hence Q B B P = m i(R sin ) + j(R cos ) (3.57) A Increment in the angular momentum about xed point O is i j k R sin 0 = HB = R PB = mB R cos O R sin R cos Q 0 A Q B 2 = k m (R R cos ) (3.58) A In the same manner one may produce expressions for increment in the angular momentum of particles associated with the volume C and E. Q C C 2 (3.59) HO = k m (R R cos ) A
R2
(3.66)
Chapter 4 KINETICS OF RIGID BODY.

4.1 LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM.
According to consideration presented in chapter 2, motion of a rigid body may be determined by its angular velocity and the position vector ro which denes motion of the origin o of the body system of coordinates xyz. (Fig. 1).
z Z ri rG ro x X i ri,o G z x y dm
rG,o o y Y
Figure 1 The rigid body can be considered as a system of particles assembled of innitesimal elements dm which positions with respect to the body frame is given by the position vector ri,o . The mass of an individual element dm is dm = (xyz)dxdydz (4.1)
where is density. Hence, the total mass of the rigid body can be expressed as follow Z ZZZ (xyz)dxdydz = dm (4.2) m=
V m
The centre of gravity of the rigid body, according to the above notations, with respect to the body system of coordinates is Z 1 rG,o = ri,o dm (4.3) m
m
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM.
97
According to consideration in the previous chapter linear momentum P is P = rG m where rG = ro + rG,o = ro + r0G,o + rG,o = ro + rG,o Introducing Eq. 4.5 into Eq. 4.4 one can obtain P = ( o + rG,o )m r Angular relative momentum of the element dm with respect to the origin o is dho = ri,o ri,o dm = ri,o (r0i ,o + ri,o )dm = ri,o (+ ri,o )dm Hence, the total angular relative momentum has form Z ho = ri,o (+ ri,o )dm
m
(4.4) (4.5)
(4.6)
(4.7)
(4.8)
Let us calculate the triple cross product, ri,o ( ri,o ) = (ri,o ri,o ) ri,o (ri,o ) (4.9)
If both vectors involved are given by their components along the body system of coordinates, namely = i x + j y + kz the triple product is as follows. ri,o ( ri,o ) = (i x + j y + k z )(x2 + y 2 + z 2 ) (ix + jy + kz)(x x + y y + z z ) = i( x (y 2 + z 2 ) xyy xz z ) +j( y (x2 + z 2 ) yx x yz z ) (4.11) +k(z (x2 + y 2 ) zxx zy y ) Hence ho = i(+ x +j( x Z (y + z )dm y yxdm + y Z
2 2
and
ri,o = ix + jy + kz
(4.10)
m Z
xydm z
(x2 + z 2 )dm z zydm + z Z
+k( x
zxdm y
m Z
xzdm) yzdm) (4.12)
(x2 + y 2 )dm)
LINEAR AND ANGULAR MOMENTUM.
98
Introducing notations R Ix = (y 2 + z 2 )dm,

m
Ixy =
the components of vector ho ,according to 4.12, are hox = Ix x Ixy y Ixz z hoy = Iyx x + Iy y Iyz z hoz = Izx x Izy y + Iz z
R Iy = (x2 + z 2 )dm,
m
xy dm,
Iyz =
R Iz = (x2 + y 2 )dm
m
yz dm,
Ixz =
xz dm
(4.13)
(4.14)
where: Ix , Iy , Iz are called moments of inertia and Ixy , Iyz , Ixz are called products of inertia. The above relations can be written in the following matrix form. hox x Ix Ixy Ixz hoy = Iyx Iy Iyz y (4.15) hoz Izx Izy Iz z or shorter {ho } = [I]{} (4.16) Matrix [I] is called inertia matrix. The formula 4.16 produces components of vector ho along body system of coordinates. Matrix {} is assembled of components of angular velocity along body system of coordinates.
Z i ri dm
G rG z x y Y
O y X x
Figure 2
For the particular case of rotational motion of the rigid body about the xed in the inertial space point O (see Fig. 2) the angular momentum is Z Z Z (4.17) HO = dHO = ri ri dm = ri (ri )dm
m m m
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OF INERTIA.
99
or in the matrix form {HO } = [I]{} 4.2 PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OF INERTIA. (4.18)
The introduced denitions of moment of inertia e.g. Z Ix = (y 2 + z 2 )dm

m
(4.19)
and product of inertia e.g. Iyz =
yz dm
(4.20)
permit elements of the inertia matrix to be calculated for bodies of a simple geometrical shape like a cylinder, sphere, rectangular block etc. As an example let as calculate the moments and products of inertia for the rectangular block shown in Fig. 3.
dm o y x b
Figure 3
c a y
z x
Ix =
ZZZ
Zc Zb Za (y + z )dxdydz = ( ( (y 2 + z 2 )dx)dy)dz
2 2 0 0 0
Zc Z b Zc Z b 2 2 a = ( (y + z )x |0 )dy)dz = a ( (y 2 + z 2 )dy)dz
0 0 0 0
= a
Zc
0
1 ( y 3 |b +z 2 y |b )dz = a 0 0 3
Zc
0
1 ( b3 + z 2 b)dz 3
1 1 1 = a( b3 z |c + z 3 b |c ) = a (b3 c + c3 b) 0 0 3 3 3 1 1 2 2 2 abc(b + c ) = m(b + c2 ) = 3 3
(4.21)
100
In a similar manner the remaining elements may be calculated. The result of such calculations is collected in appendix B. For bodies having more complicated shape (see Fig. 4) a division into small elements have to be carried out.
mi
zi yi x
Figure 4
y xi
Then, each element can be considered as a particle and the integration may be replaced by summation.
N X 2 (yi + zi2 )mi Ix i=1
(4.22)
Let a, b, c be coordinates of the centre of gravity G of the body considered. Let xG, yG, zG be the body system of coordinates parallel to xyz having its origin at G.
The following considerations allow us to calculate inertia matrix with respect to any system of coordinates if once it has been established for a system of coordinates. 4.2.1 Parallel axis theorem. Let us assume, that the inertia matrix of a body is known about the body system of coordinates xyz (Fig. 5). Ix Ixy Ixz [I] = Iyx Iy Iyz (4.24) Izx Izy Iz
Eventually, the inertia matrix with respect to the arbitrarily chosen system of coordinates may be analytically established. Ix Ixy Ixz [I] = Iyx Iy Iyz (4.23) Izx Izy Iz
101
zG dm z xG xG O b x y
Figure 5 Moment of inertia of the body along axis x, according to the previously introduced denition, is Z Z 2 2 Ix = (y + z )dm = ((b + yG )2 + (c + zG )2 )dm =
m
zG
yG yG z
c a y x
= =
2 2 (b2 + yG + 2byG + c2 + zG + 2czG )dm
2 (yG
2 zG )dm
b dm + Z
c dm + Z
2byG dm +
2czG dm (4.25)
= IxG + b2 m + c2 m + 2b But, 1 m Z
yG dm + 2c Z
zG dm Z
xG dm,
1 m
zG dm,
1 m
yG dm
(4.26)
represents components of the distance between origin G and the centre of gravity, which is actually 0. Hence, Ix = IxG + m(b2 + c2 ) Now, let us consider a product of inertia. Z Z yzdm = (yG + b)(zG + c)dm Iyz =
m
(4.27)
yG zG dm + c
yG dm + b
zG dm +
bcdm = IyzG + bcm (4.28)
102
The above formula is known as the parallel axes theorem and allows for calculation of inertia matrix about any axes xyz parallel to xG, yG, zG or vise versa. 2 ac b + c2 ab bc [IG ]=[I]-m ba a2 + c2 (4.30) 2 ca cb a + b2 4.2.2 Principal axes. Inertia matrices about axes having the same origin.
Similarly, one may derive expressions for the remained products and moments of inertia. All these equations can be written in the following matrix form. 2 ac b + c2 ab bc [I] = [IG ] + m ba a2 + c2 (4.29) 2 ca cb a + b2
Let us assumed that the matrix of inertia of a body is known about the system of coordinates x1, y1, z1 (see Fig. 6). Introduce new body system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 which has the same origin O, but it is turned with respect to the rst one. The relative position of the system x2 y2 z2 can be uniquely determined by the matrix of direction cosines [C12 ].
z2 z1 dm
t 23 y2 o x1 x2 y1
Figure 6 x1 x2 t11 t12 t13 x1 y2 = [C12 ] y1 = t21 t22 t23 y1 z2 z1 t31 t32 t33 z1
(4.31)
where e.g.t23 = cos(y2 z1 ) If the body rotates with an angular velocity , components of its angular momentum along axes x1 , y1 , z1 , according to Eq. 4.16, are hox1 x1 hoy1 = [I]1 y1 (4.32) hoz1 z1
103
Or in shorter form, {ho }1 = [I]1 {}1 Similarly {ho }2 = [I]2 {}2 But {ho }2 = [C12 ]{h}1 and {}2 = [C12 ]{}1 (4.35) Hence, introducing Eq. 4.35 into 4.34 yields [C12 ]{h}1 = [I]2 [C12 ]{}1 Upon introducing 4.33 into the above formula we have [C12 ][I]1 {}1 = [I]2 [C12 ]{}1 and after a little manipulation one may obtain [I]2 = [C12 ][I]1 [C12 ]T (4.38) (4.37) (4.36) (4.34) (4.33)
The above formula permits to calculate the matrix of inertia along the system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 when the matrix of inertia about the system of coordinates x1 , y1 , z1 is known. Principal axes.
zp z1
yp o x1 xp y1
Figure 7 In this paragraph will be proved existence of such a system of coordinates xp yp zp (see Fig. 7), turned with respect to the arbitrarily chosen system x1 y1 z1 , that all products of inertia about these axes are equal to 0. 0 Ixp 0 [I]p = 0 Iyp 0 (4.39) 0 0 Izp
104
Axes xp yp zp are called principal axes. According to the previous considerations we have [I]p = [C1p ][I]1 [C1p ]T or [C1p ]T [I]p = [I]1 [C1p ]T (4.41) or t11 Ixp t21 Iyp t31 Izp t11 t21 t31 t12 Ixp t12 , [I]1 t22 , [I]1 t32 , t22 Iyp , t32 Izp = [I]1 t13 Ixp t23 Iyp t33 Izp t13 t23 t33 (4.42) The above relationship is fullled if and only if the corresponding columns are identical. Hence, t11 t11 = [I]1 t12 Ixp [1] t12 t13 t13 t21 t21 = [I]1 t22 Iyp [1] t22 t23 t23 t31 t31 Izp [1] t32 = [I]1 t32 (4.43) t33 t33 1 0 0 [1] = 0 1 0 0 0 1 (4.40)
where
The relationships 4.39 form three sets of linear t11 ([I]1 Ixp [1]) t12 t13 t21 ([I]1 Iyp [1]) t22 t23 t31 ([I]1 Izp [1]) t32 t33
The above sets of equations have not trivial solutions if and only if their common characteristic determinant is equal to 0 |[I]1 Ip [1]| = 0
homogeneous equations of form = 0 = 0 = 0 (4.44) (4.45)
105
or
The last equation, if developed, forms an algebraic equation of third order. Hence, it has three roots. It may be proved that for any matrix of inertia [I]1 , the roots of equation 4.46 Ixp , Iyp , Izp are always real and positive. For each of these roots the sets of equations 4.44 becomes linearly dependent. Only two of them within each set are independent and may be used to identify the unknown direction cosines t11 , t12 , t13 . (Ix1 Ixp )t11 + (Ix1 y1 )t12 + (Ix1 z1 )t13 = 0 (Iy1 x1 )t11 + (Iy1 Ixp )t12 + (Iy1 z1 )t13 = 0 Since the direction cosines have to fulll the following relationship t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 11 12 13 (4.48)
Ix1 Ip Ix1 y1 Ix1 z1 Iy1 x1 Iy1 Ip Iy1 z1 Iz1 x1 Iz1 y1 Iz1 Ip
=0
(4.46)
(4.47)
Equations 4.47 and 4.48 form set of equation which determines the direction cosines t11 , t12 , t13 . In similar manner one may obtain equations which allows the other direction cosines to be determined. (Ix1 Iyp )t21 + (Ix1 y1 )t22 + (Ix1 z1 )t23 = 0 (Iy1 x1 )t21 + (Iy1 Iyp )t22 + (Iy1 z1 )t23 = 0 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 21 22 23 (Ix1 Izp )t31 + (Ix1 y1 )t32 + (Ix1 z1 )t33 = 0 (Iy1 x1 )t31 + (Iy1 Izp )t32 + (Iy1 z1 )t33 = 0 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 31 32 33
(4.49)
(4.50)
Solutions of the above equations determine uniquely a position of the principal axes.
106
4.2.3 Problems Problem 30
Figure 8 The gure above shows an element assembled of two identical thin and uniform bars. The bars were welded together at right angles at A. Each of the bars have a length l and mass m. Calculate the principal moments of inertia of the assembly along axes through its centre of gravity. Use the following numerical values; l = 1m, m = 12kg.
107
Solution.
y1 y 3 G1 1 G A G2 l/4 2 x2 x1 y2 x3 l/4
Figure 9 Coordinates of the centre of gravity of the whole assembly are (see Fig. 9) l 4 Inertia matrix about axes x1 y1 z1 for the element 1. ml2 0 0 3 I1,1 = 0 0 0 2 0 0 ml 3 xG = yG = Inertia matrix about axes x1 y1 z1 for the element 2. 0 0 0 2 0 I1,2 = 0 ml 3 ml2 0 0 3 (4.51)
(4.52)
(4.53)
Inertia matrix about axes x2 y2 z2 for the whole assembly. 2 ac b + c2 ab ba a2 + c2 bc I2 = I1 2m 2 ca cb a + b2 ml2 l2 l2 0 0 3 16 16 2 2 l2 = 0 ml 0 2m l

3
Inertia matrix about axes x1 y1 z1 for the whole assembly. ml2 0 0 3 2 I1 = 0 ml 0 3 2ml2 0 0 3
(4.54)
0 0 (4.55)
5 3 0 ml 3 5 0 = 24 0 0 10
2
2ml2 3
16
16
l2 8
108
Hence, inertia matrix about the principal axes x3 y3 z3 2 2 0 5 2 2 2 ml 2 2 T 3 I3 = C23 I2 C23 = 2 0 2 24 0 0 0 1 4 0 0 = 0 1 0 0 0 5
Since axis x3 is axis of symmetry of the body considered, x3 y3 z3 are principal axes. Transfer matrix C23 between axes x2 y2 z2 and x3 y3 z3 is. x3 x2 cos 45o cos 45o cos 90o y3 = cos 135o cos 45o cos 90o y2 z3 cos 90o cos 90o cos 0o z2 2 2 0 x2 2 2 2 y2 2 (4.56) = 0 2 2 z2 0 0 1 is
2 22 0 3 0 2 2 5 0 2 0 2 2 0 10 0 0 1
(4.57)
109
Problem 31
r1 O1 O y l l r2 O2 R2
R1
Figure 10 The rigid body, shown in the gure 10, rotates about a xed point O. To analyze its motion it is necessary to know the principal axes through the point O and principal moments of inertia. Calculate the angular position of the principal axes with respect to the given system of coordinates xyz as well as magnitudes of the principal moments of inertia. The balls 1 and 2 are homogeneous and have masses m1 and m2 respectively whereas the rods can be considered as rigid and massless. Assume the following numerical data: m1 = 1kg - mass of the ball 1 m2 = - mass of the ball 2 2kg r1 = 5/2 m - radius of the ball 1 r2 = 5m- radius of the ball 2 R1 = 1m R2 = 2m l = 1m
110
Solution.
z1 r1 O1 y 1 O y l l r2 O2 R2 y z z2
R1
Figure 11 Moment of inertia of the ball 1 about axes x1 y1 z1 (see Fig. 11) 2 2 Ix1 = Iy1 = Iz1 = m1 r1 = 0.5 kgm2 5 Moment of inertia of the ball 2 about axes x2 y2 z2 2 2 Ix2 = Iy2 = Iz2 = m2 r2 = 4 kgm2 5 (4.59) (4.58)
Coordinates of the points O1 and O2 with respect to system of coordinates xyz are as follow O1 (0, l, R1 ) O2 (0, l, R2 ) (4.60)
Hence, according to parallel axes theorem the matrix of inertia of the ball 1 about system of coordinates xyz is 2 2 0 0 0 (l + R1 ) Ix1 0 2 0 R1 (lR1 ) [I1 ] = 0 Iy1 0 + m1 0 0 Iz1 0 (R1 (l)) l2 2.5 0 0 = 0 1.5 1 kgm2 (4.61) 0 1 1.5 and the matrix of inertia of the ball 2 is 2 2 0 0 0 (l + R2 ) Ix2 0 2 0 R2 (lR2 ) [I2 ] = 0 Iy2 0 + m1 l2 0 0 Iz2 0 (R2 (l)) 14 0 0 (4.62) = 0 12 4 kgm2 0 4 6
111
Principal moments of inertia are roots of the following equation 16.5 Ip 0 0 =0 0 13.5 Ip 5 0 5 7.5 Ip or in a more developed form (16.5 Ip )[(13.5 Ip )(7.5 Ip ) 25] = 0 Root of the above equation are: Ipx = 16.5kgm2 , Ipy = 16.33kgm2 ,
Hence, matrix of inertia of the whole assembly about system of coordinates xyz is 16.5 0 0 [I] = [I1 ] + [I2 ] = 0 13.5 5 kgm2 (4.63) 0 5 7.5
(4.64)
(4.65)
Ipz = 4.67kgm2
(4.66)
The corresponding equations for its elements take form
If matrix of directional cosines between principal axes and the system of coordinates xyz is dened as follow x xp t11 t12 t13 yp = t21 t22 t23 y (4.67) zp t31 t32 t33 z (16.5 Ipx )t11 + (0)t12 + (0)t13 = 0 (0)t11 + (13.5 Ipx )t12 + (5)t13 = 0 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 11 12 13 (16.5 Ipy )t21 + (0)t22 + (0)t23 = 0 (0)t21 + (13.5 Ipy )t22 + (5)t23 = 0 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 21 22 23 (16.5 Ipz )t31 + (0)t32 + (0)t33 = 0 (0)t31 + (13.5 Ipz )t32 + (5)t33 = 0 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 31 32 33
(4.68)
(4.69)
(4.70)
They are fullled for t11 = 1 t12 = 0.00000 t21 = 0 t22 = 0.86700 t31 = 0 t32 = 0.4926 t13 = 0.0000 t23 = 0.4926 t33 = 0.8700
(4.71)
112
Hence, matrix of directional cosines Cxyzxp yp zp is cos 90o cos 90o 1 0 0 cos 0o Cxyzxp yp zp = 0 0.867 0.4926 = cos 90o cos 29.88o cos 60.48o cos 90o cos 119.75o cos 29.88o 0 0.4926 0.87 (4.72) Position of the principal axes with respect to the system of coordinates xyz is shown in Fig 12.
zp z 60.48 o yp 119.75 o O x xp 29.88 o y
Figure 12
113
Problem 32
y
O z
Figure 13 Matrix of inertia of a at object shown in Fig. 13 about axes x, y, z is Ix Ixy Ixz 10 5 0 Iyx Iy Iyz = 5 3 0 kgm2 Izx Izy Iz 0 0 13
Determine position of the principal axes of the object through the origin O.
114
Solution. The principal moments of inertia can be obtained by solving the following equation. 10 Ip 5 0 5 =0 0 3 Ip (4.73) 0 0 13 Ip which can be developed as follow
2 (Ip 3Ip 10Ip + 30 25)(13 Ip ) = 0
(4.74)
Hence Ipx Ipy Ipz 169 20 = 12.6 = 2 13 169 20 = 0.4 = 2 = 13kgm2 13 +
(4.75)
Since the object is at, the principal axis zp must coincide the axis z. The directional cosines between the principal axis xp and axes x and y may be obtained from the following set of equations. (10 12.6)t11 + (5)t12 = 0 t2 + t2 = 0 11 12 From Eq. 4.76 one can get t11 = 5 t12 = 1.92t12 2.6 (4.78) (4.76) (4.77)
Introduction of Eq. 4.78 into Eq. 4.77 yields 3.7t2 + t2 = 1 12 12 Hence t012 1 = 0.46 =+ 4.7 r 1 t12 = = 0.46 4.7 t011 = 0.885 t11 = 0.885 Corresponding angles are (xp , x)0 = arccos(t011 ) = 152.5o (xp , y)0 = arccos(t012 ) = 62.5o r (4.79)
(4.80) (4.81) (4.82) (4.83)
Equation 4.78 yields
(4.84)
115
(xp , x) = arccos(t11 ) = 27.5o (xp , y) = arccos(t12 ) = 117.5o

y yp
(4.85)
117.5 o O z 27.5o xp x
Figure 14 The solution 4.119 have to be neglected since those angles determine left handed system of coordinates and this is in disagreement with the adopted assumptions. The only possible position of axes xp and yp with respect to system of coordinates xy is shown in Fig. 14
116
Problem 33
y b C y x
Figure 15 The rectangular plate, shown in Fig. 15, rotates about axis x x. Determine moment of inertia of the plate about this axis of rotation. Given are: a, b - length of sides of the plate. - angle between side a and the axis of rotation x x. m - mass of the plate. Moment of inertia of the rectangular plate about axis y y is determine by the following formula 1 Iy = mb2 12
117
Problem 34
2r
Figure 16 The cam shown in Fig. 16 can be considered as a thin, at, uniform and rigid body of mass M. Compute the principal moments of inertia of the cam about axes through the point O. Given are: r = 1[m], M = 20[kg] Answer: Ipx = 16.375kgm2 Ipy = 21.625kgm2 Ipz = 38kgm2
118
Problem 35
y (a) (b)
l1 l2
l/2
yG xG
90 o
Figure 17 Two uniform and rigid rods of length l1 and l2 are joined together to form a rigid body (see Fig. 17a). Their masses are m1 and m2 respectively. Determine matrix of inertia of this body about axis xyz. Moments of inertia of the uniform rod of length l and mass m, shown in Fig. 17b, about axis through its centre of gravity G are as follows. IxG = 0, IyG = IzG = 1 2 ml 12
119
Problem 36
yG
l1
G xG 1 2
l2
Figure 18 To nd its matrix of inertia, the golf club shown in Fig. 18 was approximated by the slender rod 1 and the particle 2. Mass of the rod and the particle is m1 and m2 respectively. Produce 1. expression for the matrix of inertia of the golf club about axes xG yG zG through its centre of gravity G. Answer: 1 m l2 b2 (m1 +m2 ) ab(m1 + m2 ) 0 3 1 1 2 ab(m1 + m2 ) m2 l2 a2 (m1 +m2 ) 0 IG = 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 m l +m2 l2 (a +b )(m1 +m2 ) 3 1 1
m 2 l2 where a = mm+m2 b = 2(m11 l1 2 ) +m 1 2. expression for the principal moments of inertia about axes through the centre of gravity Answer: The principal moment of inertia are solution of the following equation 1 2 m1 l1 b2 (m1 +m2 ) Ip ab(m1 + m2 ) 0 3 2 [m2 l2 a2 (m1 +m2 )] Ip 0 ab(m1 + m2 ) 1 2 2 m1 l1 +m2 l2 (a2 +b2 )(m1 +m2 ) Ip 0 0 3
=0
120
Problem 37
l1
2 G
l2
Figure 19 Two uniform bars of length l 1 and l 2 and mass m 1 and m 2 respectively were joined together to form the rigid body shown in Fig. B2. Produce: 1. The expression for the coordinates of the centre of gravity G of the rigid body. Answer: m m xG = 2(m12 l2 2 ) ; yG = 2(m11 l1 2 ) +m +m 2. The matrix of inertia of the rigid body about axes xyz. Answer: 2 m1 l1 0 0 3 2 m2 l2 I= 0 0 3 1 2 2 0 0 (m1 l1 + m2 l2 ) 3 3. The principal moments of inertia about the axes through the center of gravity G. Answer: = IG 2 m1 l1 2 (m1 + m2 )yG (m1 + m2 )xG yG 0 3 2 m2 l2 = (m1 + m2 )xG yG = (m1 + m2 )x2 0 G 3 1 2 2 2 2 0 0 (m1 l1 + m2 l2 ) (m1 + m2 ) (xG + yG ) 3 IxG yG 0 IxG IyG 0 = IxG yG 0 0 IzG 4. The matrix of directional cosines between the system of coordinates xyz and the principal axes through the center of gravity G. Answer: 2 (IxG +IyG ) (IxG +IyG )2 4(IxG IyG IxG yG ) Ixp = 2 2 (IxG +IyG )+ (IxG +IyG )2 4(IxG IyG IxG yG ) Iyp = 2 Izp = IzG
121
The moment of inertia of a uniform bar of mass m and length l about the axis through its center of gravity is IG = 1 ml2 12
122
Problem 38
3 l 2 1
O Y l
l X
Figure 20 Three uniform rods each of mass m and length l are joined together to form the rigid body shown in Fig. 20. Produce 1. The matrix of inertia of the body about axes XY Z 2. The principal moments of inertia about axes through the point O 3. The matrix of directional cosines that locate the principal axes through the point O in relation to the system of coordinates XY Z.
123
Solution.
Z 3
G3(a,b,c) 2 1 O
l c=l/2
Y l
b=l X
Figure 21 The matrix of inertia of the rod 1 about axes XY Z. 0 0 0 I1O = 0 1 0 ml2 3 0 0 1 3
(4.86)
The matrix of inertia of the rod 2 about axes XY Z. 1 0 0 3 I2O = 0 0 0 ml2 0 0 1 3
(4.87)
The matrix of inertia of the rod 3 about axes XY Z. 2 ac b + c2 ab bc I3O = I1G3 + m ba a2 + c2 2 ca cb a + b2 2 1 l 0 l + ( 2 )2 0 0 0 12 2 1 l 0 ( 2 )2 l2 = 0 12 0 ml2 + m 2 0 0 0 0 l2 l2 4 0 0 3 = 0 1 1 ml2 3 2 0 1 1 2
124
The matrix of inertia of the body about axes XY Z. IO = I1O + I2O + I3O = 1 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 3 = 0 1 0 ml2 + 0 0 0 ml2 + 0 1 1 ml2 3 3 2 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 3 3 2 5 0 0 3 = 0 2 1 ml2 3 2 5 0 1 3 2
(4.88)
5 2 ml = 1.666ml2 : 1.873ml2 : 0.459ml2 3 Taking into consideration the matrix of inertia IO , one can see that Z Z XY dm = 0 and XZdm = 0
m m
The principal moments of inertia about axes through the origin O are roots of the following equation 5 2 ml Ip 0 0 3 2 1 2 2 0 ml Ip 2 ml = 0 (4.89) 3 5 0 1 ml2 ml2 Ip 2 3 They are (4.90)
(4.91)
Therefore the axis X coincides with the principal axis Xp and the root associated with the rst raw of the determinant 4.91 ( 5 ml2 = 1.666ml2 ) stands for the moment 3 of inertia about the principal axis Xp . IXp = 1.666ml2 (4.92)
Indeed, if the matrix of directional cosines is of the following form t11 t12 t13 cosh(Xp X) cosh(Xp Y ) cosh(Xp Z) CXY ZXp Yp Zp = t21 t22 t23 = cosh(Yp X) cosh(Yp Y ) cosh(Yp Z) cosh(Zp X) cosh(Zp Y ) cosh(Zp Z) t31 t32 t33 (4.93) the equations for determination of its elements associated with the above root are 5 ( 1.666)t11 + (0) t12 + (0) t13 = 0 3 2 (0) t11 + ( 1.666)t12 (0.5) t13 = 0 3 5 (0) t11 (0.5) t12 + ( 1.666)t13 = 0 3
(4.94)
The rst equation is fullled for any magnitudes of t11 , t12 and t13 . The two last equations if and only if t12 = t13 = 0. Because t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 11 12 13 (4.95)
125
the magnitude of t11 must be 1. Hence h(Xp X) = 0, h(Xp Y ) = 90o h(Xp Z) = 90o Let us assign the remaining roots as follows IY p = 1.873ml2 and IZp = 0.459ml2 (4.97) (4.96)
The axis Y is located by the directional cosines linked with second raw of 4.93. They are 5 ( 1.873)t21 + (0)t22 + (0) t23 = 0 3 2 (0) t21 + ( 1.873)t22 (0.5) t23 = 0 3 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 21 22 23 They are fullled for t21 = 0, t22 = 0.3823, t23 = 0.9236 Hence the angles between axis Yp and XY Z are h(Yp X) = 90o , h(Yp Y ) = 67.52o h(Yp Z) = 157.45 h(Yp X) = 90o , h(Yp Y ) = 112.47o h(Yp Z) = 22.54 (4.100) (4.101) (4.99)
(4.98)
The axis Z is located by the directional cosines linked with third raw of 4.93. They are 5 ( 0.459)t31 + (0)t32 + (0) t33 = 0 3 2 (0) t31 + ( 0.459)t32 (0.5) t33 = 0 3 t2 + t2 + t2 = 1 31 32 33 These equations are fullled for t31 = 0, t32 = 0.92360, t33 = 0.3823 Hence the angles between axis Zp and XY Z are h(Zp X) = 90o , h(Zp Y ) = 22.54o h(Zp Z) = 67.52o h(Zp X) = 90o , h(Zp Y ) = 157.45 h(Zp Z) = 112.47o The analysis oers two acceptable solutions shown in Fig. 22 (4.104) (4.105) (4.103)
(4.102)

Yp(2) Z
126
67.52o Zp(1)
X Y 22.54o Zp(2)
Yp(1)
Figure 22 To verify the result obtained let us transfer the inertia matrix from the system (1) (1) (1) of coordinates X, Y, Z into Xp , Yp , Zp .The matrix of directional cosines is t11 t12 t13 1 0 0 CXY ZXp Yp(1) Zp = t21 t22 t23 = 0 0.3823 0.9236 (4.106) (1) (1) t31 t32 t33 0 0.92360 0.3823 Hence I(1) = CXY ZXp Yp(1) Zp IO CT ZX (1) Y (1) Z (1) (1) (1) p XY p p p 5 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 3 = 0 0.3823 0.9236 0 2 1 0 0.382 3 0.923 6 3 2 5 0 1 3 0 0.923 6 0.382 3 0 0.92360 0.3823 2 1.6667 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.8723 0.0 = (4.107) 0.0 0.0 0.45919
As one can see this transformation results in the diagonal matrix having elements equal to the principal moments of inertia IXp = 1.666ml2 , IY p = 1.873ml2 and IZp = 0.459ml2
(4.108)
KINETIC ENERGY.
127
4.3
KINETIC ENERGY.
4.3.1 Rotational motion. DEFINITION: It is said that a rigid body performs the rotational motion if one point of the body considered, due to its constraints, is motionless with respect to the inertial space. The kinetic energy of a particle of mass dm (see Fig. 23) is 1 1 dT = r2 dm = ri ri dm i (4.109) 2 2 where ri is the position vector of the particle. If the vector ri is given by its com-
dm
ri O X x
Figure 23 ponents along the body system of coordinates rotating with angular velocity , the above expression may be developed as follow 1 1 1 dT = ri (r0i + ri )dm = ri ( ri )dm = (ri ri )dm 2 2 2 But, according to consideration in the previous chapter (ri ri )dm = dHO 1 dT = dHO 2 Upon integrating of Eq. 4.111 over the entire body we are nally getting x T = 1 HO = 1 [x , y , z ][I] y 2 2 z where Hence (4.111) (4.110)
(4.112)
x , y , z -are components of the absolute angular velocity of the body along a body system of coordinates [I] is the inertia matrix about that system of coordinates.
KINETIC ENERGY.
128
4.3.2 General motion. DEFINITION: It is said that a rigid body performs the general motion if its motion can not be classied as the rotational one. Kinetic energy of a particle dm of a rigid body (see Fig. 24) is 1 dT = r2 dm 2 i In the general motion its position vector ri may be dened as follows (4.113)
dm
ri rG
ri,G G y
O x X
Figure 24 ri = rG +ri,G Introducing Eq. 4.114 into Eq. 4.113 one can obtain that 1 1 i,G r r r dT = ( G + ri,G )2 dm = ( 2 dm + r2 dm + 2 G ri,G dm) 2 2 G (4.115) (4.114)
Integration over the entire body yields the total kinetic energy in the fallowing form Z Z Z 1 2 2 T = ( G dm + ri,G dm + 2 G ri,G dm) r (4.116) r 2
m m m
KINETIC ENERGY.
129
But Z dm = m = Z ri,G ( ri,G )dm = Z Z (ri,G ri,G )dm
r2 dm i,G
= 2 G r Z
ri,G ri,G dm = hG Z ri,G dm Z ri,G dm) = 2 G ( rG,G m) = 0 (4.117) r
ri,G dm = 2 G r
= 2 G ( r
The last relation becomes obvious if we notice that for the chosen system of coordinates rG,G = 0. Implementation of Eq. 4.117 into Eq. 4.116 gives the following formula for kinetic energy. x T = 1 r2 m + 1 hG = 1 r2 m + 1 [ x , y , z ][I] y 2 G 2 2 G 2 z where: [I] - is inertia matrix about system of coordinates through centre of gravity of the body. x , y , z -are components of the angular velocity of the body along that system of coordinates. The last formula permits to formulate the following statement. STATEMENT: Kinetic energy of a rigid body is equal to the sum of its energy in the translational motion with velocity of its centre of gravity (energy of translation) and the energy in the rotational motion about its centre of gravity (energy of rotation).
(4.118)
KINETIC ENERGY.
130
4.3.3 Problems Problem 39

y1
Z, z1
x1 Z, z1 A
z2
z1
y1
x1 l
a 1 2
x2
Figure 25 Fig. 25 shows a mechanical system. Its link 1 is free to rotate about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Moment of inertia of the link 1 about axis Z is I1Z . The link 2 of the system is hinged to the link 1 at the point A as it is shown in Fig. 25. Distance between the point A and axis of rotation Z is a. Distance between the centre of gravity G and the point A is equal to l. Axes x2 , y2 , z2 are principal axis of inertia of the link 2 and the principal moments of inertia about these axes are I2x2 , I2y2 , I2z2 respectively. Mass of the link 2 is equal to m. Derive expression for the kinetic energy of the system as a function of angles and .
KINETIC ENERGY.
131
Solution
Z, z1 y1
x1 Z, z1 A
z2
z1
rA a 1 2
y1
x1 l
A rGA
x2
Figure 26 The kinetic energy of the system T is sum of the kinetic energy possessed by the link 1 T1 and kinetic energy possessed by the link 2 T2 . T = T1 + T2 (4.119)
The link 1 performs the rotational motion about axis Z which is xed in the inertial space. Therefore its kinetic energy is 1 T1 = I1Z 2 1 2 (4.120)
The link 2 performs the general motion in the inertial space. Therefore its kinetic energy is determined by the following equation. 0 2x2 I2x2 0 1 1 2 T2 = m2 vG + [ 2x2, 2y2, 2z2 ] 0 I2y2 0 2y2, (4.121) 2 2 0 0 I2z2 2z2 In the above equation vG stands for the absolute velocity of the centre of gravity of the link 2 and 2x2, 2y2, 2z2 are components of its absolute angular velocity. Angular velocity of the link 1 is 1 = K (4.122) The absolute angular velocity of the link 2 is 2 = 1 + 21 = K + j1 (4.123)
KINETIC ENERGY.
132
Its components along the body system of coordinates x2 , y2 , z2 are 2x2 = 2 i2 = (K + j1 ) i2 = k1 i2 + j2 i2 = sin j2 = k1 j2 + j2 j2 = 2y2 = 2 j2 = (K + j1 ) 2z2 = 2 k2 = (K + j1 ) k2 = k1 k2 + j2 k2 = cos
(4.124)
The absolute velocity of the centre of gravity of the link 2 may be obtained by integration of its position vector. rG = rA + rGA = j2 a k2 l Hence, rG i2 j2 k2 = vG = r0G + 2 rG = sin cos 0 a l = i2 (l a cos ) + j2 (l sin ) + k2 (a sin ) (4.125)
(4.126)
Taking into consideration Eqs.. 4.122, 4.124 and 4.126 the wanted expression for the kinematic energy function is T = 1 I1Z 2 2
l a cos 1 + m2 l a cos l sin a sin l sin 2 a sin sin I2x2 0 0 1 + sin cos 0 I2y2 0 2 0 0 I2z2 cos
KINETIC ENERGY.
133
Problem 40
x1 y3 z3 O y3 Y b c 2 3 G Z O 4 z3 1 y1
x3
O,G
X x3
Figure 27 The mixing tank 1 and rotor of the electric motor 2, combined, are considered as rigid body (see Fig. 27). Its principal moments of inertia about axes through its centre of gravity are Ix1 , Iy1 , Iz1 and its mass is m. The tank rotates with the constant angular velocity about axis z3 relatively to the housing 3. At the same time the housing 3 rotates about the axis X. Its motion is determined by the angular displacement . Given are: a, b, c, , Ix1 , Iy1 , Iz1 , m, . Produce expressions for kinetic energy function of the mixing tank 1. Answer: Ix1 + ma2 0 0 cos t 0 Iy1 + ma2 0 sin t T = 1 cos t sin t 2 0 0 Iz1
KINETIC ENERGY.
134
Problem 41
R L/2
(t)
X x z Z 1 o a b 2
L/2
Y 3 4
y zG
a)
H(t) G R yG O L
b)
xG
Figure 28 To displace the cylinder 4 of mass m, the arm of the robot shown in Fig. 28a translates and rotates with respect to the inertial frame XY Z. The translation is determined by function H(t) and the rotation is determined by the angular displacement (t). Upon assuming that the elements 2,3 and 4 forms one rigid body, derive expression for the kinetic energy of the cylinder 4. Given are: H(t), (t), a, b, R, L, m The principal moments of inertia of a cylinder (see Fig. 28b) through centre of gravity G are IxG = T =
1 m(H 2
mR2 ; 2
IyG = IzG =
1 m(3R2 + L2 ) 12
Answer: + b2 2 ) + 1 2 12 m(3R2 + L2 ) 1 2
KINETIC ENERGY.
135
Problem 42
y1
X x1 x2 Z z1 z2 A y2 Y xG l G zG yG r m
a)
y1
b)
a 1
B 2
Figure 29 The base 1 of the robot arm, shown in Fig. 29a), rotates about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The instantaneous position of this base is determined by the angular displacement .The link 2 is hinged to the base 1 at the point A. The relative instantaneous position of the link 2 with respect to the base 1 is determined by the angular displacement . The link 2 can be considered as a rigid cylinder of length l, radius r and mass m attached rigidly to the massless element AB. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 and x2 y2 z2 are rigidly attached to the links 1 and 2 respectively. Produce kinetic energy function for the link 2 as a function of (t) and (t). The principal moments of inertia of the cylinder shown in Fig. 29b) about axes through its centre of gravity G are as follows 1 1 IxG = IyG = mr2 + ml2 4 12 1 IzG = mr2 2
KINETIC ENERGY.
136
Problem 43
X yG
m r xG
D L/2 r 2r r 1 2 r r Z r 2r 2,1 L/2
a)
yG G l
m r zG
b)
Figure 30 The exciter shown in Fig. 30a) is design to produce the oscillatory motion of an object. Its rotor 2 can be treated as a rigid body assembled of two spheres each of mass ms and a cylinder of mass mc . These elements are join together by means of massless elements as it is shown in Fig. 30a). This rotor rotates with respect to its housing 1 with the constant angular velocity 2,1 . The oscillatory motion of the housing 1 is determined by the angular displacement . Produce expression for the kinetic energy of the rotor of the exciter. The principal moments of inertia for the sphere shown in Fig. 30b) are 2 IxG = IyG = IzG = mr2 5 The principal moments of inertia for the cylinder shown in Fig. 30b) are 1 1 IxG = IyG = mr2 + ml2 4 12 1 IzG = mr2 2
KINETIC ENERGY.
137
Problem 44
0 y2 X 1 2 x1 z3 b x2 x 3 z1 z2 t o1 l
M 3 Y y1
G y2
y3
Figure 31 The turret 2 of the tank 1 shown in Fig. 31is rotating about the vertical axis with the angular velocity t and the barrel 3 is being raised with the constant angular velocity b . The tank has the constant forward linear velocity v. The system of coordinates x3 , y3 , z3 is rigidly attached to the barrel 3 and coincides with its principal axes. Moments of inertia about these axes are Ix3 , Iy3 and Iz3 respectively. Mass of the barrel is m and its centre of gravity is by l apart from o1 . Produce expression for the kinetic energy of the barrel when the barrel passes the position dened by angles t and b . Answer: Ix3 ml2 0 0 3x3 2 3y3 0 Iy3 0 T = 1 mvG + 1 3x3 3y3 3z3 2 2 2 3z3 0 0 Iz3 ml where 3y3 = t sin b 3z3 = t cos b 3x3 = b 0 vG = rG + 3 rG rG = i3 (vt sin t )+j3 (vt cos b cos t +l)+k3 (vt sin b cos t )
KINETIC ENERGY.
138
Problem 45
z2 2 Z z1
o2 y2 x2
o1 y1
x1
Figure 32 The base 1 of the crane shown in Fig. 32 rotates with the constant angular velocity about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is attached to the base. At the same time its boom 2 of mass m is being lowered. This relative motion about the axis is determined by the angular displacement . The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is attached to the boom. Its origin coincides with the booms centre of gravity G. The distance l determines the position of the centre of gravity. The axes of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 coincide with principal axes of the boom. The principal moments of inertia about these axes are Ix , Iy , Iz respectively. Produce the expression for the kinetic energy of the boom. Answer: sin Ix + ml2 0 0 0 Iy + ml2 0 T = 1 sin cos 2 0 0 Iz cos
KINETIC ENERGY.
139
Problem 46
Y y2
y1 x2
o2 o1
21 t
2 l
x1
z1 X
o2 o1
x1
Figure 33 The massless link 1 (see Fig. 33) is free to rotate about the horizontal axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the link 1. Its angular position is determined by the angle . The link 2 that can be considered as a slender and uniform bar of mass m and length l rotates with respect to the link 1 with the constant velocity 21 . Produce the expression for the kinetic energy of the link 2. Answer: 1 2 ml + ma2 0 0 sin 21 t 3 0 ma2 1 mal cos 21 t T = 1 [ sin 21 t, cos 21 t, 21 ] 2 2 1 1 2 0 2 mal 3 ml 21
KINETIC ENERGY.
140
Problem 47
z1 Z 1
z2
y1 y2 O
a b
x1
x2
Figure 34 Figure 34 shows the physical model of a mechanism. The slide 0 is motionless with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XYZ . It is parallel to the axis Y and its position is determined by the dimensions a and b. The link 1 rotates about the vertical axis Z and its instantaneous position is given by the angular displacement . The system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 is rigidly attached to the link 1. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the point O and it is supported by the slide 0. The system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 is rigidly attached to the link 2 and coincides with its principal axis. The angular displacement denes the relative position of the link 2 with respect to the link 1. The principal moments of inertia of the link 2 are I x2 , I y2 , I z2 and its mass is m. The distance l identies the position of the center of gravity G of the link 2. Produce: 1. The expression for the components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and . Answer: 2 = i2 ( sin ) + j2 + k2 ( cos ) 2. The expression for the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and .
KINETIC ENERGY.
141
Answer: 2 = i2 ( sin cos ) + j2 + k2 ( cos sin ) 3. The expression for the components of the absolute velocity of the point G along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and . Answer: v2 = i2 (0) + j2 l cos + k2 (l) 4. The kinetic energy of the link 2 as a function of and . Answer: h i 1 2 T = 2 Ix2 2 sin2 + Iy2 + Iz2 2 cos2 5. The expression for the angular displacement as a function of . Answer: = arctan a cos b
KINETIC ENERGY.
142
Problem 48
Z z1 z2 G a O R 1 A
2 P
y2 3 y1
c b Y
a x1 X
x2
Figure 35 Fig. 35 shows the physical model of a mechanical system. The link 1 of this system rotates about the vertical axes Z of the inertial frame XYZ. Its instantaneous position is given by the absolute angular displacement . The system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 is rigidly attached to the link 1. The link 2 is hinged to the link 1 at the point A. The other end of this link P always stays in contact with the cylindrical surface 3 of radius R (b>R). The system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 is attached to the body 2 and coincides with its principal axes. The link 2 possesses the mass m and its principal moments of inertia about the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 are I x2 , I y2 and I z2 . Its centre of gravity G is located by the distance c. The angular displacement determines the relative position of the link 2 with respect to the system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 . Produce: 1. The expression for the components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and 2. The expression for the components of the absolute angular acceleration of the link 2 along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and 3. The expression for the components of the absolute velocity of the point P along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 in terms of and 4. The kinetic energy of the link 2 as a function of and . 5. The expression for the angular displacement as a function of .
KINETIC ENERGY.
143
Solution 1. The absolute angular velocity of the link 2 is 2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i2 Its components along the system coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 are 2x2 = i2 k1 + i2 = 2y2 = j2 k1 + i2 = sin 2k2 = k2 k1 + i2 = cos
2. The components of the absolute angular acceleration along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 can be produced by dierentiation of the vector of the absolute velocity 2 = 02 + 2 2 = 02 = i2 + j2 sin + cos + k2 cos sin 3.
Z z1 z2 rP a O R 1 A G
2 P
y2 3 y1
c b Y
a x1 X
x2
Figure 36 The absolute position vector of the point P (see Fig. 36) is rP = j1 a + j2 b (4.127)
KINETIC ENERGY.
144
Its components along the system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 are as follows rP x2 = i2 (j1 a + j2 b) = 0 rP y2 = j2 (j1 a + j2 b) = a cos + b rP z2 = k2 (j1 a + j2 b) = a sin
(4.128)
The rst time derivative of the position vector rP yields the absolute velocity of the point P rP = rP + 2 rP
0
j2 k2 i2 = j2 a sin + k2 a cos + sin cos = 0 a cos + b a sin 2 2 sin + a sin = i2 a sin a cos b cos + j2 a + k2 a cos + a cos + b = i2 (a b cos ) + k2 b (4.129) 4.
Z z1 z2 G a C R 1 A
2 P
y2 3 y1 D b Y
a x1 X
x2
Figure 37
KINETIC ENERGY.
145
The angular displacement is not an independent variable. There is a relationship between the variable and the independent coordinate imposed by the kinematic constrains. To develop this relationship let us consider the vector equation shown in Fig. 37. CO + OD = CD (4.130) or Ja+j1 (a + b cos ) = I (R sin ) + JR cos (4.131) Multiplication of the above equation by the unit vectors I and J results in the following set of scalar algebraic equations I Ja+I j1 (a + b cos ) = I I (R sin ) + I JR cos J Ja+J j1 (a + b cos ) = J I (R sin ) + J JR cos or sin (a + b cos ) = R sin a + cos (a + b cos ) = R cos Hence R2 = sin2 (a + b cos )2 + a2 + 2a cos (a + b cos ) + cos2 (a + b cos )2 R2 = (a + b cos )2 + a2 + 2a cos (a + b cos ) (4.134) or (a + b cos )2 + 2a cos (a + b cos ) (R2 a2 ) = 0 Introducing the following substitution z = (a + b cos ) the above equation is z 2 + (2a cos ) z (R2 a2 ) = 0 Hence q 1 2 2 a2 ) (2a cos ) (2a cos ) + 4(R z= 2 (4.137) (4.138) (4.136) (4.135)
(4.132)
(4.133)
Taking advantage of the substitution 4.136 the angular displacement is specied by q 1 1 1 2 2 a2 ) a cos = (z a) = (2a cos ) (2a cos ) + 4(R b b 2 q 1 2 2 a2 ) a (a cos ) (a cos ) + (R b s 2 R a 1 1 cos cos2 + (4.139) b a
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
146
4.4
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
4.4.1 Eulers equations of motion General case Each rigid body can be considered as a rigidly tied together system of particles. Hence, its motion is governed by the same equations which govern any system of particles. X P = F= Fi (4.140) X ri,G Fi (4.141) hG = MG =
Fi z i dm
Under inuence of a set of external forces Fi (see Fig. 38) the considered body moves
ri rG
ri,G G y vG
O x X Y
Figure 38 in the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Let vG be its absolute velocity of its centre of gravity G and its absolute angular velocity. To derive the formula for the linear momentum P let us introduce a body system of coordinates xyz. The body system of coordinates has its origin at the body centre of gravity G and its axes coincides principal axes of inertia. Such selection of the body system of coordinates, according to considerations in the previous section, is always possible. The linear momentum of the body considered is P = mvG (4.142)
If components of velocity vG along the body system of coordinates are known vG = ivGx + jvGy + kvGz the rst derivative of the linear momentum is
0 P = m(vG + vG )
(4.143)
(4.144)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
147
where
0 vG = ivGx + jvGy + kvGz
and
= ix + jy + k z
(4.145)
Introduction of Eq. 4.145 into Eq. 4.144)yields
i j k = m (ivGx + jvGy + kvGz ) + x y z P vGx vGy vGz = im(vGx + vGz y vGy z ) +jm(vGy + vGx z vGz x ) +km(vGz + vGy x vGx y ) = iFx + jFy + kFz
(4.146)
The above vector equation is equivalent to three following scalar equations m(vGx + vGz y vGy z ) = Fx m(vGy + vGx z vGz x ) = Fy m(vGz + vGy x vGx y ) = Fz (4.147)
Taking into account the above relationship, the equation 4.141 may be transformed to form 4.149. hG = h0G + hG i j k y z = iIGx x + jIGy y + kIGz z + x IGx x IGy y IGz z = i(IGx x + (IGz IGy ) z y ) +j(IGy y + (IGx IGz ) x z ) +k(IGz z + (IGy IGx )y x ) = iMGx + jMGy + kMGz (4.149)
Components of moment of the relative momentum, according to Eq. 4.15, in the case considered may be adopted in the following form. 0 x hGx IGx 0 IGx x hGy = 0 IGy 0 y = IGy y (4.148) 0 0 IGz hGz z IGz z
Now, one can formulate three additional scalar equations. IGx x + (IGz IGy )z y = MGz IGy y + (IGx IGz ) x z = MGy IGz z + (IGy IGx ) y x = MGz (4.150)
Eventually, we obtained six independent equations which allow to obtain either kinematic parameters ( and vG ) in case all the external forces are known, or resultant external force F and resultant moment MG one has to apply to the rigid body to keep it going according to the assumed motion.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
148
Rotational motion In a case, when the rigid body performs the rotational motion about the point O which is xed in the inertial space (see Fig. 39) it can be considered as system with three degree of freedom. Hence only three equations are necessary to describe its motion. The wanted equations may be obtained from equation 4.18. X HO = MO = ri Fi (4.151)
z Z Fi G rG O X x ri R y Y dm
Figure 39 Let us introduce through point of rotation O body system of coordinates which axes coincide principal axis of the body. Components of the angular momentum along these axes are 0 x HOx IOx 0 IOx x HOy = 0 IOy 0 y = IOy y (4.152) 0 0 IOz HOz z IOz z HO = H0O + HO = MO (4.153)
Hence, the equation 4.151 may be rewritten as follows
In a similar way to that shown in the previous paragraph, one may transform the above equation into three equivalent equations known as Eulers equations. IOx x + (IOz IOy )z y = MOz IOy y + (IOx IOz ) x z = MOy IOz z + (IOy IOx ) y x = MOz (4.154)
The three unknown components of the reaction R in the pivot O are determined by Eq. 4.147 m(vGx + vGz y vGy z ) = Fx m(vGy + vGx z vGz x ) = Fy m(vGz + vGy x vGx y ) = Fz
(4.155)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
149
where The external force F comprises both, the known driving forces Fd and the unknown reaction R. F = R + Fd (4.157) 4.4.2 Modied Eulers equations of motion General case The modied equations of motion corresponds to the particular case of motion of a rigid body which fulls the following requirements: 1. The body has an axis of symmetry (see Fig. 40). 2. The body rotates with a relative angular velocity about its axis of symmetry z with respect to a translating and rotating system of coordinates xyz. vG = rG (4.156)
x
Figure 40 For further consideration we will assume that the translating and rotating system of coordinates xyz has its origin at the centre of gravity of the symmetric body. As an example of possible application let us consider rotor of a turbo-compressor of a jet shown in Fig. 41.
y z vG
Figure 41 The system of coordinates xyz is xed to the jet and its origin is chosen at the centre of gravity G of the rotor. This system of coordinates possesses its own angular
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
150
speed . The rotor of the turbo-compressor itself rotates with angular velocity about axis of symmetry z. Hence, all the above requirements are fullled. In such cases, equations of motion of a rigid body may be formulated in terms of kinematic parameters of the system xyz (vG , ) and the relative angular velocity of the body .
Fi A Z
i ri,G
dm
yb
xb x vG z zb
G x
G rG z O Y X
a)
Figure 42
b)
Components of the angular momentum along the body system of coordinates xb , yb , zb (see Fig. 42b), according to Eq. 4.15(see page 98), are hGxb Axb hGyb = IG Ayb (4.160) xb, yb ,zb hGzb Azb where [IG ]xb, yb ,zb is matrix of inertia of the body about the body system of coordinates. Axb , Ayb , Azb are components of the absolute angular velocity of the body along the body system of coordinates. Taking into consideration that hGxb hGx hGyb = [Cxyzxb yb zb ] hGy (4.161) hGzb hGz
The motion of the body ( Fig. 42) is govern by equations X P = F= Fi X ri,G Fi hG = MG =
(4.158) (4.159)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
151
and
the relationship 4.160 can be rewritten as follows Ax hGx hGy = ([Cxyzxb yb zb ]T IG [Cxyzxb yb zb ]) Ay (4.163) xb, yb ,zb hGz Az Generally, the product [Cxyzxb yb zb ]T IG x y ,z [Cxyzxb yb zb ] is a function of time. b, b b But, in the case considered cos (t) sin (t) 0 [Cxyzxb yb zb ] = sin (t) cos (t) 0 (4.164) 0 0 1 and because of symmetry of the body Hence IG 0 IG 0 = 0 IG 0 0 0 IGz
Axb Ax Ayb = [Cxyzxb yb zb ] Ay Azb Az
(4.162)
xb, yb ,zb
(4.165)
It is easy to see from Fig. 42 a that the absolute angular velocity of the body A is A = + = i x + j y + k( z + ) Introduction of Eq. 4.168 hGx IG hGy = 0 0 hGz into Eq. 4.167 yields 0 0 x IGx x IG 0 y = IGy y 0 IGz z + IGz ( z + ) (4.168)
The Eq. 4.166 allows the relationship 4.163 to be simplied. 0 Ax hGx IG 0 hGy = 0 IG 0 Ay 0 0 IGz hGz Az
[Cxyzxb yb zb ]T IG x y ,z [Cxyzxb yb zb ] b, b b 0 cos (t) sin (t) 0 cos (t) sin (t) 0 IG 0 = sin (t) cos (t) 0 0 IG 0 sin (t) cos (t) 0 0 0 IGz 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 IG 0 0 IG 0 = (4.166) 0 0 IGz
(4.167)
(4.169)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
152
Since the vector of the angular relative momentum hG is resolved along non-inertial system of coordinates its derivative takes form hG = h0 + hG i j k + x y z = iIG x + jIG y + kIGz ( z + ) IGx x IGy y IGz ( z + ) = i(IG x + (IGz IG ) z y + IGz y ) +j(IG y (IGz IG ) x z IGz x ) +k(IGz ( z + )) = iMGx + jMGy + kMGz (4.170)
The above vector equation may be rewritten in the scalar form IG x + (IGz IG ) z y + IGz y = MGx IG y (IGz IG ) x z IGz x = MGy IGz ( z + ) = MGz
(4.171)
The equation 4.158, treated in the same way as in the previous section, yields three additional equations m(vGx + vGz y vGy z ) = Fx m(vGy + vGx z vGz x ) = Fy m(vGz + vGy x vGx y ) = Fz Rotational motion. In case of rotational motion (see Fig. 43) the origin of the rotating system of coordinates x, y, z is always chosen at a point of rotation O.
z Z R G y ri O Y
(4.172)
rG Fi
Figure 43
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
153
Let be the angular velocity of the rotating system of coordinates xyz and the body rotates about its axis of symmetry z with the angular velocity with respect to the rotating system of coordinates xyz. Hence the absolute angular velocity of the body considered is A = + = i( x ) + j( y ) + k(z + ) (4.173)
Its rst derivative with respect to time is HO = H0O + HO
Similar consideration to this in the previous section leads to conclusion that the components of the angular momentum about the point O are 0 HOx x IO 0 IO x HOy = 0 IO 0 y = IO y (4.174) 0 0 IOz HOz z + IOz (z + ) i j k y z = iIO x + jIO y + kIOz (z + ) + x IO x IO y IOz ( z + ) HO = MO (4.175) (4.176)
Implementation of Eq. 4.175 into the principle of moment of momentum
yields three scalar equations in the following form IO x + (IOz IO ) z y + IOz y = MOx IO y (IOz IO ) x z IOz x = MOy IOz ( z + ) = MOz
(4.177)
which permit the unknown vector to be obtained. The above equations are known as modied Eulers equations. The equation 4.158, if treated in the same way as it has been done in the previous section, yields m(vGx + vGz y vGy z ) = Fx m(vGy + vGx z vGz x ) = Fy m(vGz + vGy x vGx y ) = Fz
(4.178)
the equations 4.178 allow to the unknown components of the reactions R at the constrain O to be determined.
Since velocity of the centre of gravity vG can be obtained from the formula below i j k (4.179) vG = rG = x y z 0 0 rGz
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
154
4.4.3 Problems. Problem 49
y1 z 3 z1 O A B X G o1,o3 b c 2 3 a O x3 G Y 4 Z 1 x3 O,G y3
t
z 3 z1
x1
y3
Figure 44 The mixing tank 1 and rotor of the electric motor 2, combined, are considered as rigid body. Its principal moments of inertia about axes through its centre of gravity are Ix , Iy , Iz and its mass is m. The tank rotates with the constant angular velocity about axis z3 relatively to the housing 3. At the same time it rotates with the constant angular velocity about the axis X. Derive expressions for all components of reactions at A and B when the mixing tank passes an angular position . The senses of the angular velocities and necessary dimensions are shown in Fig. 44. Given are: a, b, c, , , Ix = Iy , Iz , m, .
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
155
Solution.
Z z3 O R A =0
z3
Y a
r G R Ay3 b RB
y3
R Ax3 A R Bz3 B R Bx3
y3
Figure 45 In Fig. 45 the x3 y3 z3 system of coordinates is xed to the housing 3. Its absolute angular velocity is 3 = i3 (4.180) The relative angular velocity of the mixing tank 1 with respect to the x3 y3 z3 system of coordinates is = k3 (4.181) The absolute position vector of the centre of gravity G can be determine along the system x3 y3 z3 as follows rG = k3 a (4.182) Hence, the absolute velocity of G is i3 j3 k3 vG = 3 rG = i3 (ak3 ) = 0 0 0 0 a = j3 a (4.183)
Since axis z3 is axis of symmetry for the tank, its motion is governed by the modied Euler equations. The tank performs the rotational motion about point O. But in the case considered it is more convenient to take advantage of the equations for the general case. m(vGx3 + vGz3 y3 vGy3 z3 ) = RAx3 + RBx3 m(vGy3 + vGx3 z3 vGz3 y3 ) = RAy3 + RBy3 + mgsin m(vGz3 + vGy3 x3 vGx3 y3 ) = RBz3 mgcos I x3 + (Iz I) y3 z3 + Iz y3 = RAy3 b + RBy3 (b + c) I y3 (Iz I) x3 z3 Iz x3 = RAx3 b RBx3 (b + c) Iz3 (z3 + ) = Mz3
(4.184)
(4.185)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
156
where I and Iz are moments of inertia of the body about axes x1 y1 z1 through the centre of gravity G. According to Eqs. 4.180 and 4.183 vGx3 = 0 x3 = vGy3 = a y3 = 0 vGz3 = 0 z3 = 0 (4.186) (4.187)
Introducing Eqs. 4.57 and 4.187 into Eqs. 4.184 and 4.185 one can obtain 0 0 2 m(a ) 0 Iz 0 = = = = = = RAx3 + RBx3 RAy3 + RBy3 + mg sin RBz3 mg cos RAy3 b + RBy3 (b + c) RAx3 b RBx3 (b + c) Mz3
(4.188)
The rst ve equations allow for determination of the unknown reaction at A and B. RAx3 = RAy3 = RBx3 = RBy3 = RBz3 = 1 Iz c b+c mg sin c 1 Iz c b mg sin c ma2 2 + mg cos
(4.189)
The last equation oers the driving moment of the tank. In the case considered it is equal to zero.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
157
Problem 50
C G
l1
l2
Figure 46 Figure 46 shows a mobile concrete mixer. The line AC is the axis of symmetry of the mixing tank which is supported by a bearing at A and rollers at B. The bearing at A may react load in any direction but the rollers at B may only provide a reaction through C in a plane normal to AC. The mixing tank, which rotates about AC at 10RP M, clockwise when viewed from the rear, has a mass of 730kg; its centre of mass is at G. Its moment of inertia about AC is 9000kgm2 , and about any axis through G normal to AC is 11000kgm2 . The dimensions shown in the Fig. 46 are as follows: l1 = 1.2m, l2 = 1.8m = 20o . The concrete mixer is driven on horizontal ground round a bend to the left of 30m radius at a steady speed 40km/h. Find the bearing reactions at A and C induced by motion of the vehicle.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
158
Solution. According to the given data = 10 RP M = 10 /30 rad/s = 1.05 rad/s v = 40 km/h = 40 1000/3600 m/s = 11.1 m/s = v/R = 11.1/30 = 0.37 rad/s l2 = 1.8 m l1 = 1.2 m Iz = 9000 kgm2 I = 11000 kgm2 G = 730 kg 9.81 m/s = 7161 N = 20o vx2 = v sin = 11.1 sin 20o = 3.8 m/s vy2 = 0 vz2 = v cos = 11.1 cos 20o = 10.4 m/s x2 = cos = 0.37 cos 20o = 0.348 rad/s y2 = 0 z2 = sin = 0.37 sin 20o = 0.126 rad/s
v R G z1
y1 x2 x1 R Cy2 RA
y2
R Cz2= 0 C
z2
z1 R Cx2
v A RA z2
G M A z2 G
RA x2 l1 l2
Figure 47
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
159
Eulers modied equations applied to the tank yield m(vx2 + vz2 y2 vy2 z2 ) = RCx2 + RAx2 G cos m(vy2 + vx2 z2 vz2 x2 ) = RCy2 + RAy2 m(vz2 + vy2 x2 vx2 y2 ) = RAz2 G sin I x2 + (Iz I) y2 z2 + Iz y2 = RCy2 (l2 l1 ) + RAy2 l1 I y2 (Iz I)x2 z2 + Iz x2 = +RCx2 (l2 l1 ) RAx2 l1 Iz ( z2 + ) = MAz2 Introducing the given data into the above equations one may obtain RCx2 + RAx2 7161 cos 20o RCy2 + RAy2 RAz2 7161 sin 20o RCy2 (1.8 1.2) + RAy2 1.2 +RCx2 (1.8 1.2) RAx2 1.2 MAz2 Hence RCx2 + RAx2 RCy2 + RAy2 RAz2 RCy2 + 2RAy2 +RCx2 2RAx2 MAz2 Eventually RAx2 = 367 N RAy2 = 996 N RAz2 = 2450 N RCx2 = 6362 N RCy2 = 1994 N Mz2 = 0 = = = = = = 6729 2990 2450 0 5627 0 = = = = = = 0 730(3.8 0.126 (10.4)0.348) 0 0 (9000 11000)0.348 0.126 9000 0.348 (1.05) 0 (4.192)
(4.190)
(4.191)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
160
Problem 51
A l
Figure 48 Derive dierential equations of motion of the system shown in Fig. 48. The link CA rotates with a constant angular speed about its vertical axis. The uniform rod AB of mass m and length l is hinged at A to the link CA.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
161
Solution.
y1 Y
O Z z1 1
x1 X
z2 A l/2 x1
2 mg
x2
Figure 49 Let us introduce the following systems of coordinates (see Fig. 49): XY Z inertial system of coordinates. x1 y1 z1 body 1 system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 body 2 system of coordinates The absolute angular speed of the link 1 is 1 = K = k1 (4.193)
The relative angular speed of the link 2 with respect to the link 1 can be obtain by dierentiation of the generalized coordinate 21 = = j1 = j2 The absolute angular velocity of the link 2 is 2 = 1 + 21 = j2 + k1 = i2 sin + j2 + k2 cos (4.195) (4.194)
Since the link 2 performs rotational motion about the point A, its motion is governed by Eulers equations Ix 2x2 + (Iz Iy ) 2y2 2z2 = Mx2 Iy 2y2 + (Ix Iz ) 2x2 2z2 = My2 Iz 2z2 + (Iy Ix )2x2 2y2 = Mz2
(4.196)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
162
z1 R 2,1y2 z2 R 2,1z2 A A R 2,1x2 M2,1x2 y2
1 M2,1y2 =0 R 2,1y2
R 2,1x2 l/2 2
M2,1x2 G
M2,1z2 x1
x2 mg x2
Figure 50 were according to Fig. 50, Ix = 0 Iy = Iz = I = ml2 3 (4.197)
Mx2 = M2,1x2 1 My2 = mgl cos 2 Mz2 = M21z2 Upon introducing Eqs. 4.195 and 4.197 into Eq. 4.196 one may obtain 0 = M2,1x2 1 I + I 2 sin cos = mgl cos 2 I sin I sin = M21z2 Equation 4.199 presents the wanted equation of motion. 1 I + I2 sin cos mgl cos = 0 2
(4.198) (4.199) (4.200)
(4.201)
After solving it with respect to the unknown function , the equation 4.200 allows the interaction moment M21z2 to be obtained.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
163
Problem 52
y Yy 1 2 c O Z k 1 2 3
z1 z2
x1 x2
Figure 51 To record the angular velocity of the oating platform 1 about the vertical axis Y a gyroscope was installed as presented in Fig. 51. The shown spring, of a stiness k, keeps the ring 2 in the horizontal position ( = 0) if the platform does not rotate ( = 0). The damper c produces a moment which can be approximated by a linear function Mc = c (4.202) The ring 2 may be considered as massless. The gyroscope 3 is symmetrical with respect to its axis of relative rotation z2 and its moments of inertia are Ix2 = Iy2 = I, and Iz2 . The gyroscope rotates, relative to the ring 2, with the constant angular velocity . Upon assuming that the platform can rotate about a vertical axis only, derive the relationship between its constant angular velocity = p and angular position of the gyroscope .
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
164
Solution. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 ,which is attached to the platform, rotates with respect to the inertial frame XY Z with angular velocity 1 . 1 = j1 = j2 cos k2 sin (4.203)
The relative angular velocity of the ring 2 with respect to the system of coordinate x1 y1 z1 is 21 = i2 (4.204)
Therefore, the absolute angular velocity of the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is 2 = 1 + 21 = i2 + j2 cos + k2 ( sin ) (4.205)
Since the gyroscope 3 rotates about its axis of symmetry z2 with relative velocity , the modied Eulers equations may be used to derive its equations of motion. I x2 + (Iz2 I) y2 z2 + Iz2 y2 = Mx2 I y2 (Iz2 I)x2 z2 Iz2 x2 = My2 Iz2 ( z2 + ) = Mz2 Since the ring 2 is massless its equilibrium conditions yields Mx2 = k c (4.207)
(4.206)
Introduction of Eqs. 4.205) and (4.207) into the rst equation of the set 4.206 produces equation of motion of the gyroscope. I + (Iz2 I)(2 sin cos ) + Iz2 cos = k c (4.208)
Because for a constant angular velocity = o the angle o is supposed to be constant, the above equation yields o (Iz2 I)(2 sin o cos o ) + Iz2 o cos o = ko (4.209)
If angular velocity o << , the rst term of Eq. 4.209 can be omitted and the required relationship has the following explicit form o = ko Iz2 cos o (4.210)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
165
Problem 53
A l
1 2
Figure 52 Link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig. 52 performs rotational motion about the horizontal and motionless axis Z. Its motion is determined by angle which is a known function of time. Link 2, which can be considered as a uniform and rigid rod of mass m and length l, is hinged to the link 1 at point A. Derive the equation of motion of the link 2. Given are: (t) equation of motion of the link 1 m mass of the link 2 l length of the link 2
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
166
Solution.
X A Z z1 21 x1 x2 A x1 x2 1 1 rG G l z2 Z z1
y1
y1
y2
Figure 53 In Fig. 53 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is rigidly attached to the link 1 and rotates with respect to the inertial system of coordinates XY Z about the horizontal axis Z. Its instantaneous position is determined by the angle . System of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is xed to the link 2 and rotates about axis x1 of the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . Angle determines its instantaneous position with respect to the system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 . Since the link 2 performs rotational motion about the point A, the following Euler equations of motion can be utilized. Ix 2x2 + (Iz Iy )2y2 2z2 = M2x2 Iy 2y2 + (Ix Iz )2x2 2z2 = M2y2 Iz 2z2 + (Iy Ix )2x2 2y2 = M2z2 where Ix = 1 (ml2 ) moment of inertia of the body 2 about axis x2 3 Iy = 0 moment of inertia of the body 2 about axis y2 Iz = 1 (ml2 ) moment of inertia of the body 2 about axis z2 . 3 Components of the absolute angular velocity of the link 2 along its body system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 may be determined as follows 2 = 1 + 21 = k1 + i2 Hence, 2x2 = i2 2 = 2y2 = j2 2 = sin 2z2 = k2 2 = cos (4.212)
(4.211)
(4.213)
Moment M2 is due to the interaction force R21 and interaction moment M21 (see Fig. 54) in the constrain A and the gravity force G. M2 = M21 +M2G (4.214)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
167
M 2,1y2 R2,1y2 A M 2,1z2 R2,1z2 1 Z z1 A x1 x2 rG l 1 G 2 z2 R2,1x2 x2
M 2,1y2 R2,1y2
M 2,1x2 =0
y2
y1
Figure 54
y2
Since the link 1 is free to rotate about axis x2 , component of the interaction moment along axis x is M21x2 = 0 (4.215) Moment produced by the gravity force G is a vector product of position vector rG and the gravity force G.Hence M2G = = = = rG G = j2 (l/2) Jmg = (mlg/2)j2 J (mlg/2)j2 (j1 cos + i2 sin ) (mlg/2)j2 ((j2 cos k2 sin ) cos + i2 sin ) (mlg/2)j2 (i2 sin + j2 cos cos k2 cos sin ) i2 j2 k2 0 1 0 = (mlg/2) sin cos cos cos sin = (mlg/2)(i2 (cossin) + k2 (sin))
(4.216)
Upon introducing Eqs. 4.213 and 4.214 into rst equation of the set 4.211 one can obtain equation of motion in the following form (4.217) + 2 sin cos + (3g/2l) cos sin = 0 The second and third equation allow the unknown components of interaction moment M21 to be obtained. Ix 2x2 + (Iz Iy )2y2 2z2 = M2x2 Iy 2y2 + (Ix Iz )2x2 2z2 = M2y2 Iz 2z2 + (Iy Ix )2x2 2y2 = M2z2
(4.218)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
168
M21y2 = 0 M21z2 = (1/3)ml2 ( cos sin ) (1/3)ml2 sin +(1/2)mglsin
(4.219)
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
169
Problem 54
2 R m C D r z1 1 x1
Figure 55 Wheel of radius r and mass m is free to rotate about axle CD which turns about the vertical axis with a constant angular speed . The wheel rolls without slipping on the horizontal plane. Determine the reaction between the wheel and the horizontal plane. Given are: r =0.5m R =2m m =100kg =1rad/s Iz1 =12.5kgm2 , Iy1 = Ix1 =10kgm2 principal moments of inertia of the wheel
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
170
Solution
O,o z1 z2
t
Y y2 x2 2 R m C D O,o r 1
x1 12 t x2
z1 z2
y2
12
y1
Figure 56
m(vGx2 + vGz2 2y2 vGy2 2z2 ) = F1x2 m(vGy2 + vGx2 2z2 vGz2 2x2 ) = F1y2 m(vGz2 + vGy2 2x2 vGx2 2y2 ) = F1z2 Io 2x2 + (Ioz Io ) 2y2 2z2 + Ioz 12 2y2 = M1x2 Io 2y2 (Ioz Io ) 2x2 2z2 Ioz 12 2x2 = M1y2 Ioz ( 2z2 + 12 ) = M1z2 Io = Ix1 + mR2 ; 2 = i2 2x2 = 2y2 = 0 12 = 2z2 = 0 R r rG = k2 R i2 j2 k2 vG = rG = r0G + 2 rG = 0 + 0 0 = j2 (R) 0 0 R vGx2 = 0 vGy2 = R vGz2 = 0 Ioz = Iz1
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
171
0 = F1x2 0 = F1y2 Rm 2 = F1z2 0 = M1x2 R = M1y2 Ioz 2 r 0 = M1z2
0 = F1x2 = R12x2 mg + N 0 = F1y2 = R12y2 + T Rm 2 = F1z2 = R12z2 0 = M1x2 = M12x2 RT R = M1y2 = Rmg + RN Ioz 2 r 0 = M1z2 = rT T =0 N = mg + Ioz 2 R r R r
R12x2 = mg N = Ioz 2 R12y2 = 0 R12z2 = Rm 2 M12x2 = RT = 0
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
172
2 R12 M12
C D
Figure 57
x2 x2 R 12x2 R M12x2 C D R 12z2 G r m 2 1 x1
12 t R 12x2
M12x2
M12y2=0
z1 z2
y 2 R 12y2 G y1 T N
O,o M =0 12z2
Figure 58
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
173
Problem 55
X a
x1
z1
Figure 59 On the rotating about the vertical axis X platform 1 (see Fig. 59) a turbine is installed. Rotor of the turbine has mass m and its centre of gravity G is at a distance a from the axis X. Axis z1 is axis of symmetry of the rotor and its principal moments of inertia I2x1 = I2y1 = I2 and I2z1 are known. If the platform rotates with the constant angular velocity and the rotor has the relative angular velocity , determine components of reactions at the bearings A and B along system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 xed to the platform 1. Given are: I2 , I2z1 , m, , , a, b.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
174
Problem 56
1
a v
Figure 60 The thin and uniform bar 1 has mass m and length l. Its end A is moving with constant velocity v along the horizontal axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. Upon assuming that there is no friction in the constraints A and B and all the motion is in the vertical plane Y Z, produce the expression for the dynamic reactions in these constraints as a function of the bar angular position . Answer: Solution of the folowing set of equations yields the wanted reactions. l l 2 cos + sin m = RAX + RB cos 2 2 l l 2 sin cos m = mg + RB sin + RAY 2 2 a ml2 l l l = RAY sin + RAX cos + RB 12 2 2 2 cos
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
175
Problem 57
X,x1 O B T z1
Y X,x1 x2
y1 y2
1 l
3 G z2 N z1
y1 y2 O
r x3 2 3
X 1
z2 z 3
G y3
Figure 61 Body 3 (see Fig. 61) is driven by means of the massless links 1 and 2 that are hinged to each other at the point O. Link 1 rotates about the vertical axis X with the constant angular velocity and the body 3 rolls over the horizontal motionless ring 4 without slipping. Axis z2 is the axis of symmetry of body 3 and its moments of inertia about the body system of coordinates x3 y3 z3 are Ix3 = Iy3 = I and Iz respectively. Derive the expression for the components of the reaction N and T between the body 3 and the ring 4. Given are: m - mass of the body 3 I, Iz - moments of inertia of the body 3 l - distance between the point of rotation O and centre of gravity G of the body 3 r - radius of the ring 4 - angular velocity of the link 1 - angle between axis z2 and the horizontal plane Hint: The body 3 performs rotational motion about the point O.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
176
Problem 58
Z z2 Z
3
Y G3 y2
2 1
X x2
Figure 62 Fig. 62 shows the physical model of a shaker frequently used to excite the rolling motion of a ship. The housing 2 of the gyroscope 3 performs oscillatory motion about axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. This motion is determined by the following equation = 0 sin t The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is rigidly attached to the housing. The gyroscope 3 of mass m and moments of inertia I3x2 = I3y2 = I3 and I3z about axes x2 y2 z2 respectively, rotates with the constant angular velocity . Upon assuming that the mass of the housing is negligible, derive an expression for the components of the moment transmitted to the board 1 of the ship.
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
177
Problem 59
Y
Y 3 4 1 2
a)
1
c G3 G1 b
G3 G1
a O Z X
x2
x1
b)
G3 y2
t
z1
z2
y1
G3 G1
z1
Figure 63 Fig. 63a) shows a gyrostabilizer for stabilization of the monorail car 1. To test this gyrostabilizer, the car 1 was forced to move along the coordinate (see Fig. 63b)) according to the following equation = A sin ft Simultaneously the housing 2 was rotated with respect to the car 1 with constant angular velocity . The relative angular velocity of the gyroscope 3 with respect to
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
178
the housing 2 was . XY Z is the inertial system of coordinates. x1 y1 z1 is the body 1 system of coordinates. x2 y2 z2 is the body 2 system of coordinates. Given are: A, f - amplitude and frequency of the oscillatory motion of the car 1 - angular velocity of the housing 2 with respect to the car 1 - angular velocity of the gyroscope 3 with respect to the housing 2 a, b, c, dimensions shown in Fig.63a) m- mass of the gyroscope 3 Ix = Iy = I, Iz - principal moments of inertia of the gyroscope 3 about axes through its centre of gravity. Produce expressions for interaction forces between the gyroscope 3 and its housing 2. Answer: m((a + b) sin t) mg sin sin t = R32x2 m((a + b)2 ) + mg cos = R32y2 m((a + b) cos t) mg sin cos t = R32z2 I( cos t sin t) + (Iz I) sin t + Iz = M32x2 2 (Iz I) sin t cos t Iz cos t = M32y2 Iz ( sin t + cos t) = Md
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
179
Problem 60
0 A
x1
z1
1 G
2 l b l
Figure 64 The aircraft landing gear shown in Fig. 64 is being retracted while the aircraft 0 moves with constant velocity along a horizontal straight line. The instantaneous position of the arm 1 is determined by the angular displacement . The wheel 2 rotates with the constant relative angular velocity with respect to the arm 1. Given are: a, b, l, - dimensions shown m - mass of the wheel 2 Iz - moment of inertia of the wheel 2 about its axis of relative rotation I = Ix = Iy - moments of inertia of the wheel 2 about axes perpendicular to the axis of relative rotation (t) - the angular displacement of the arm 1 with respect to the plane. - the angular velocity of the wheel 2 with respect to the arm Produce the expression for the components of the interaction forces between the wheel 2 and the arm 1 along the body 1 system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 .
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
180
Problem 61
a O
t
o1 z1 , z2 Y y2 y1 x2 2 2 x1
b X
1 O o1
21 t
x1
Figure 65 Fig. 65 presents the physical model of a ventilator. Its base 1 rotates with the constant angular velocity about the vertical axis Y of the inertial system of coordinates XY Z. The system of coordinates x1 y1 z1 is attached to this base. The rotor 2 is free to rotate about the axis z1 . The relative angular velocity of the rotor 2 with respect to the base 1 is constant and its magnitude is 21 . The system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 is attached to the rotor 2. The axis z2 is the axis of symmetry of the rotor and its moments of inertia about the system of coordinates x2 y2 z2 are Ix2 = Iy2 = I2 , Iz2 respectively. The mass of the rotor is m. Produce the expression for the components of the interaction force between the rotor 2 and its base 1. Answer: Rx1 = ma 2 Ry1 = mg Rz1 = bm 2 Mx1 = Iz2 21 My1 = 0 Mz1 = Md = 0
EQUATIONS OF MOTION
181
Problem 62
Z z1
a/2 A O
z2 a/2 B 2 y1 y2
t
1 Y
a x1 X b b x2
Figure 66 The link 1 of the mechanical system shown in Fig.66 rotates about the vertical axis Z of the inertial system of coordinates XYZ with a constant angular velocity . The system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 is rigidly attached to this link. Two uniform bars, each of length a and mass m, were joined together to form the link 2 of this system. The system of coordinates x 2 y 2 z 2 is rigidly attached to the link 2. Its instantaneous relative position with respect to the system of coordinates x 1 y 1 z 1 is determined by the angular displacement . Produce: 1. The free body diagram for the link 2. 2. The dierential equation of motion of the link 2 in terms of the variable . 3. The equations for the determination of the interaction forces between the link 2 and 1 in the kinematic constraints A and B. The moment of inertia of a uniform bar of mass m and length l about the axis through its centre of gravity is
MOTION OF THE GYROSCOPE WITH THREE DEGREE OF FREEDOM.
182
IG = 4.5
1 ml2 12
4.5.1 Modelling. Physical model. Let us consider motion of a rigid body about a xed in an inertial space point O (Fig. 67).
z
Z z1
G . G O X .

Y 1
y1
x1 x
Figure 67 Axis x of the rotating system of coordinates xyz stays always in plane XY of the absolute system of coordinates XY Z. The angle , between those two axes is called angle of precession and together with angle of mutation determines uniquely position of axes the rotating system of coordinates xyz. For further consideration, we shell assume that axis z is axis of symmetry of the body. Since the body is free to rotate about axis z it has three degree of freedom. Let be the angular velocity of the body with respect to xyz. The body has mass m. Its centre of gravity is located on axis z at the point G. Its position is given by a distance r. IOx = IOy = IO and IOz represent principal moment of inertia of the body about axis xyz. Kinematic analysis Angular velocity of the system of coordinates xyz is = + = K + i (4.220)
183
Scalar multiplication of the above equation by unit vectors i, j, and k respectively yields its components along the rotating system of coordinates xyz. x = i (K+i) = y = j (K+i) = sin z = k (K+i) = cos Equations of motion. The introduced assumptions allow to take advantage from the modied Eulers equations. IO x + (IOz IO ) z y + IOz y = MOx IO y (IOz IO )x z IOz x = MOy IOz (z + ) = MOz Components of moment MO = kr K(mg) are Mx 1 0 0 0 1 = rmgsin = (i (k K))rmg = rmg 0 0 sin cos 0 1 0 0 1 =0 = (j (k K))rmg = rmg 0 0 sin cos 0 0 1 0 1 =0 (4.224) = (k (k K))rmg = rmg 0 0 sin cos (4.223)
(4.221)
(4.222)
My
Mz
Upon introducing Eq. 4.224 and 4.221 into Eq. 4.222 one can obtain equations of motion in the following form. IO + (IOz IO )2 sin cos + IOz sin rmg sin = 0 IO sin + IO cos (IOz IO ) cos IOz = 0 IOz (cos sin + ) = 0
(4.225)
4.5.2 Analysis. General solutions of the mathematical model 4.225 can not be obtain by means of any analytical methods. But, very often, we can procure a number of particular solutions by guessing their form.
184
Particular solutions. Let us predict the particular solution of the set of equations 4.225 in the following form = pt = o = o where p, o , o are constant values. Hence =p =0 =0 =0 =0 (4.227)
(4.226)
Upon introducing Eq. 4.226 into Eq. 4.225 one can see that second and third equation is fullled for any instant of time. The rst equation yields (IOz IO )p2 sin o cos o + IOz o p sin o rmg sin o = 0 (4.228)
The predicted solution 4.226 may be considered as an solution, if the equation 4.228 is fullled. It is fullled for o = 0 o = (4.229)
regardless of magnitude p, o or for any set of parameters p, o , o satisfying the following relationship p IOz o (IOz o )2 + 4(IOz IO )rmg cos o (4.230) p1,2 = 2(IOz IO ) cos o The precession p1 , which corresponds to sign + is called slow precession to distinguish it from fast precession p2 corresponding to sign . The relationship 4.230 permits to compute so called static characteristic of a gyroscope. Let us adopt, for further analysis, dimensions of the gyroscope shown in Fig. 68
R b G r O R=0.04m b=0.015m m=0.6kg 0.025m r= 0.015m
Figure 68
185
For r = 0.025m, IO = 0.000629kgm2 > IOz = 0.000482kgm2 the static characteristic of the gyroscope for a few values of angular velocity (o = 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25s1 ) is shown in Fig. 69.For high angular velocity o = 25s1 (see Fig. 70) the gyroscope can perform the fast and slow regular precession p for any mutation angle o . If angular velocity o is slower e.g. o = 15s1 , the gyroscope can perform regular precession only for certain range of angle of mutation o . Fig. 71 present static characteristics for r = 0.015m. In this case IO = 0.000388kgm2 < IOz = 0.000482kgm2 . The presented characteristics determine regular precession which may be obtained only for certain set of initial conditions which strictly correspond to the assumed form of particular solution 4.226. More particular solution can be obtained by numerical integration of the mathematical model 4.225. Numerical solution of equations of motion. Fig. 73. presents a few numerical solutions carried out for r = .025m. The diagrams in this gure show instantaneous positions yG of the point G of the gyroscope versus its angle of precession . For all cases the initial speed of the gyroscope was assumed to be i = 15s1 . Fig 73A presents solution for initial conditions chosen in vicinity of upper equilibrium position o = 0(i = 0.01s1 , i = 0, i = 0, i = 0, i = 15s1 ). Since the gyroscope can not perform regular precession (see Fig. 70), it execute large oscillations. Fig. 73B corresponds to situation when the gyroscope, performing regular precession (o = 1.26, o = 0, o = p1 = 25s1 , o = 15s1 see Fig. 70) was pushed out of its motion at t = 0 with initial velocity i = 8s1 . Due to the following initial i = 8s1 , i = 0, i = 0, i = 15s1 the gyroscope conditions i = 1.26rad, performs small oscillation around regular precession. Similar behavior can be observed if it is pushed out of its regular fast precession (o = 1.26rad, o = 0, o = p2 = 136, o = 15 see Fig. 70). This situation is presented in Fig. 73C. Figures 73D and 73E show solution of disturbed motion of the gyroscope about o = 16.17s1 ) and fast (o = 77.1s1 ) precession which correspond to angle slow ( of mutation o = 2.51rad (see Fig. 70). Those solution were obtained for initial conditions i = 2.51rad, i = 8s1 , i = 0, i = 16.170s1 , i = 15s1 and 1 1 i = 2.51rad, i = 8s , i = 0, i = 77.1s , i = 15s1 respectively. Fig. 73F presents motion of the gyroscope in vicinity of the lower equilibrium position (o = ) caused by the following initial conditions i = 2.51, i = 20s1 , 1 i = 0, i = 0, i = 15s .
186
Slow precession p versus angle of nutation 1 r=0.025 [m] 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 0.63 1.26
[rad/s]
o [rad]
1.88
2.51
3.14
= 0
= 5
= 10
= 15
= 20
= 25 [rad]
Fast precession p versus angle of nutation 2 r=0.025 [m] 400 300 200 p
2
100 0 -100 -200 -300 -400 0 0.63 1.26 1.88 2.51 3.14
[rad/s]
o [rad] = 0 = 5 = 10 = 15 = 20 = 25 [rad]
Figure 69
187
Slow & fast precession for
= 25 [rad/s]
r=0.025 [m]
versus angle of nutation
200 150 100 50 p [rad/s] 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 0 0.63 1.26 1.88 2.51 fast precession p
2
3.14
slow precession p
1
[rad]
Slow & fast precession for 200 150 100 50 p [rad/s] 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 0 0.63
= 15 [rad/s] versus angle of nutation

r=0.025 [m]
1.26 p
1.88
o
2.51 fast precession p

2
3.14
[rad]
slow precession
Figure 70
188
Slow precession p versus angle of nutation 1 r = 0.015 [m] 60 50 40 p 30 20 10 0 0 0.63 1.26
[rad/s]
o [rad] = 15
1.88
2.51
3.14
= 0
= 5
= 10
= 20
= 25 [rad]
Fast precession p versus angle of nutation

2
r = 0.015 [m] 400 300 200 100 p

2
0 -100 -200 -300 -400 0 0.63 1.26 1.88 2.51 3.14
[rad/s]
o [rad] = 0 = 5 = 10 = 15 = 20 = 25 [rad]
Figure 71
189
Slow & fast precession for
= 20 [rad/s]
r = 0.015 [m]
versus angle of nutation
200 150 100 50 p [rad/s] 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 0 0.63 1.26 1.88
o

2
3.14
slow precession p
1
[rad]
Slow & fast precession for 200 150 100 50 p [rad/s] 0 -50 -100 -150 -200 0 0.63 slow precession
= 10 [rad/s] versus angle of nutation

r = 0.015 [m]
1.26 p
1.88
o

2
3.14
[rad]
Figure 72
190
F E
[rad]
0 0
[rad]
-20 20
[rad]
0 20
C B A
0 G yG [m] -0.04
[rad]
0 20
[rad]
0 20
[rad]
0
yG
O
Figure 73
Chapter 5 APPENDIXES
5.1 APPENDIX 1. REVISION OF THE VECTOR CALCULUS
NOTATION.
z
V k i x o j Vz Vx Vy
The vector quantities are printed in boldface type V or, in handwriting, should always be indicated by symbol V to distinguish them from the scalar quantities V. Vector quantities are usually dened in the right-handed system of coordinates by its scalar components Vx , Vy , Vz . V = iVx + jVy + kVz were i, j, k are unit vectors of the system of coordinates xyz. (5.1)
SCALAR MAGNITUDE of a vector V is

V = q Vx2 + Vy2 + Vz2 (5.2)
DIRECTION COSINES l, m, n are the cosines of angles between a vector V and

axes xyz.. Thus l = cos ]Vi = Useful relations l2 + n2 + m2 = 1 (5.4) Vx V n = cos ]Vj = Vy V m = cos ]Vk = Vz V (5.3)
DOT OR SCALAR PRODUCT of two vectors P and Q is dened as scalar
APPENDIX 1. REVISION OF THE VECTOR CALCULUS
192
magnitude P Q =P Q cos where stands for the angle between the two vectors. (5.5)
Useful relations PQ=QP
(5.6) (5.7) (5.8) (5.9) (5.10)
ii=jj=kk=1 ij=jk=ij=0 Qx Py Pz Qy = Px Qx + Py Qy + Pz Qz Qz Py = j P Pz = k P
PQ=
Px
VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT of two vectors P and Q is dened as a

vector with the magnitude P Q sin and direction specied by the right-hand rule as shown.
Px Q
Px = i P
Useful relations P (Q + R) = P Q + P R Q P = P Q ij=k jk=i ki=j ii=jj=kk=0 i j k P Q = Px Py Pz Qx Qy Qz (P Q) R (5.11) (5.12) (5.13) (5.14) (5.15)
TRIPLE CROSS-SCALAR PRODUCT is dened as

(5.16)
APPENDIX 1. REVISION OF THE VECTOR CALCULUS
193
Useful relations (P Q) R = (R P) Q = (Q R) P Px Py Pz (P Q) R = Qx Qy Qz Rx Ry Rz P (Q R) Useful relations P (Q R) = Q (R P) R (P Q) dP P = P = lim t0 dt t Useful relations d(Pf ) = Pf + Pf dt d(P Q) = PQ+PQ dt d(P Q) = PQ+PQ dt (5.22) (5.23) (5.24) (5.17) (5.18)
TRIPLE VECTOR PRODUCT is dened as
(5.19) (5.20)
DERIVATIVE OF A VECTOR
(5.21)
APPENDIX 2. CENTRE OF GRAVITY, VOLUME AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES. 194
5.2
APPENDIX 2. CENTRE OF GRAVITY, VOLUME AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES.

z
Sphere
R G x y
4 V = R3 3
2 Ixx = Iyy = Izz = mR2 5

z 3R 8 y
Hemisphere
G R x
2 V = R3 3
Ixx = Iyy = 0.259mR2

z h G x R 1h 4 y
2 Izz = mR2 5
Cone
1 V = R2 h 3
Ixx = Iyy =
3 m(4R2 + h2 ) 80
z
Izz =
3 mR2 10
Cylinder
1h 2 1h 2 x G R
APPENDIX 2. CENTRE OF GRAVITY, VOLUME AND MOMENTS OF INERTIA OF RIGID BODIES. 195
V = R2 h
Ixx = Iyy =
1 m(3R2 + h2 ) 12
1 Izz = mR2 2
Rectangular block
z
G c x b a
V = abc
Ixx =
1 m(b2 + c2 ) 12
Iyy =
1 m(a2 + c2 ) 12
Izz =
1 m(a2 + b2 ) 12
Slender rod
z R l G x y
V =0
Ixx = Iyy =
1 2 ml 12
Izz = 0

Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Kinetics of Rigid Bodies

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

436- 353 MECHANICS 2 UNIT 2

MECHANICS OF A RIGID BODY

THE UNIVERSITY OF MELBOURNE Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

Chapter 1 THREE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS OF A PARTICLE.

MOTION OF A PARTICLE IN TERMS OF THE INERTIAL FRAME.

r(t+ t) J rZ (t) O Y r (t) rY (t) X

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

Figure 10 cos sin 0 [Cr1 i ] = sin cos 0 0 0 1

1 0 0 [Cr2 r1 ] = 0 cos sin 0 sin cos

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

cos sin 0 [Crr2 ] = sin cos 0 0 0 1

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

Angular velocity and angular acceleration.

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

The instantaneous axis of rotation Z d d d d y O d x X x1

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

is called vector of angular velocity . =

and the velocity of A can be expressed as follow. v =r (1.37)

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

Figure 21 The absolute velocity of the particle P is vP = rP = r0P + rP (1.56)

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

MOTION IN TERMS OF THE NON-INERTIAL FRAMES (RELATIVE MOTION).

sin o t 0 X cos o t 0 Y 0 1 Z 0 X Y sin cos Z

Hence, its magnitude is aP =

Hence, magnitude of the velocity is p p |R| = (L cos )2 + v2 = (5 1 cos30o )2 + 22 = 4.76 m/s

Position vector of the point A is r = L + = k1 L + i2 (1.99)

Chapter 2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL KINEMATICS OF A RIGID BODY

Solution. A. direction cosines

cos2 kI + cos2 kJ + cos2 kK = 1 r

2a. Hence (2.50)

rBAZ = rBA K =ak K =acoskK =a ZA

+k3 ( sin sin 21 t + 21 cos ) (2.100)

According to Fig. 16 the absolute position vector of the point P is

Chapter 3 KINETICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES.

KINETICS OF SYSTEM OF PARTICLES.

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS - LINEAR MOMENTUM.

MOTION OF CENTRE OF MASS - LINEAR MOMENTUM.

DEFINITION: The following vector P= PN

and the equation 3.17 takes form HO =

DEFINITION: The following vector hC = PN

ri,C (i mi ) r ri,C (Fi +

EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR FIRST INTEGRALS.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR FIRST INTEGRALS.

EQUATIONS OF MOTION AND THEIR FIRST INTEGRALS.

can be integrated with respect to time. Z t Z t Z t Z t Pdt = HO dt = Fdt, MO dt, to to to to Z t Z t Z t Z t G dt = G dt = H MG dt, MG dt h

- increment of the linear momentum Z t HO dt = HO (t) HO (to ) = HO

The following expression are called respectively Z t Pdt = P(t) P(to ) = P

- increment of the angular momentum about point O Z t HG dt = HG (t) HG (to ) = HG

- increment of the angular momentum about G Z t hG dt = hG (t) hG (to ) = hG

- increment of the relative angular momentum about G Z t Fdt = UF

- the linear impulse