Telematics

Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer

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Beispielbild
Application Layer Application Layer

Presentation Layer Presentation Layer

Session Layer Session Layer

Transport Layer Transport Layer

Network Layer Network Layer Network Layer

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Computer Systems and Telematics (CST) Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Institute of Computer Science

Freie Universität Berlin
http://cst.mi.fu-berlin.de
Contents
● Design Issues ● Metropolitan Area Networks
● Network Topologies (MAN)
● The Channel Allocation Problem ● Wide Area Networks (WAN)
● Multiple Access Protocols ● Frame Relay (historical)
● Ethernet ● ATM
● IEEE 802.2 – Logical Link Control ● SDH
● Token Bus (historical) ● Network Infrastructure
● Token Ring (historical) ● Virtual LANs
● Fiber Distributed Data Interface
● Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.2
 Design Issues

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.3
Design Issues
● Two kinds of connections in networks
● Point-to-point connections OSI Reference Model
● Broadcast (Multi-access channel, Application Layer
Random access channel)
Presentation Layer

● In a network with broadcast Session Layer

connections
● Who gets the channel? Transport Layer

Network Layer
● Protocols used to determine who
gets next access to the channel Data Link Layer
● Medium Access Control (MAC) sublayer
Physical Layer

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.4
Network Types for the Local Range
● LLC layer: uniform interface and same frame format to upper layers
● MAC layer: defines medium access

LLC IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control ...

Sicherungs-
Data Link
ebene
Layer

ANSI ATM
802.3 802.4 802.5 802.6 X3T9.5 Forum
MAC ...
CSMA/CD Token Token ATM LAN
(Ethernet) Bus Ring DQDB FDDI Emulation
ISO/OSI Reale
Classical Netze Concepts
Network

Both concepts are implemented together in existing networks (as a device driver):
1. Packing of data into frames: error detection during frame transmission and
receipt
2. Media Access Control: this contains the frame transmission and the reaction to
transmission errors
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.5
Standardization: IEEE
● Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE)
● Standardization of the IEEE 802.X-Standards for Local Area
Networks (www.ieee802.org) – many historical! www.ieee.org

 802.1Overview and Architecture of LANs  802.11 Wireless LAN (WLAN)

 802.2Logical Link Control (LLC)  802.12 Demand Priority (HP’s AnyLAN)
 802.3CSMA/CD (Ethernet)  802.14 Cable modems
 802.4Token Bus  802.15 Personal Area Networks (PAN,
 802.5Token Ring Bluetooth)
 802.6DQDB (Distributed Queue Dual Bus)  802.16 Wireless MAN
 802.7Broadband Technical Advisory  802.17 Resilient Packet Ring
Group (BBTAG)  802.18 Radio Regulatory Technical
 802.8 Fiber Optic Technical Advisory Advisory Group (RRTAG)
Group (FOTAG)  802.19 Coexistence Technical
 802.9 Integrated Services LAN Advisory Group
(ISLAN) Interface  802.20 Mobile Broadband Wireless
 802.10 Standard for Interoperable Access (MBWA)
LAN Security (SILS)  802.21 Media Independent Handover

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.6
Network Categories
● Local Area Networks (LAN): 10m - few km, simple connection structure
● Ethernet/Fast Ethernet/Gigabit Ethernet/10Gigabit Ethernet
● Historical: Token Bus, Token Ring
LAN
● Historical: FDDI (up to 100 km, belongs rather to LANs)
● Wireless LAN (WLAN, up to a few 100 m)
● Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): 10 - 100 km, city range
● Historical
● DQDB
● FDDI II MAN
● Resilient Packet Ring
● today: Gigabit Ethernet, SDH
● Wide Area Networks (WAN): 100 – 10,000 km, interconnection of
subnetworks
● Frame Relay
● ATM WAN
● SDH

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.7
 Network Topologies

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.8
Bus

B
Terminating
resistor Example: Classical Ethernet
 

● Bus
● Broadcast Network: if station A intends to send data to station B, the message
reaches all connected stations. Only station B processes the data, all other
stations ignore it.
● Passive coupling of stations
● Restriction of the extension and number of stations to connected
● Simple, cheap, easy to connect new stations
● The breakdown of a station does not influence the rest of the network

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.9
Star
● Star
● Designated computer as central
station: a message of station A is
forwarded to station B via the
B central station
● Broadcast network (Hub) or point-
to-point connections (Switch)
● Expensive central station
● Vulnerability through central station
(Redundancy possible)
● N connections for N stations
A
● Easy connection of new stations

Example: Fast Ethernet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.10
Tree
● Tree
● Topology: Connection of several busses or stars
● Branching elements can be active (Router) or passive (Repeater)
● Bridging of large distances
● Adaptation to given geographical structure
● Minimization of the cable length possible

Branch 1 Branch 2

A
B C

Repeater Router

Backbone

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.11
Ring
● Ring
● Broadcast Network
● Chain of point-to-point connections
B
● Active stations: messages are
regenerated by the stations
(Repeater)
● Breakdown of the whole network in
case of failure of one single station
or connection
● Large extent possible
A ● Easy connection of new stations
● Only N connections for N stations
● Variant: bidirectional ring
● stations are connected by two
Example: Token Ring, FDDI
opposed rings

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.12
Meshed Networks
● Fully Meshed Network
● Point-to-Point connections between
all stations
● For N stations N ( N  1)
2
connections are needed
● Connecting a new station is a costly
process
● Redundant paths
● Maximal connection availability
through routing integration

Partly meshed network: cheaper, but routing, flow control,

and congestion control become necessary (Wide Area Networks)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.13
Examples
● Ethernet (IEEE 802.3, 10 Mbps)
● originally the standard network
● available in an “immense number” of variants

● Token Ring (IEEE 802.5, 4/16/100 Mbps)

● for a long time the Ethernet competitor
● extended to FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data
Interface)
● Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u, 100 Mbps)
● at the moment the most widely spread network
● extension of Ethernet for small distances
● Gigabit Ethernet (IEEE 802.3z, 1000 Mbps)
● very popular at the moment; 10 Gbps are
already in the planning phase at the moment

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.14
 The Channel Allocation Problem

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.15
The Channel Allocation Problem
● The channel allocation problem
● Given N independent stations which want to communicate over a single channel
● Organize the sending order of the stations

Medium
 Wire or wireless

● Approaches
● Static channel allocation
● Simple procedures
● Dynamic channel allocation
● Complex procedure, that adapt to changes

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.16
Static Channel Allocation
● Time Division Multiple Access ● Frequency Division Multiple
(TDMA) Access (FDMA)
● Each user gets the entire ● Each user gets a portion of the
transmission capacity for a fixed transmission capacity for the whole
time interval time
● Baseband transmission ● Frequency range
● Broadband transmission

Frequency Frequency

User 1
User 2
Time User 3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 Time

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.17
Static Channel Allocation
● Problems with static channel allocation
● Works only for a fixed number of users
● When number of users change, the allocation scheme does not work
● Data traffic is very often bursty, i.e., long time no data and for a short time high
data (ok for classical voice communication!)
● Thus, users do not use their allocated channel capacity
Most of the channels will be idle most of the time

Dynamic Channel Allocation

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.18
Dynamic Channel Allocation
● Assumptions on dynamic channel allocation
● Station Model
● There are N independent stations (computers) that generate frames for transmission.
● Single channel
● A single channel is available for communication and all stations can transmit and receive
on it.
● Collisions
● If two frames are transmitted simultaneously, they overlap and the signals are garbled.
● Time
● Continuous time: No master clock, transmission of frames can begin at anytime.
● Slotted time: Time is divided into discrete intervals called slots. Frame transmissions
begin always at the start of a slot.
● Sensing of the medium
● Carrier sense: Stations can sense channel and tell whether it is busy. If so, stations do
not start with transmissions.
● No carrier sense: Stations can not sense the channel.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.19
 Multiple Access Protocols

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.20
Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA
● Best known protocol: ALOHA
● Developed on the Hawaiian islands in 1970s: stations are connected by a satellite
● Very simple principle, no coordination:
● Stations are sending completely uncoordinated (random), all using the same frequency
● When two (or more) stations are sending at the same time, a collision occurs: both
messages are destroyed.
● Collisions occur even with very small overlaps!
● Vulnerability period: 2 times the length of a frame
● When a collision occurs, frames are repeated after a random time
● Problem: since traffic runs over a satellite a sender only hears after a very long time
whether the transmission was successful or not.

Collision

Sender A
Sender B
Sender C t

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.21
Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA
● Problem with ALOHA: even small overlaps result in transmission conflicts.
Therefore, often collisions result in many repetitions:
● No guaranteed response times
● Low throughput
● Improvement: Slotted ALOHA
● The time axis is divided into time slots (similar to TDMA, but time slots are not
firmly assigned to stations)
● The transmission of a block has to start at the beginning of a time slot
● Fewer collisions, vulnerability period of one frame length
● But: the stations must be synchronized!
Collision

Sender A
Sender B
Sender C t

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.22
Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA
● Performance of ALOHA
● Assumptions
● Infinite number of interactive users generating data
● Data is generated according to a Poisson distribution
● Poisson process
● Consider a time interval [0,t)
● Random variable X gives the number of events (packets, transmissions, …) in the
time interval of length t
● The probability that k events occur in the time t interval is given by

(  t ) k  t
P( X  k )  e
k!

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.23
Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA
● Performance of ALOHA
● Assumptions
● Data is generated according to a Poisson distribution X with mean G frames/s
● Collided frames are retransmitted
● Probability of k transmission trials per frame time is according to a Poisson distribution
with mean G k
G G
P( X  k )  e with G  t
k!
● Throughput (S) is given by the load (G) and the probability of a successful
transmission (P0)
S = G×P0
● What is a successful transmission?
● A frame is transmitted successful if no other frames are sent within one frame time

G 0 G
P0  P( X  0)  e  e G
0!
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.24
Multiple Access Protocols: ALOHA
G 0 G
● Probability of zero frames is: P( X  0)  e  e G
0!
● Collision time
● ALOHA: tc=2t
● Slotted ALOHA: tc=t
● Throughput
● ALOHA: S = G P0 = G e-2G Maximum
● Slotted ALOHA: S = G P0 = G e-G  Slotted ALOHA ~36%
 ALOHA ~18%

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.25
Multiple Access Protocols: CSMA
● Variant of ALOHA for networks with small distances exists
● Similar to ALOHA: no coordination of the stations
● But: each station which wants to send first examines whether already another
station is sending
● If nobody sends, the station begins to send
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)

● Notice
● This principle only works with networks having a short transmission delay
● Application of this principle for satellite systems is not possible, because there would be
no chance to know whether a conflict occurred before the end of the transmission
● Advantages: simple, because no master station and no tokens are needed;
nevertheless good utilization of the network capacity
● Disadvantage: no guaranteed medium access, a large delay up to beginning a
transmission is possible

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.26
Multiple Access Protocols: CSMA
● Persistent and Nonpersistent CSMA
● 1-persistent CSMA
● When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel.
● If channel busy, the station waits until it becomes idle.
● When channel is idle, station transmits a frame.
● When a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time and starts all over
again.
● 1-persistent = station transmits with probability of one if channel idle
● Nonpersistent CSMA
● When channel is busy, station waits a random time, and repeats
● p-persistent CSMA
● Applied in slotted channels (slotted ALOHA)
● If channel idle, station transmits with probability p in current slot and with probability
(1-p) it defers until next slot
● If next slot is idle, the station again transmits with probability p and defers with (1-p)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.27
Multiple Access Protocols: CSMA
● CSMA with Collision Detection: CSMA/CD
● Basis of classical Ethernet (not today’s versions with star topology!)
● A station who detects a collision stops immediately transmitting
● Afterwards it waits a random time and tries again

Frame Frame Frame Frame

Transmission Contention Idle period

period period

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.28
 Multiple Access Protocols
Collision-Free Protocols

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.29
Collision-Free Protocols: Reservation Protocols
● Communication follows in a two-phase scheme (alternating phases)
● Phase 1: Reservation
● In the reservation phase the sender makes a reservation by indicating the wish to send
data (or even the length of the data to be sent)
● Phase 2: Transmission
● In the transmission phase the data communication takes place (after successful
reservation)
● Advantage: very efficient use of the capacity
● Disadvantage:
● Delay by two-phase procedure
● Often a master station is needed, which cyclically queries all other stations whether they
have to send data. The master station assigns sending rights.

● Techniques for “easy” reservation without master station:

● Explicit reservation
● Implicit reservation

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.30
Collision-Free Protocols: Bit-Map Protocol
● Uses two frame types:
● reservation frame (very small) in the first phase
● data frame (constant length) in the second phase
● Variant 1: Without contention
● Only suitable for small number of users
● Each user i is assigned the i-th slot in the reservation frame. If it wants to send
data, it sets the i-th bit in the reservation frame to 1.
● After the reservation phase, all stations having set their reservation bit can send
their data in the order of their bits in the reservation frame.
reservation data frames of stations
frame having reserved

1 1 1 2 5 7 1 4 1 111

This procedure is called Bit-Map Protocol

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.31
Collision-Free Protocols: Bit-Map Protocol
● Variant 2: With contention
● For higher number of users
● The reservation frame consists of a limited number of contention slots (smaller
than the number of participating stations)
● Users try to get a contention slot (and by that make a reservation for a data slot)
by random choice, writing their station number into a slot
● If there is no collision in the reservation phase, a station may send.

reservation frame data frames of stations

with contention slots having reserved 22 31 5 22 31 34

17 45 4 17 45 4 11 11 25 12

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.32
Collision-Free Protocols: Binary Countdown
● Binary Countdown
● For large number of stations
● Binary station addresses, all
addresses to be the same length Bit time
● A station wanting to use the Stations 0 1 2 3
channel broadcasts its address as a
0010 0
binary string starting with the high-
order bit 0100 0
● The bits from different stations are 1001 1 0 0
ORed 1010 1 0 1 0
● As soon as a station sees that a Result 1 0 1 0
high-order bit position that is 0 in
its address has been overwritten to
a 1, gives up
● Example: four stations with
addresses 0010, 0100, 1001, 1010

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.35
 Multiple Access Protocols
Limited Contention Protocols

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.36
Limited Contention Protocols: Adaptive Tree Walk
● Adaptive Tree Walk Protocol
● Stations are the leaves of a binary tree
● In the first contention slot following a successful frame, slot 0, all stations (A-H)
are permitted to try to acquire the channel
● If collision, during slot 1 only stations under node 2 (A-D) may compete
● If one gets the channel, next slot is reserved for stations under node 3 (E-H)
● If collision, during slot 2, only stations under node 4 (A, B)

2 3

4 5 6 7

A B C D E F G H

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.37
Coordination by using a Token
● Introduction of a token (determined bit sequence)
● Only the owner of the token is allowed to send 1
● Token is cyclically passed on between all stations
● particularly suitable for ring topologies 5 2
● Token Ring (4/16/100 Mbps)

4 3
● Characteristics Passing on of the token

● Guaranteed accesses, no collisions

● Very good utilization of the network capacity, high efficiency
● Fair, guaranteed response times
● Possible: multiple tokens
● But: complex and expensive

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.38
 Ethernet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.39
Ethernet
● Evolution of Ethernet
● 1970s on Hawaii ALOHANET (Abramson)
● Connecting computers on islands over radio
● Two channels
● Uplink shared by the clients (collision may occur)
● Downlink exclusively used by main computer
● Packets are acked by main computer
● Good performance under low traffic, but bad under heavy load
● 1970's: experimental network on the basis of coaxial cables, data rate of 3 Mbps.
Developed by the Xerox Corporation as a protocol for LANs with sporadic but
bursty traffic.
● 1976 Ethernet by Robert Metcalf at Xerox Parc
● Ether: luminiferous ether through which electromagnetic radiation was thought to
propagate
● Improvements to ALOHANET
● Listen to the medium before transmitting

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.40
Ethernet
● 1978: Development of 10 Mbps-variant by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC),
Intel Corporation, and Xerox (DIX-standard)
● 1983: DIX-standard became
the IEEE 802.3 standard
● Metcalf founded 3Com
● Sold many, many million Ethernet adapters

● Original Ethernet structure:

● Bus topology with a maximum segment length of 500 meters, connection of a
maximum of 100 passive stations.
● Repeaters are used to connect several segments.
● Most common medium: Copper cable.
● In addition, optical fibers are used (the segment length increases).
● Early 90's: the bus topology is displaced more and more by a star topology, in
which a central hub or switch (based on Twisted Pair or Optical Fiber) realizes
connections to all stations.
● The switch offers the advantage that several connections can run in parallel.
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.41
Ethernet - historical
● Based on the standard IEEE 802.3 “CSMA/CD”
(Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection)
● Several (passive) stations - one shared medium (random access)
● Originally, bus topology:

1. Is the medium available?

(Carrier Sense) ?

2. Data transmission ?

3. Check for collisions (Collision Detection)

If so: send jamming signal and stop
transmission. Go on with binary
exponential backoff algorithm

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.42
 Carrier Sense Multiple Access
Principle:
 listen to the medium before sending
 send only if the medium is free

S1
1. Station S1 sends
Message from S1

Signal expansion 2. Station S2 also wants Expansion of the signal on

also in other to send but notices that
S2 the medium
direction a transmission already
takes place.

 Advantages: simple, since no mechanisms are needed for the coordination;

with some extensions nevertheless a good utilization of the network capacity

 Disadvantage: no guaranteed access, a large delay before sending is possible

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.43
Problem with CSMA

Problem: the message which is sent by S1 spreads with finite speed on the
medium. Therefore, it can be that S2 only thinks that the medium would be free,
although S1 already has begun with the transmission. It comes to a collision:
both messages overlap on the medium and become useless.

Note: the signals from S1 and S2

also expand to the left direction,
not shown here for
S1 simplification of the figure.
1. Station S1 sends
Message from S1 Message from S2

2. Station S2 also Expansion of the signal on

wants to send and the medium
thinks the medium
S2
would be free.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.44
Detection of Collisions
Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD)
● Principle:
● like CSMA
● additionally: stop the transmission if a collision occurs

Maximum distance in the network

S1 S2
S1 sends
S2 sends

S2 detects the
S1 detects the conflict and conflict and stops.
knows that the transmission Transmission of a
has to be repeated. jamming signal.
Time Only small overlapping, but nevertheless
both messages are destroyed

Note: with increasing expansion of the network the risk of a conflict also increases.
Therefore, this technology is suitable only for “small” networks (Ethernet)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.45
Data transmission with CSMA/CD
● When does the collision detection in CSMA/CD work correctly?
● The maximum time for the detection of a collision is about twice as long as the
signal propagation delay on the medium.
● First compromise: one wants to create large networks, but although to have a
small probability of collisions …
● Result: the maximum expansion of the network is specified as 2,500m.
● At a signal speed of approximately 2,00,000 km/s (5 µs/km) the maximum signal
propagation delay (with consideration of the time in repeaters) is less than 25
µs.
● The maximum conflict duration thereby is less than 50 µs. To be sure to
recognize a collision, a sending station has to listen to the medium at least for
this time.
● Arrangement: a station only listens to the medium as long as it sends data.
● Based on a transmission rate of 10 Mbps a minimum frame length (64 byte) was
defined in order to make a collision detection possible.
● The 64 bytes need the maximum conflict duration of 50 µs

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.46
Performance of CSMA/CD
● The performance of Ethernet systems depends on the vulnerability part a:
Data still Data already sent
to send

● a is the fraction of a frame which the sender has to transmit until the first bit
crossed the network
● If a station begins to send during the time a needs to cross the network, a conflict
arises
● The smaller a is, the better is the performance of the network
● a is small …
● when the network is small
● when frames are large
● when capacity is low
● Conclusion: the best network has nearly zero size, nearly zero capacity, and a station
should never stop sending.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.47
Ethernet: Encoding on the Physical Layer
● No directly usage of binary encoding with 0 volts for a 0-bit and 5 volts for
a 1-bit
● Synchronization problems
● Manchester Encoding
● Transition in the middle of a bit
● The high signal is at +0.85 volts and the low signal at -0.85 volts
● Disadvantage: twice bandwidth, i.e., to send 10Mbps, 20MHz is required

0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
+ 0.85 volt
0 volt
- 0.85 volt

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.48
The Ethernet Frame
Byte 7 1 6 6 2 0-1500 0-46 4
Preamble SFD DA SA L/T Data Padding FCS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

1: 7 byte synchronization 5: 2 byte length (IEEE 802.3)/type

Each byte contains 10101010 (Ethernet)
2: 1 byte start frame delimiter (SFD) • In 802.3: Indication of the length of the
data field (range: 0 - 1500 byte)
Marking of the begin of the frame by • In Ethernet: identification of the upper
the byte 10101011 layer protocol, e.g., IP, IPX, etc.
3: 6 (2) byte destination address 6: (0 – 1500) byte data
MAC address of receiver
7: (0 – 46) byte padding
4: 6 (2) byte source address • Filling up of the frame to at least 64 byte
MAC address of sender (smaller fragments in the network are
discarded, exception the jamming signal)
8: 4 byte Frame Check Sequence (FCS).
Use of a cyclic code (CRC).
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.49
The Ethernet Frame
● Preamble: marks a following transmission and synchronizes the receiver
with the sender.
● The Start-of-Frame-Delimiter (resp. the two successive ones) indicates
that finally data are coming.
● Destination address: the first bit determines the kind of receiver:
● First bit 0: an individual station
● First bit 1: a group address (multicast)
● Broadcast is given by 11…1
● Length(/Type): In IEEE 802.3 a value ≤1500 indicates the length of the
data part.
● In Ethernet, the meaning is changed, identifying the layer-3 protocol to which
the data have to be passed.
● For distinction from IEEE 802.3, only values from 1536 are permitted.
● FCS: Checksum, 32-bit (CRC).
● It covers the fields DA, SA, length/type, data/padding.
● Error detection

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.50
The Ethernet Frame: Addresses
● MAC address 6 byte 1 2 3 4 5 6
● Originally invented at Xerox PARC
● Unicast or
● Multicast Organizationally Unique Network Interface
● Broadcast Identifier (OUI) Controller (NIC) Specific

● Administrative
b1 b2 b3 b4 b5 b6 b7 b8
● Globally unique, assigned by IEEE
● Locally administered
0: unicast
1: multicast
● Tools
0: globally unique
● Windows: getmac, ipconfig /all, arp -a 1: locally administered
● Linux: ifconfig, cat /proc/net/arp
● http://www.heise.de/netze/tools/mac-adressen

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.51
The Ethernet Frame: Network Analyzer
● Network packet analyzer:
Wireshark
● http://www.wireshark.org/

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.52
 Ethernet
Resolving Transmission Conflicts

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.53
Resolving Transmission Conflicts
● What to do after a collision detection?
● Different categories of reaction methods

● Non-persistent (example: ALOHA):

● After a conflict, wait a random time afterwards start a new transmission
● Problem: possibly inefficient utilization of the medium

● 1-persistent
● Idea: it is very unlikely that during a current transmission two or more new
messages appear
● Start the next transmission attempt as soon as possible, thus as soon as the
channel is free or becomes free after having been busy / after a conflict
● Problem: Subsequent conflicts!

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.54
Resolving Transmission Conflicts
● p-persistence:
● In this variant conflicts between concurrently waiting messages should be
avoided
● In a free channel transmission takes place only with probability p
● In case of a conflict, a message needs on the average 1/p attempts

● But: how to select p?

● p large  high risk for subsequent conflicts
● p small  long waiting periods
●p = 0  not possible
●p= 1  1-persistent

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.55
Resolving Transmission Conflicts
● Performance of Ethernet
● Ethernet at 10 Mbps with 512-bit
slot times
● Assumptions
● T : Time to transmit a frame
●  : Propagation on cable
● A: Probability that a station gets the
channel

T
Channel efficieny 
T  2A

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.56
Resolving Transmission Conflicts

Compared to ALOHA, CSMA in any form has a good efficiency

(based on a mathematical modeling of network traffic)

Nevertheless for Ethernet a further procedure was developed: the

Binary Exponential Backoff mechanism

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.57
Resolving Collisions in Ethernet: Binary Exponential Backoff

● Binary Exponential Backoff (BEB)

● In order to avoid the simultaneous repetition of transmissions after a
collision (subsequent collision), a random waiting period is drawn from a
given interval.
● The interval is kept small, in order to avoid long waiting periods up to the repetition.
● Thus, the risk of a subsequent conflict is high.
● If it comes to a further collision, the interval before the next attempt is increased, in
order to create more clearance for all sending parties.
● The waiting period is determined as follows:
● After i collisions, a station throws a random number x from the interval [0, 2i-1]
● After 10 collisions, the interval remains fixed with [0, 210-1]
● After the 16-th collision a station aborts the transmission completely
● As soon as the medium is free, the sender waits for x time slots, whereby a time
slot corresponds to the minimum Ethernet frame length of 512 bits (for a 10
Mbps Ethernet this corresponds to the maximum conflict period of 51,2 µs).
● After the x-th time slot the station becomes active with carrier sense.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.58
Resolving Collisions in Ethernet: Binary Exponential Backoff

● Advantage:
● Short waiting periods (by small interval) if not much traffic is present
● Distribution of repetitions (by large interval) if much traffic is present

● Disadvantage:
● Stations having a subsequent conflict during a repetition have to draw a random
waiting period from an interval twice as large. If they are having a further
conflict, the interval again is doubled, …
● Thus, single stations can be disadvantaged.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.59
 Ethernet
Types of Ethernet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.60
Ethernet

Based on IEEE 802.3 “CSMA/CD” http://www.ethernetalliance.org

4 classes of Ethernet variants: Still partly in use
● Standard Ethernet  10 Mbps Today the most common used variant
● Fast Ethernet  100 Mbps Also used in MANs
● Gigabit Ethernet  1,000 Mbps Standardized not long ago

● 10Gigabit Ethernet  10,000 Mbps

Ethernet became generally accepted within the LAN range.

It is used in most LANs as infrastructure:
● It is simple to understand, to build, and to maintain
● The network is cheap in the acquisition
● The topology allows high flexibility
● No compatibility problems, each manufacturer knows and complies
with the standard

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.61
Ethernet Parameters

Parameter Ethernet Fast Gigabit

Ethernet Ethernet

Maximum expansion ≤ 2500 meters 205 meters 200 meters

Capacity 10 Mbps 100 Mbps 1000 Mbps

Minimum frame
64 byte 64 byte 520 byte
length
Maximum frame
1526 byte 1526 byte 1526 byte
length
4B/5B code,
Manchester
Signal representation 8B/6T code, 8B/10B code,…
code
…
Max number of
5 2 1
repeaters Additionally, for the jamming a certain 4 byte pattern is sent.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.62
Naming of Ethernet Variants

Indication of the used Ethernet variant by 3 name components:

1. Capacity in Mbps (10, 100, 1000, 10G)
2. Transmission technology (e.g. Base for baseband, Broad for broadband)
3. Maximum segment length in units of the medium used by 100 meters, resp.
type of medium

Examples:
● 10Base-5: 10 Mbps, baseband, 500 meters of segment length
● 100Base-T2: 100 Mbps, baseband, two Twisted Pair cables (i.e. two cores)
● 1000Base-X: 1000 Mbps, baseband, optical fiber

Some parameters depend on the variant, e.g., the minimum frame length
(because of different signal propagation delay):
● 1000Base-X: minimum frame length of 416 bytes
● 1000Base-T: minimum frame length of 520 bytes

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.63
 Ethernet
Basic Ethernet (10Base) - historical

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.64
Ethernet - Configurations

up100  100
to 100 Stationen
Stations
Stationen
 100 Stationen

Segment1
Segment1
Segment1
Repeater
 50 m  50 m
Repeater
Repeater
 50 m Segment2
Segment2
Segment2
 2.5 m 2.5 mTerminator
Terminator
 2.5 m Terminator
 500 m 500 m
 500 m
Grundeinheit: Segment Kopplung zweier Segmente
Basic configuration:
Grundeinheit: segment
Segment
Grundeinheit: Segment Connection
Kopplung of segments
zweier through
Segmente a repeater
Kopplung zweier Segmente

50 m 50 m 500 m
500 m 500 m
50 m 500 m
500 m 500 m
50 m 50 m 50 m 50 m
50 m 50 m
50 m 50 m
50 m
500 m 500 m
500 m
50 m Glasfaserkabel
50 m 50 m 50 m Glasfaserkabel
Optical fiber
Glasfaserkabel
50 m 50 m
1000 m1000 m
1000 m
Ethernet
Ethernet maximaler
maximaler Länge Länge
Ethernet maximaler Länge
Ethernet with maximum range

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.65
10Base-2 (Cheapernet)
● Cheap coaxial cable (flexible)
● Thin Ethernet
● Terminals are attached with BNC connectors
● Max. 5 segments (connected by repeaters)
● Max. 30 stations per segment
● At least 0.5 m distance between connections
● Max. 185 m segment length
● Maximum expansion 925 m

BNC plug

Coaxial cable

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.66
10Base-2 (Cheapernet)
Coax cable

Branch connection (T-Stück)

Terminator

Transceiver

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.67
10Base-T (Twisted Pair)
● Star topology using twisted pair: several devices are connected by a hub
● Devices are attached by a RJ-45 plug (Western plug),
however only 2 of the 4 pairs of the cables are used
● Cable length to the hub max. 100 m
● Total extension thereby max. 200 m
● Long time the most commonly used variant

Hub

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.68
10Base-F
● Ethernet with Fiber optics
● Expensive
● Excellent noise immunity
● Used when distant buildings have to be connected
● Often used due to security issues, since wiretapping of fiber is difficult

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.69
 Ethernet
Fast Ethernet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.70
 Fast Ethernet
● Principle: still use the Ethernet principles, but make it faster
● Compatibility with existing Ethernet networks
● 100 Mbps as data transmission rate, achieved by better technology, more
efficient codes, utilization of several pairs of cables, switches,…
● Result: IEEE 802.3u, 1995
● Problem
● The minimum frame length for collision detection with Ethernet is 64 byte.
● With 100 Mbps the frame is sent about 10 times faster, so that a collision
detection is not longer ensured.
● Result: for Fast Ethernet the expansion had to be reduced approx. by the factor
10 to somewhat more than 200 meters …
● Therefore, its concept is based on 10Base-T with a central hub/switch.
● Auto configuration
● Negotiation of speed
● Negotiation on communication mode (half-duplex, full-duplex)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.71
100Base-T (Fast Ethernet)
● 100Base-T4
● Twisted pair cable (UTP) of category 3 (cheap)
● Uses all 4 cable pairs: one to the hub, one from the hub, the other two
depending upon the transmission direction
● Encoding uses 8B/6T (8 bits map to 6 trits)
● 100Base-TX
● Twisted pair cable (UTP) of category 5 (more expensive, but less absorption)
● Uses only 2 cable pairs, one for each direction
● Encoding uses 4B/5B
● The most used 100 Mbps version
● 100Base-FX
● Optical fiber, uses one fiber per direction
● Maximum cable length to the hub: 400 meters
● Variant: Cable length up to 2 km when using a switch. Hubs are not permitted
here, since with this length no collision detection is possible anymore. In the
case of using a good switch, no more collisions arise!

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.72
 Ethernet
Gigabit Ethernet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.73
Gigabit Ethernet
● 1998 the IEEE standardized the norm 802.3z, “Gigabit Ethernet”
● Again: compatibility to (Fast) Ethernet has to be maintained!
● Problem: for collision detection a reduction of the cable length to 20 meters
would be necessary … “Very Local Area Network”
● Auto configuration as in Fast Ethernet (data, half-duplex, duplex, …)
● Therefore, the expansion remained the same as for Fast Ethernet – instead a
new minimum frame length of 512 byte was specified by extending the
standard frame by a ‘nodata’ field (after the FCS, because of compatibility to
Ethernet). This procedure is called Carrier Extension.
● It is added by the hardware, the software part does not know
● When a frame is passed on from a Gigabit Ethernet to a Fast Ethernet, the ‘nodata’
part is simply removed and the frame can be used like a normal Ethernet frame.

Length
PRE SFD DA SA DATA Padding FCS nodata
/Type
Preamble Start Del.
7 byte 1 byte

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.74
Gigabit Ethernet
● With Gigabit Ethernet the sending of several successive frames is possible
(Frame Bursting) without using CSMA/CD repeatedly.
● The sending MAC controller fills the gaps between the frames with
“Interframe-bits” (IFG), thus for other stations the medium is occupied.

MAC frame
(including nodata field) IFG MAC frame IFG …. MAC frame

● Under normal conditions, within Gigabit Ethernet no more hubs are used.
In the case of using a switch no more collisions occur, therefore the
maximum cable length is only determined by the signal absorption.
 usage for backbone connections in the MAN area

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.75
1000Base-T/X (Gigabit Ethernet)
● 1000Base-T
● Based on Fast Ethernet
● Twisted pair cable (Cat. 5/6/7, UTP); use of 4 pairs of cables
● Segment length: 100 m
● 1000Base-CX
● Shielded Twisted Pair cable (STP); use of 2 pairs of cables
● Segment length: 25 m
● Not often used
● 1000Base-SX
● Multimode fiber with 550 m segment length
● Transmission on the 850 nm band Added later:
● 1000Base-LX 1000Base-LH
● Single- or multimode over 5000 m • Single mode on 1550 nm
● Transmission on 1300 nm • Range up to 70 km
• MAN!

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.76
Ethernet: 10-Gigabit Ethernet
● 10-Gigabit Ethernet, IEEE 802.3ae
● (First) only specified for optical fiber (LX or SX)
● Star topology using a switch
● CSMA/CD is no longer used since no collisions can occur (but nevertheless
implemented for compatibility with older Ethernet variants regarding frame
format and size …)
● It may also be used also in the MAN/WAN range: 10 - 40 km (Mono mode)
● Most important change: two specifications on physical layer (PHY)
● One PHY for LANs with 10 Gbps
● One PHY for WANs with 9,6215 Gbps (for compatibility with SDH/SONET, see Wide Area
Networks)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.77
10G Ethernet: Variants
Wavelength Range
Name Type PHY Coding Fiber
[nm] [m]

10GBase-SR serial 850 LAN 64B/66B Multimode 26 – 65

10GBase-LR serial 1310 LAN 64B/66B Singlemode 10,000

10GBase-ER serial 1550 LAN 64B/66B Singlemode 40,000

Singlemode 10,000
10GBase-LX4 WWDM 1310 LAN 8B/10B
Multimode 300

10GBase-SW serial 850 WAN 64B/66B Multimode 26 – 65

10GBase-LW serial 1310 WAN 64B/66B Singlemode 10,000

10GBase-EW serial 1550 WAN 64B/66B Singlemode 40,000

S: short serial: “normal” transmission

L: long WWDM: Wide Wavelength Division Multiplex
E: extended

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.78
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

Technical principle Wavelength Division Multiplexing: transmit data using four

different wavelengths in parallel:

1 1

2 2

DEMUX
MUX

3 1 + 2 + 3 +4 3

4 4

Data are distributed to four wavelengths – how to apply this concept to copper
cables?

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.79
Are Variants for Twisted Pair possible?
● Some years ago: no, impossible!
● But now e.g.:
● IEEE 802.3ak: 10GBASE-CX4 (Coax)
● Four pairs of cable for each direction
● Cable length of up to 15 meters …
● IEEE 802.3an: 10GBASE-T (Cat. 6/7 TP)
● Cat6 (50 meters) or Cat7 (100 meters) cabling
● Use of all 8 lines in the TP cable – in both directions in parallel!
● Filters for each cable to separate sending and receiving signal
● Layer 1: Variant of Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) with 16 discrete levels
between -1 and +1 Volt (PAM16)
● MAC-Layer: keep old Ethernet-Formats …

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.80
And what’s next?
● Maybe combined with full optical networks?
● Optical multiplexers, optical switches
● But at the moment only tested in labs, expensive

● 100G-Ethernet under work (http://www.ethernetalliance.org)

● Data rates from 40G to 100G – currently under test (40GBASE, 100GBASE)
● E.g. IEEE 802.3bg: 40 Gbit/s optical, 802.3bj copper cable!
● Variants for 100 m and 10 km with duplex communication

● Ethernet is still developing (http://www.ieee802.org/3/)

We have a number of active projects as listed below:
IEEE P802.3 (IEEE 802.3bh) Revision to IEEE Std 802.3-2008 Task Force.
IEEE P802.3.1 (IEEE 802.3.1a) Revision to IEEE Std 802.3.1-2011 Ethernet MIBs TF.
IEEE P802.3bj 100 Gb/s Backplane and Copper Cable Task Force.
IEEE 802.3 Next Generation 100 Gb/s Optical Ethernet Study Group.
IEEE 802.3 Extended EPON Study Group.
IEEE 802.3 EPON Protocol over a Coax (EPoC) PHY Study Group.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.81
 IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control
Revisited for Ethernet

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.82
IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control
● Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 protocols offer only best effort
● Unreliable datagram service (No acks)
● What to do if error-control and flow-control is required?
● Logical Link Control (LLC)
● Runs on top of Ethernet and other IEEE 802.3 protocols
● Provides a single frame format and interface to the network layer
● Hides differences between the protocols
● Based on HDLC
● LLC provides
● Unreliable datagram service
● Acknowledged datagram service
● Reliable connection oriented service
● LLC header contains
● Destination access point  Which process to deliver?
● Source access point
● Control field  Seq- and ack-numbers

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.83
IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control
● Relationship between Network Layer, LLC, and MAC
● Network layer passes packet to LLC
● LLC adds header with sequence number and ack number
 packet is inserted into the payload of a frame

Network Layer Packet

Data LLC LLC Packet

Link
Layer MAC MAC LLC Packet MAC

Physical Layer

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.84
IEEE 802.2: Logical Link Control

Preamble SFD DA SA L/T Data Padding FCS

Byte 1 1 1 or 2

DSAP SSAP Control Information

Bit 7 7

I/G DSAP Value C/R SSAP Value

DSAP Destination Service Access Point

SSAP Source Service Access Point
I/G Individual/Group
C/R Command/Response

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.85
 Token Bus
Basic principle of interest – standard itself is historical

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.86
Token Bus
● Token Bus
● LAN with ring topology
● Token = Small frame, that circulates
● Only the node who possesses the token may send
● One example for a token network: IEEE 802.4 “Token Bus”
● All stations should be treated equally, i.e., they have to pass the token cyclically
● For this: logical ordering of all stations into a ring
● In a bus topology, the ordering is according the station addresses

49 62 17 33

12 42 21 5 15

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.87
Token Bus
● Application Area
● Mainly for industrial applications
● Forced by General Motors for their
Manufacturing Automation Protocol
standardization effort
● Usage e.g. as a field bus (Feldbus
in German) in industrial
environments with a high degree of
noise.
● Purpose: e.g. roboter control; a few
masters, many slaves (they only
listen).
● Data rate is not that important, but
guarantees in response times are
necessary (not possible with
Ethernet).

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.88
But… “Industrial Ethernet”
● The Token-Bus approach is more and more displaced by Ethernet variants,
e.g.:
● EtherCAT (since 2003, http://www.ethercat.org/)
● Fast Ethernet based on a bus, star, or tree topology (very flexible)
● Uses TP or optical fiber as medium
● Synchronization necessary between all stations
● A master station polls the other stations with a single Ethernet frame – each
station has its one time slot to read out/write in data
● Ethernet Powerlink (http://www.ethernet-powerlink.org/)
● Introduction of time slots and a cyclic timing schedule
● Whole time axis is divided into isochronous and asynchronous phases
● Isochronous: for time-critical data transfer
● Asynchronous: for non-time-critical data transfer
● A managing node assigns time slots (in both phases!): in the isochronous phase
to all stations, in the asynchronous phase to one particular station

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.89
 Token Ring
Basic principle of interest – standard itself is historical

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.90
Token Ring
● Token Ring
● LAN with ring topology
1
● Token = Small frame, that circulates k 2
● Only the node who possesses the token may send
● Based on the standard IEEE 802.5 “Token Ring”
● The stations share a ring of point-to-point connections … 3
● The token is cyclically passed on
● particularly suitable for rings
Passing on the token
● Token Ring (4/16/100 Mbps)
● Mainly supported by IBM
● Characteristics:
● Guaranteed access, no collisions
● Fair, guaranteed response times
● Possible: multiple tokens
● However: complex and expensive

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.91
Token Ring
● Performance
● Under light load: inefficient, since a station has to wait for the token
● Under heavy load: efficient and fair
● Round robin fashion transmission of stations
● Disadvantage
● Token maintenance
● Lost token can block the network
● Duplication of token
● Monitor station observes the ring
● Central entity

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.92
CSMA/CD vs. Token Bus vs. Token Ring
● CSMA/CD ● Token Bus ● Token Ring
● Advantages ● Advantages ● Advantages
● Widely deployed, high ● More deterministic than ● full digital
expertise and experience CSMA/CD ● Automatic recognition and
● Simple protocol ● Short frames possible elimination of cable
● Installation of stations ● Provides priorities problems by wiring-centers
during operation (plug-and- ● Provides guarantees ● Provides priorities
play) ● Short frames possible,
● Passive cable frame length restricted by
● Low delay by low traffic token hold time
● Good performance by high
load
● Disadvantages ● Disadvantages ● Disadvantages
● Analogous components, min. ● Protocol is complicated ● Central monitor
frame length 64 byte, max. ● Lost tokens may cause big ● Delay by low load
frame length 1500 byte problems ● Problems at the monitor
● Probabilistic, no priorities ● Analog components may affect the whole ring
● Limited cable length ● Long delay due to token
● Poor performance by high exchange
load

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.93
Token Ring vs. CSMA/CD

Mean
Delay 10 Data rate: 10 Mbps
[ms] Frame length: 1500 byte
Cable length: 2.5 km
8
Number of stations: 100
CSMA/CD
(unlimited Delay)
6
Token Ring
(Delay is limited)
4

0 (normalized)
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 Throughput

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.94
 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
Basic principle of interest – standard itself is historical

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.95
Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
● FDDI is a high performance token ring LAN based on optical fibers
● ANSI standard X3T9.5
● Data rates of 100 Mbps
● Range of up to 200 km (MAN?)
● Support of up to 1000 stations, with distances of maximally 2 km
● Often used as Backbone for small LANs

FDDI
802.5 802.3 LAN
LAN

● Successor: FDDI-II, supports besides normal data also synchronous circuit

switched PCM data (speech) and ISDN traffic
● Variant: CDDI (Copper Distributed Data Interface), with 100 Mbps over
Twisted Pair

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.96
Structure of FDDI
Wiring within FDDI: 2 optical fiber rings with opposite transmission direction

● During normal operation, only the primary ring is

used, the secondary ring remains in readiness
● If the ring breaks, the other one (also called
protection ring) can be used.
● If both rings break or if a station fails, the rings
can be combined into only one, which has double
length:

Two classes of stations exist: DAS (Dual Attachment Station) can be attached to
both rings, the cheaper SAS (Single Attachment Station) are only attached to one
ring.
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.97
 Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.98
Structured Cabling
● Why do we need a structured cabling?

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.99
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.100
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.101
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.102
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.103
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.104
Structured Cabling
● Structured cabling: Partitioning of
a network, i.e., cabling
infrastructure, which is connected
to a backbone or a central switch
● Each user outlet is cabled to a
communications closet using
individual cables
● In the communications closet the
user outlets terminate on patch
panels
● Patch panels are mounted usually
on 19“ racks

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.105
Structured Cabling
● Advantages of structured cabling
● Consistency
● Usage of the same cabling systems for data, voice, and video
● Support for multi-vendor equipment
● A standard based cable system will support equipment from different vendors
● Simplify modifications
● Supports the changes in within the system, e.g., adding, changing, and moving of
equipment
● Simplify troubleshooting
● Problems are less likely to down the entire network and simplifies the isolation and
fixing of problems
● Support for future applications
● Support for fault isolation
● By dividing the entire infrastructure into simple manageable blocks, it is easy to test and
isolate specific points of fault and correct them

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.106
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.107
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.108
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.109
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.110
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.111
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.112
Structured Cabling

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.113
 Wide Area Networks (WAN)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.114
Wide Area Networks
● Characteristics of Wide Area Networks
● Bridging of any distance
● Usually for covering of a country or a continent
● Topology is normally irregular due to orientation to current needs.
● Therefore, not the shared access to a medium is the core idea, but the thought “how to
achieve the fast and reliable transmission of as much data as possible over a long
distance”.
● Usually quite complex interconnections of sub-networks which are owned by
different operators
● No broadcast, but point-to-point connections
● Range: several 1000 km
● Examples:
● Frame Relay
WAN
● Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
● Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.115
Transmission Technologies for WANs
● Point-to-Point Links
● Provision of a single WAN connection from a customer to a remote network
● Example: telephone lines. Usually communication resources are leased from the
provider.
● Accounting is based on the leased capacity and the distance to the receiver.
● Circuit Switching
● A connection is established when required, communication resources are
reserved exclusively. After the communication process, the resources are
released.
● Example: Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN)
● Packet Switching
● “Enhancement” of the “Circuit Switching” and the Point-to-Point links.
● Shared usage of the resources of one provider by several users, i.e., one physical
connection is used by several virtual resources.
● Shared usage reduces costs

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.116
Transmission Technologies for WANs
● Circuit Switching
● Reservation of resources for the
time of the connection

● Packet Switching
● Sharing of the resources

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.117
Packet Switching
● Packet Switching is the most common communication technology in WANs
today
● The provider of communication resources provides virtual connections (virtual
circuits, circuit switching) between remote stations/networks, the data are
transferred in the form of packets.
● Examples: Frame Relay, ATM, OSI X.25

● Two types of Virtual Circuits:

● Switched Virtual Circuits (SVCs)
● Useful for senders with sporadic transmission wishes.
● A virtual connection is established, data are transferred, after the transmission the
connection is terminated and the resources are released.
● Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVCs)
● Useful for senders which need to transfer data permanently.
● The connection is established permanently, there exists only the phase of the data
transfer.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.118
 Frame Relay

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.119
Frame Relay Network Implementation

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.120
Frame Relay
● Based on Packet Switching, i.e., the transmission of data packets
● Originally designed for the use between ISDN devices, usage has spread further
● The packets can have variable length
● Statistical Multiplexing (i.e. “mixing” of different data streams) for controlling
the network access.
● This enables a flexible, efficient use of the available bandwidth
● A first standardization took place 1984 by the CCITT. However, it did not result
in a complete specification.
● Therefore, in 1990 Northern Telecom, StrataCom, Cisco, and DEC formed a
consortium that build up upon the incomplete specification and developed some
extensions to Frame Relay which should make a usage in the complex Internet
environment possible.
These extensions were called Local Management Interface (LMI)
Due to their success, ANSI and CCITT standardized own LMI variants
● Frame Relay finally became internationally standardized by the ITU-T, in the
USA by ANSI.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.121
Structure of Frame Relay
● Purpose: simple, connection-oriented technology for economic transmission
of data with acceptable speed
● Data transmission rates of 56 Kbps up to 45 Mbps can be leased
● Mostly used for permanent virtual connections for which no signaling for the
connection establishment is necessary
● Two device categories can be distinguished:
● Data Terminal Equipment (DTE)
typically in the possession of the end user, for example PC, router, bridges, …
● Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment (DCE)
in the possession of a provider. DCEs realize the transmission process. Usually they
are implemented as packet switches.

DTE
DTE
DCE

DTE

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.122
Communication within Frame Relay
● Frame Relay offers connection-oriented communication on the LLC layer:
● Between two DTEs a virtual connection is established. It is identified by a unique
connection identifier (Data-Link Connection Identifier, DLCI).
● Note: DLCIs only refer to one hop, not to the entire connection; in addition they are
only unique in a LAN, not globally:

DLCI DLCI

12 22

27 45
DTE 62 36 DTE

89 62

● The virtual connection offers a bidirectional communication path.

● Several virtual connections can be multiplexed to a single physical
connection (reduction of equipment and network complexity).

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.123
Communication within Frame Relay
● Frame Relay offers two types of connections
● Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC)
● Temporary connections used when sporadic data transfer between DTEs is
required
● Four states
● Call setup: Establish virtual circuit between two DTEs
● Data transfer: Transmit data
● Idle: Connection is active, but no data to transfer
● Call termination: Bring down the virtual circuit
● Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC)
● Permanent established connections for consistent data transfers between DTEs
● Do not require a call setup, two states
● Data transfer: Transmit data
● Idle: No data to transfer
 Small protocol overhead, high data transmission rates

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.124
Flow Control within Frame Relay
● Flow Control in Frame Relay
● Frame Relay does not possess an own flow control mechanism for controlling the
traffic of each virtual connection.
● Frame Relay is used typically on reliable network media, therefore flow control
can be left over to higher layers.
● Instead: Notification mechanism (Congestion Notification) to report bottlenecks
to higher protocol layers, if a control mechanism on a higher layer is
implemented.
● There are two mechanisms for Congestion Notification:
● Forward-Explicit Congestion Notification (FECN)
● Initiated, when a DTE sends frames into the network
● In case of overload, the DCEs (switches) in the network set a special FECN bit to 1
● If the frame arrives at the receiver with set FECN bit, it recognizes that an overload on
the virtual connection is present. The information is relayed to higher layers.
● Backward-Explicit Congestion Notification (BECN)
● Similarly to FECN, but the BECN bit is set in frames which are transmitted in the
opposite direction from frames with set FECN bit
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.125
 Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.126
ATM for the Integration of Data and
Telecommunication
Telecommunication Data communication
● Primary goal: Telephony ● Primary goal: Data transfer
● Connection-oriented ● Connectionless
● Firm dispatching of resources ● Flexible dispatching of resources
● Performance guarantees ● No performance guarantees
● Unused resources are lost ● Efficient use of resources
● Small end-to-end delay ● Variable end-to-end delay

Time Division Multiplexing Statistical Multiplexing

bandwidth allocation bandwidth allocation

t t

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.127
Characteristics of ATM
● Characteristics of ATM
● ITU-T standard (resp. ATM forum) for cell transmission
● Integration of data, speech, and video transmissions
● Combines advantages of
● Circuit Switching (granted capacity and constant delay)
● Packet Switching (flexible and efficient transmission)
● Cell-based Multiplexing and Switching technology
● Connection-oriented communication: virtual connections are established
● Guarantee of quality criteria for the desired connection (bandwidth, delay, …)
● For doing so, resources are being reserved in the switches.
● No flow control and error handling
● Supports PVCs, SVCs, and connection-less transmission
● Data rates: 34, 155, or 622 Mbps (optical fiber)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.129
ATM Cells
● No packet switching, but
cell switching: like time Payload
Cell
header
division multiplexing, but
without reserved time slots 48 byte 5 byte
● Fix cell size: 53 byte

Cell multiplexing on an ATM connection:

● Asynchronous time multiplexing of several virtual connections
● Continuous cell stream
● Unused cells are sent empty
● In overload situations, cells are discarded

2 2 1 3 2 3 2

3 3
empty cell

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.130
 Cell Size: Transmission of Speech
Coding audio: Pulse-code modulation (PCM)
Example (simplification: Quantization with 3 bits)
● Transformation of analogous Interval
Origin signal
Binary
into digital signals number Reconstructed signal
code
● Regular scanning of the +4 111
analogous signal 110
+3
● Scanning theorem Scanning error

Quantization range
+2 101
(Nyquist):
+1 100
Scanning rate  2×cutoff
-1 000
frequency of the original signal T
-2 001
Cutoff frequency of a
telephone: 3.4 kHz -3 011

-4 010
 scanning rate of 8000 Hz
● Each value is quantized with 8 Scanning Time
bits (i.e. a little bit rounded). Intervals

● A speech data stream therefore

has a data rate of 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1
8 bits × 8000 1/s = 64 kbps
produced pulse code

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.131
Cell Size within ATM
Problem: Delay of the cell stream for speech is 6 ms
48 samples with 8 bits each
= 48 byte
= Payload for an ATM cell
Larger cells would cause too large delays during
speech transmission t=125 ms
Smaller cells produce too much overhead for
“normal” data (relationship Header/Payload) Continuous data stream with
i.e. 48 byte is a compromise. scanning rate 1/125 ms
TD = 6 ms

header packetisation
overhead delay
100% 10ms

50% 5ms
64+5 32+4
48+5
0 20 40 60 80
cell size [bytes]
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.132
ATM Network
● Two types of components:
● ATM Switch
● Dispatching of cells through the network by switches. The cell headers of incoming cells
are read and information is updated. Afterwards, the cells are switched to the
destination.
● ATM Endpoint
● Contains an ATM network interface adapter to connect different networks with the ATM
network.

ATM Endpoints
Router

LAN switch ATM network

ATM switch
Workstation

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.133
Structure of ATM cells
● Two header formats:
● Communication between switches and endpoints: User-Network Interface (UNI)
● Communication between ATM switches in private networks
● Communication between two switches: Network-Network Interface (NNI)

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
GFC/VPI VPI
VPI
VCI
PTI CLP

HEC

Payload
(48 bytes)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.134
Structure of ATM cells
● Header Fields 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
● Generic Flow Control (GFC) GFC VPI
● Only with UNI, for local control of the VPI
transmission of data into the network.
VCI
● Virtual Path Identifier (VPI)/
Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) PTI CLP

● Identification of the next destination of HEC

the cell
● Payload Type Identifier (PTI)
● Describes content of the data part,
e.g., user data or different control data 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
● Cell Loss Priority (CLP) VPI
● If the bit is 1, the cell can be discarded in
overload situations.
VCI
● Header Error Control (HEC)
PTI CLP
● CRC for the first 4 bytes; single bit errors
can be corrected. HEC

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.135
Connection Establishment in ATM
● The sender sends a connection establishment request to its ATM switch, containing the
ATM address of the receiver and demands about the quality of the transmission.
● The ATM switch decides on the route, establishes a virtual connection (assigning a
connection identifier) to the next ATM switch and forwards (using cells) the request to this
next switch.
● When the request reaches the receiver, it sends back the established path and
acknowledgement.
● After establishment, ATM addresses are no longer needed, only virtual connection
identifiers are used.

Establish connection to
EC 23.0074.4792.783c.7782.7845.0092.428c.c00c.1102.01
EC
OK
OK
EC EC

OK ATM address
OK 23.0074.4792.783c.
7782.7845.0092.428
c.c00c.1102.01

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.136
ATM Switching
● Before the start of the communication a virtual connection has to be established.
The switches are responsible for the forwarding of arriving cells on the correct
outgoing lines. For this purpose a switch has a switching table.

Incoming lines Outgoing lines Switching Table

Switch
In Old Out New
Header
Header
1 1
2 2 1 a n a
2 c n d
...

...

...

...

...
...
n n
n b 2 e

● The header information, which are used in the switching table are VPI (Virtual
Path Identifier) and VCI (Virtual Channel Identifier).
● If a connection is being established via ATM, VPI, and VCI are assigned to the
sender. Each switch on the route fills in to where it should forward cells with this
information.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.137
Path and Channel Concept of ATM
● Physical connections “contain” Virtual Paths (VPs, a group of connections)
● VPs “contain” Virtual Channels (VCs, logical channels)
● VPI and VCI only have local significance and can be changed by the switches.
● Distinction between VPI and VCI introduces a hierarchy on the path identifiers.
Thus: Reduction of the size of the switching tables.

There are 2 types of switches in the ATM network:

Virtual Path Switching Virtual Channel Switching

VP Switch VC Switch
VCI 1 VCI 3
VPI 1 VPI 4
VCI 2 VCI 4
VCI 1 VCI 3 VCI 4 VCI 2

VCI 3 VCI 5
VPI 2 VPI 5
VCI 4 VCI 6

VPI 2 VCI 2
VCI 5 VCI 1
VPI 3 VPI 6
VCI 6 VCI 2 VPI 1
VPI 3 VCI 4

VP-SWITCH VP/VC-SWITCH

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.138
Layers within ATM
● Physical Layer
● Transfers ATM cells over the medium
● Generates checksum (sender) and verifies it (receiver); discarding of cells
● ATM Layer
● Generates header (sender) and extract contents (receiver), except checksum
● Responsible for connection identifiers (Virtual Path and Virtual Channel Identifier)
● ATM Adaptation Layer (AAL)
● Adapts different requirements of higher layer applications to the ATM Layer
● Segments larger messages and reassembles them on the side of the receiver
Station Station
Higher Layers Higher Layers

ATM Adaptation ATM Adaptation

Layer Switch Switch Layer
~DLL of OSI
ATM Layer ATM Layer ATM Layer ATM Layer

Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.139
Service Classes of ATM
Service Class
Criterion
A B C D

Negotiated Maximum and Dynamic “Take what

Data rate average rate adjustment you can
maximum
cell rate cell rate to free get”
resources
Synchronization No
Yes
(source - destination)
Bit rate constant variable
Connection Connection-oriented Connectionless
Mode

Applications:  Moving pictures  Data communication

 Telephony  File transfer
 Video conferences  Mail

Adaptation Layer (AAL): AAL 3 AAL 4

AAL 1 AAL 2
AAL 5

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.140
 AALs
Load
AAL 1: Constant Bit Rate (CBR)
PCR
● Deterministic service
● Characterized by guaranteed fixed bit rate
● Parameter: Peak Cell Rate (PCR)

AAL 2: Variable Bit Rate (VBR)

● Real time/non real time, statistical service Time
Load
● Characterized by guaranteed average bit rate. Thus also
suited for bursty traffic. PCR
● Parameter: Peak Cell Rate (PCR), Sustainable Cell Rate SCR
(SCR), Maximum Burst Size

AAL 3: Available Bit Rate (ABR)

● Load-sensitive service
● Characterized by guaranteed minimum bit rate and load- Load Time
sensitive, additional bit rate (adaptive adjustment)
● Parameter: Peak Cell Rate, Minimum Cell Rate ABR/
UBR
AAL 4: Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)
● Best Effort service Other
● Characterized by no guaranteed bit rate connec-
● Parameter: Peak Cell Rate tions Time

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.141
Services Classes of ATM

100%
Available Bit Rate (ABR)
Line Capacity Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR)

Variable Bit Rate (VBR)

Constant Bit Rate (CBR)

0%

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.142
Traffic Management
● Connection Admission Control (CAC)
● Reservation of resources during the connection establishment (signaling)
● Comparison between connection parameters and available resources
● Traffic contract between users and ATM network
● Usage Parameter Control/Network Parameter Control
● Test on conformity of the cell stream in accordance with the parameters of the
traffic contract at the user-network interface (UNI) or network-network interface
(NNI)
● Generic Cell Rate Algorithm/Leaky Bucket Algorithm
● Switch Congestion Control (primary for UBR)
● Selective discarding of cells for the maintenance of performance guarantees in
the case of overload
● Flow Control for ABR
● Feedback of the network status by resource management cells to the ABR
source, for the adjustment of transmission rate and fair dispatching of the
capacity
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.143
Integration of ATM into Existing Networks
● What does ATM provide?
● ATM offers an interface to higher layers (similar to TCP in the Internet protocols)
● ATM additionally offers QoS guarantees (Quality of Service)
● ATM had problems during its introduction
● Very few applications which build directly upon ATM
● In the interworking of networks TCP/IP was standard
● Without TCP/IP binding, ATM could not be sold!
● Therefore different solutions for ATM were suggested, e.g.
● IP over ATM (IETF)
● LAN emulation (LANE, ATM forum)

● Today: ATM still is in use in some regions, but SDH (as a technology
coming from the telecommunication sector) took over the leading role in
WAN technology

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.144
 Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.145
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
● All modern networks in the public “Dark Fiber”
area are using the SDH technology rented wavelength
● Example: the German B-WIN (ATM)
was replaced by the G-WIN HAM KIE ROS
GRE

(Gigabit-Wissenschaftsnetz)
AWI

on basis of SDH
DES
EWE
BRE FFO
TUB
● Since 2006: X-WIN – complete HAN
POT
HUB
BIE
redesign of topology, additionally Surfnet MUE
BRA MAG ZIB ADH

integration of DWDM (dense DUI KAS GOE

LEI
wavelength division multiplexing): FZJ MAR DRE

up to 160 parallel transmissions

AAC BIR JEN
GIE CHE

over a fiber, giving 1.6 Tbps

ILM
Geant2 FRA

BAY
capacity!
GSI
WUE ESF

● Also used within the MAN range

HEI ERL
REG
SAA FZK

(Replaced by Gigabit Ethernet?) Renater KEH

STU
AUG

● Analogous technology in the USA: GAR

Switch/GARR
Synchronous Optical Network
(SONET)
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.146
Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)
● Introduction of PCM in the 1960s
● Digital telephone system
● Before SDH was introduced Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy (PDH) was used
● Europe: Combination of 30 channels of 64kbps
● USA, Canada, Japan: Combination of 24 channels of 64kbps

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.147
SDH Structure
● SDH achieves higher data rates than ATM (at the moment up to about 40 Gbps)
● Flexible capacity utilization and high reliability
● Structure: arbitrary topology, meshed networks with a switching hierarchy
(exemplarily 3 levels):

Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH)

2.5 Gbps
Supraregional switching
SDH Cross Connect
155 Mbps
Regional switching centers
155 Mbps

Add/Drop Multiplexer

34 Mbps

Local networks 2 Mbps

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.148
Multiplexing within SDH
2 Mbps, 155 Mbps 622 Mbps 2.5 Gbps 10 Gbps
34 Mbps,…

+ control information for signaling

Switching center
34 Mbps

622 Mbps
2 Mbps 2 Mbps

Switching 622 Mbps

SDH Cross Connect
center 155 Mbps

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.149
Characteristics of SDH
● World-wide standardized bit rates on the hierarchy levels
● Synchronized, centrally clocked network
● Multiplexing of data streams is made byte-by-byte, simple multiplex pattern
● Suitable for speech transmission:
● Since on each hierarchy level four data streams are mixed byte-by-byte and a hierarchy
level has four times the data rate of the lower level, everyone of these mixed data
streams has the same data rate as on the lower level. Thus the data experience a
constant delay.
● Direct access to signals by cross connects without repeated demultiplexing
● Short delays in inserting and extracting signals
● Additional control bytes for network management, service and quality control,…
● Substantial characteristic: Container for the transport of information

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.150
SDH Architecture
● Physical Layer
● Transmission medium, typically
fiber optics PSTN/ISDN ATM IP
● Radio and Satellite links
VC-12 Layer  
● Regenerator Section VC-4 Layer
● Path between regenerators
Multiplex Section
● Multiplex Section
Regenerator Section
● Link between multiplexers
Physical Layer
● VC Layer (Virtual Container)
● Part of the mapping procedure, i.e.,
140Mbps
packing of ATM and PDH signals 2Mbps
into SDH

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.151
Components of a SDH Network
● Four different types of network
elements
● Regenerators
● Regenerate incoming signal (clock
and amplitude)
● Clock signal is derived from incoming
signal
● Terminal multiplexer
● Combine PDH and SDH signals into
higher bit rate STM signals
● Add/drop multiplexer
● Insert or extract PDH and SDH lower
bit rate signals
● Digital cross connects
● Mapping of PDH tributary signals into
virtual containers
● Switching of various containers

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.152
Components of a SDH Network

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.153
Synchronization in SDH
● All network elements have to be synchronized
● Central clock with high accuracy, i.e., 1 x 10-11
● Primary Reference Clock (PRC)
● Clock signal is distributed in the network
● Hierarchical structure to distribute clock signals
● Subordinate synchronization supply units (SSU)
● Synchronous equipment clocks (SEC)
● Synchronization path can be the same as for data

PRC
G.811

SSU SSU
G.812 G.812

SEC SEC SEC SEC

G.813 G.813 G.813 G.813

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.154
SDH Transport Module (Frame)
270 columns (bytes)
Synchronous Transport Module
9 columns (bytes) 261 columns (bytes)
(STM-N, N=1,4,16, 64)
1 Regenerator Section
STM-1 structure: Overhead (RSOH)
 9 lines with 270 bytes each 3
4 Administrative Unit Pointers 9 lines
 Each byte in the payload Payload
(125 µs)
represents a 64 kbps channel 5 Multiplex Section
 Basis data rate of 155 Mbps Overhead (MSOH)
9
9x270x8x8000 bps = 155.52 Mbps

Administrative Unit Pointers

 Permit the direct access to components of the Payload
Section Overhead
 RSOH: Contains information concerning the route between two repeaters or a repeater
and a multiplexer
 MSOH: Contains information concerning the route between two multiplexers without
consideration of the repeaters in between.
Payload
 Contains the utilizable data as well as further control data

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.155
Creation of a STM
● Creation of a Synchronous Transport Module (STM)
● Payload is packed into a container
● A distinction of the containers is made by size: C-1 to C-4
● Payload data are adapted if necessary by padding to the container size
● Some additional information to the payload are added for controlling the data
flow of a container over several multiplexers
● Path Overhead (POH)
● Control of single sections of the transmission path
● Change over to alternative routes in case of an error
● Monitoring and recording of the transmission quality
● Realization of communication channels for maintenance
● By adding the POH bytes, a container becomes a Virtual Container (VC)

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.156
Creation of a STM
● If several containers are transferred in a STM payload, these are
multiplexed byte-by-byte in Tributary Unit Groups (TUG).
● By adding an Administrative Unit Pointer, the Tributary Unit Group
becomes an Administrative Unit (AU).
● Then the SOH bytes are supplemented, the SDH frame is complete. RSOH
and MSOH contain for example bits for
● Frame synchronization
● Error detection (parity bit)
● STM-1 identifications in larger transportation modules
● Control of alternative paths
● Service channels
● … and some bits for future use

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.157
SDH Hierarchy
155 Mbps 622 Mbps 2.5 Gbps

STM-1 STM-4 STM-16

261 4x261=1044 4x1044=4176
9 4x9=36 4x36=144

Assembled from Assembled from

Basis transportation module for 4 x STM-1 4 x STM-4

155 Mbps, e.g. contains:
 a continuous ATM cell stream
(C-4 container)
 a transportation group (TUG-3) Assembled from
for three 34 Mbps PCM systems
 a transportation group (TUG-3) 4 x STM-1
for three containers, which
again contain TUGs

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.158
SDH Hierarchy
● Higher hierarchy levels assembling STM-1 modules
● Higher data rates are assembled by multiplexing the contained signals byte-by-
byte
● Each byte has a data rate suitable of 64 kbps for the transmission of voice
(telephony)
● Except STM-1, only transmission over optical fiber is specified
9 columns

261 byte

4 * 261 byte
4 * 9 columns

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.159
Types of SDH Containers
C-n Container n Payload
VC-n Virtual Container n Tributary Unit, n (n=1 to 3)
TU-n Tributary Unit n  Contains VC-n and Tributary Unit
TUG-n Tributary Unit Group n Pointer

C-4
VC-4 TUG-3
3
2
1
H4
or
VC-3

VC-4 Path Overhead (POH)

Container, C-n (n=1 to 4) Virtual Container, VC-n (n=1 to 4)

 Defined unit for payload capacity (e.g. C-4  Consists of container and POH
for ATM or IP, C-12 for ISDN or 2 Mbps)  Lower VC (n=1,2): single C-n plus basis
 Transfers all SDH bit rates Virtual Container Path Overhead (POH)
 Capacity can be made available for transport  Higher VC (n=3,4): single C-n, union
from broadband signals not yet specified of TUG-2s/TU-3s, plus basis Virtual
Container POH

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.160
Types of SDH Containers
● Virtual Containers (VC)

SDH Bit Rate [Mbps] Size of VC

Rows x Columns
VC-11 1,728 9x3
VC-12 2,304 9x4
VC-2 6,912 9 x 12
VC-3 48,960 9 x 85
VC-4 150,336 9 x 261

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.161
Types of SDH Containers

VC-3 C-n Container n

VC-n Virtual Container n
TU-n Tributary Unit n
TUG-n Tributary Unit Group n
TU-3
7 AU-n Administrative Unit n
6
5
or STM-N Synchronous
4 C-3
3 Transport Module N
2
1

VC-2
TUG-2

Administrative Unit n (AU-n)

3
 Adaptation between higher order
2
1
VC-12 path layer and multiplex unit
TUG-12 C-12  Consists of payload and
Administrative Unit Pointers

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.162
SDH Multiplex Structure

xN C-4
STM-N AUG AU-4 VC-4
x3

x3 TUG-3 TU-3 VC-3

C-3
AU-3 VC-3
x7
x7
TUG-2 TU-2 VC-2 C-2
Pointer Processing x3
Multiplexing TU-12 VC-12 C-12
C-n Container n x4
VC-n Virtual container n TU-11 VC-11 C-11
TU-N Tributary Unit n
TUG-n Tributary Unit Group n
AU-n Administrative Unit n
AUG Administrative Unit Group
STM-N Synchronous Transport Module N

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.163
SDH Multiplexing
Container-1
Logical association
Physical association VC-1 POH Container-1 VC-1
PTR Pointer

TU-1 PTR VC-1 TU-1

(1) PTR (2) PTR (3) PTR (4) PTR VC-1 (1) VC-1 (2) VC-1 (3) VC-1 (4) TUG-2

VC-3 POH TUG-2 TUG-2 VC-3

AU-3 PTR VC-3 AU-3

AU-3 PTR AU-3 PTR VC-3 VC-3 AUG

SOH AUG AUG STM-N

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.164
What can SDH achieve?

SONET SDH Data rate (Mbps)

Electrical Optical Optical Gross Net
STS-1 OC-1 STM-0 51.84 50.112
STS-3 OC-3 STM-1 155.51 150.336
STS-9 OC-9 (STM-3) 466.56 451.008
STS-12 OC-12 STM-4 622.08 601.344
STS-18 OC-18 (STM-6) 933.12 902.016
STS-24 OC-24 (STM-8) 1,244.16 1,202.688
STS-36 OC-36 (STM-12) 1,866.24 1,804.032
STS-48 OC-48 STM-16 2,488.32 2,405.376
STS-96 OC-96 STM-32 4,976.64 4,810.752
STS-192 OC-192 STM-64 9,953.28 9,621.504
STS-768 OC-758 STM-256 39,813.12 38,486.016

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.165
 Network Infrastructure

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.166
Network Infrastructure
● For building computer networks more complex than a short bus, some
additional components are needed:
● Repeater
● Physically increases the range of a
local area network
● Hub
● Connects several computers or local
area networks of the same type (to a broadcast network)
● Bridge
● Connects several local area networks
(possibly of different types) to a large LAN
● Switch
● Like a hub, but without broadcast
● Router
● Connects several LANs with the same
network protocol over large distances
● Gateway
● Understands two different technologies and can convert
the contents from one to the other and vice versa

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.167
Network Infrastructure

Application layer Application gateway Packet from network layer

Transport layer Transport gateway

Frame Packet TCP User
Network layer Router CRC
header header header data
Data link layer Bridge, Switch

Physical layer Repeater, Hub Frame in Data link layer

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.168
Infrastructure Components: Hub & Repeater
● Transmission of data on the physical layer
● Reception and refreshment of the signal, i.e., the signals received
on one port are newly produced on the other(s) Layer 1
● Do not understand frames, packets, or headers
● Increase of the network range
● Stations cannot send and receive at the same time
● One shared channel (Broadcast)
● Low security, because all stations can monitor the whole traffic
● Low costs

Hub

Segment 1

Repeater

Segment 2
Repeater:
Linking of 2
Hub: “one to all” networks

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.169
Infrastructure Components: Hub & Repeater

Hub

Device1
Hub

Device2

Device3

...
Devicen

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.170
Infrastructure Components: Bridge
● Bridge
● Bridge connects 2 or more LANs Layer 2
● Operates on frame addresses
● Can support different network type

Upper Layer
(Bridge protocol, Bridge management) Data path
Control path
LLC LLC

MAC1 MAC-Relay MAC2

PHY PHY

Network1 Network 2
MAC1 Data LLC MAC1 MAC2 Data LLC MAC2

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.171
Bridging
● Typically a LAN comes rarely alone
● What to do if many LANs exist?
● Connect them by bridges
● A bridge examines the data link layer address for routing
● Reasons why one organization could have multiple LANs
● Autonomy of the owner
● Several buildings with each having a LAN
● Machines are too distant
● Ethernet supports only up to 2.5 km
● Load
● Security
● Reliability
● Requirements:
● Bridges should be transparent
● Moving of machines from one segment to another must not require the change
of software or hardware

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.172
Network Infrastructure
● Bridges from 802.x to 802.y

● Problems when moving frames between LANs

● Different frame formats
● Different data rates
● Different max. frame length
● Security: Some support encryption others do not
● Quality of Service

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.173
Infrastructure Components: Bridges
● With bridges, several LANs are connected on the link layer – possibly LANs
of different types, i.e., having different header formats
● Major tasks:
● Appropriate forwarding of the data
● Adaptation to different LAN types
● Reduction of the traffic in a LAN segment, i.e., packets which are sent from A to
C are not forwarded by the bridge to LAN2. Thus, station D can communicate
with E in parallel.
● Increases physical length of a network
● Increased reliability through demarcation of the LAN segments

A C B1 D E

LAN1 LAN2

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.174
Infrastructure Components: Bridges
● Transparent bridges (e.g. for CSMA and Token Bus networks)
A C B1 D B E
²

LAN1 LAN2 LAN3

● Characteristics
● Coupling of LANs is transparent for the stations, i.e., not visible
● Hash tables contain the destination addresses
● Routing Procedure
● Source and destination LAN are identical
 frame is rejected by bridge, e.g., B1 in case of a transmission from A to C
● Source and destination LAN are different
 forward frames, e.g., in case of a transmission from D to E
● Destination LAN unknown
 flood frame

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.175
Transparent Bridges

 To realize transparency, bridges have to learn in which LAN a host is located

 Each bridge maintains a forwarding database with entries
<MAC address, port, age>
 MAC address: host name
 port: port number of bridge used to send data to the host
 age: aging time of entry
 Assume a MAC frame arrives on port x: Port x

Bridge 2
Is MAC address of Port A Port C
Port B
destination in forwarding
database for ports A, B, or C?

Found and  x? Not found ?

Found and = x?

Forward the frame on the Flood the frame, i.e., send the
Ignore frame
appropriate port frame on all ports except port x.

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.176
Transparent Bridges: Address Learning
● Database entries are set automatically with a simple heuristic
● the source field of a frame that arrives on a port tells which hosts are reachable
from this port.
● Algorithm:
● For each frame received, the source stores the source field in the forwarding
database together with the port where the frame was received.
● All entries are deleted after some time (default is 15 seconds).

Src=x, Src=y,
Src=x,
Dest=y Port 1 Port 4 Dest=x
Dest=y
x is at Port 3
Src=x, y is at Port 4 Src=x,
Dest=y Port 2 Port 5 Dest=y

Src=x,
Src=x, Src=x,
Src=y,
Dest=y
Dest=y Port 3 Port 6 Dest=y
Dest=x

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.177
Loops
● Consider two LANs that are
connected by two bridges.
● Assume host n is transmitting a LAN 2
frame F with unknown destination.
● Bridges A and B flood the frame F F
to LAN 2.
● Bridge B sees F on LAN 2 (with Bridge A Bridge B
unknown destination), and copies F F
the frame back to LAN 1
● Bridge A does the same. LAN 1
● The copying continues
F

● Solution: Spanning Tree Algorithm

host n

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.178
Spanning Tree Bridges
● Preventing loops: compute a
spanning tree from all connected
LAN 2
bridges
d

Bridge 3 Bridge 4
● Spanning Tree Algorithm:
● Determine one root bridge
● The bridge with the smallest ID
Bridge 1 LAN 5
● Determine a designated bridge for
Bridge 5
each LAN
● The bridge which is nearest to the
root bridge LAN 1
● Determine root ports
● Port for the best path to root bridge Bridge 2
considering costs for using a path,
e.g., the number of hops. LAN 3 LAN 4

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.179
Spanning Tree Algorithm
● At the beginning, all bridges assume to be root bridge and send out a
packet containing their own ID and current costs (initialized with zero)
over all of their ports:
root ID costs bridge ID port ID

e.g. for station B on port P1:

B 0 B P1

● A bridge receiving such a packet checks the root ID and compares it with its own
one. Root ID and costs are updated for received packets with smaller ID in the
root bridge field and forwarded. Updating the costs is made by adding the own
costs for the station from which the packet was received to the current costs
value.
● When the (updated) packets of all bridges have passed all other bridges, all
bridges have agreed on the root bridge. The received packets containing the
smallest costs value to the root bridge determine the designated bridge for a
LAN and designated ports for the bridges to send out data.
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.180
 Spanning Tree Algorithm: Example
Network: B1 B3
LAN 1 12 10 7 LAN 2
ID=93 ID=18
20
5
B2 B4 ports
5 LAN 3 5
ID=27 ID=3
8 10 ID: bridge ID
: designated port
B5
LAN 4 6 10 LAN 5
ID=9

Spanning Tree: B1 B3
LAN 1 LAN 2
ID=93 ID=18
designated bridge
for LAN 2
B2 B4
LAN 3
ID=27 ID=3
root bridge
B5
LAN 4 LAN 5
ID=9

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Jochen H. Schiller ▪ cst.mi.fu-berlin.de ▪ Telematics ▪ Chapter 5: Medium Access Control Sublayer 5.181
Infrastructure Components: Bridges
● Source Routing Bridges (e.g. for ring networks)

C
A D
B1 FDDI B
²
Ethernet Ethernet

● Characteristics:
● Sources must know (or learn), in which network segment the receivers are
located
● Large expenditure for determining the optimal route, e.g., via using a Spanning
Tree algorithms or sending out Route Discovery Frames using broadcast
● All LANs and Bridges on the path must be addressed explicitly
● Connection-oriented, without transparency for the hosts

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Infrastructure Components: Switch
● Like a bridge, but:
● Point-to-point communication, no broadcast Layer 2/3/4
● Switch learns the addresses of the connected computers
● Stations can send and receive at the same time
● No carrier control necessary
● Buffer for each individual Switch
station/each port
● Higher costs
 “Layer 3-Switch”: also has
functionalities of level 3, i.e., it
can e.g. take over the routing.

 “Layer 4-Switch”: looks up

additionally in the TCP-header,
can therefore be used e.g. for
load balancing.

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Infrastructure Components: Switch – Realization
● Mostly used: buffered crossbar
● For each input port, provide buffers for the output ports
● At any time, only one input port can be connected to an output line
● Additional speedup possible with small buffers at each cross-point
● With a buffered switch, nearly no more collisions are possible!

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Switched LANs – Mechanismen
● Cut Through
● Adresstabelle wird angesprochen, sobald die Zieladresse eingelesen ist
● Weiterleitung des Datenpakets, sobald der Weg geschaltet ist
● Geringe Latenzzeit

● Store and Forward

● Datenpaket wird zunächst vollständig eingelesen und zwischengespeichert
● Kontrolle der CRC-Prüfsumme und Ausführen von Filterfunktionen

● Hybrides Switching
● Kombination von Cut Through / Store and Forward
● Auswahl abhängig von Fehlerrate

● Predictive Switching
● Pfad in Schaltmatrix wird hergestellt, bevor Zieladresse vollständig eingelesen
● Basierend auf den vorher geschalteten Pfaden

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Infrastructure Components: Router
● What are the limitations of bridges?
● Even though bridges are suitable to connect computers in several networks,
there are also some disadvantages, e.g.:
● Bridges can support only some thousand stations, which especially has the reason that
addresses are used which do not have any geographical reference.
● LANs coupled with bridges already form a “large LAN”, although a separation often
would be desirable (e.g. regarding administration or errors).
● Bridges pass broadcast frames on to all attached LANs.
This can result in “Broadcast Storms”.
● Bridges do not communicate with hosts, i.e., they do not hand over information about
overload situations or reasons for rejected frames.
Router overcome these weaknesses

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Infrastructure Components: Router
● Principal task of routers
● Incoming packets are being forwarded on the best path Layer 3
possible to the destination on the basis of a global address
● In principle no restriction concerning the number of hosts (hierarchical
addressing)
● Local administration of the networks (ends at the router), Firewalls are possible
● Broadcasts are not let through by the routers, Multicast depending on the router
● Communication between host and router improves performance

A R2 R3 B
R1
Network1 Network2
LAN 1 LAN 2

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Infrastructure Components: Gateway
● Transport Layer Gateways
● Connection of computers using different transport protocols, e.g., a computer
using TCP/IP and one using ATM transport protocol
● Copies packets from one connection to another

● Application Layer Gateways

● Understand the format and contents of the data and translate messages from
one format to another format, e.g., email to SMS

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 Virtual LANs

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Virtual LANs
● Organization of LANs
● In early Ethernet days all computers were on one LAN
● With 10Base-T came new cabling in buildings
● Configuration of LAN logically rather than physically
● Requirement: Decoupling of the logical topology from the physical topology

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Virtual LANs
● Management often requires structuring of LANs due to
● Different departments want different LANs
● Security
● Load
● Broadcast (broadcast storm)

● What happens if users move from one department to another?

● Rewire in hub/switch
● VLANs with VLAN-aware switches

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Virtual LANs

A B C D A B C D

I M I M

J N J N

K O K O

L L

E F G H E F G H

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Virtual LANs
● Virtual LANs require VLAN-aware switches
● VLANs are often named by colors (VLAN ID)
● Allows colored diagrams which show logical and physical topology at the same
time
● VLAN-aware devices have to know about the VLANs
● Switch has a table which tells which VLAN is accessible via which port
● A port may have access to multiple VLANs
● How do a VLAN-switch know the VLANs?
● Assign every port of the device a VLAN ID
● Only machines belonging to the same VLAN can be attached
● Every MAC address is assigned to a VLAN
● Device needs tables of the 48-bit MAC addresses assigned to VLANs
● Every Layer 3 protocol (IP address) is assigned to a VLAN
● Violates the independency of layers

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Virtual LANs
● IEEE 802.1Q
● Special field in frame header telling the VLAN assignment
● Problems:
● What happens with existing Ethernet cards?
● Who generates the new field?
● What happens with full frames (maximum length)?
● Solution:
● The first VLAN-aware device adds a VLAN-tag
● The last VLAN-aware device removes the VLAN-tag

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Virtual LANs
● IEEE 802.1Q Frame Format
● Additional pair of 2-byte fields
● TPID: Tag Protocol Identifier (0x8100)
● Tag comprises three fields
● Pri: 3-bit priority field, does not have anything to do with VLANs
● CFI: Canonical Format Indicator
● Indicates that payload has a IEEE 802.5 frame
● VLAN ID: 12-bit VLAN identifier
● The only relevant field

Preamble SFD DA SA L/T Data Padding FCS

Preamble SFD DA SA TPID Tag L/T Data Padding FCS

Pri CFI VLAN ID

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Virtual LANs
● Who inserts the VLAN-tag?
● New cards (Gigabit Ethernet) support 802.1Q
● Otherwise
● First VLAN-aware switch adds the tag
● Last VLAN-aware switch removes the tag
● How does the switch know which frame belongs to which VLAN?
● First device has to decide based on the port or MAC address

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Summary
● Layer 1 and 2: “How to physically transport data reliably from one
computer to a neighbored one”?
● Layer 1 defines transmission medium and bit representation on this medium
● Layer 1 additionally specifies transmission mode, data rate, pin usage of
connectors, …
● Layer 2 protects against transmission errors (mostly CRC) and receiver overload
(flow control, sliding window)
● Layer 2 also defines medium access coordination for broadcast networks
● Both layers together define how to transfer data from one computer to a
directly connected one (maybe over a hub/switch) – on that reason both are
implemented in one piece of software: the network interface card driver.
● Bridges in principle allow to connect lots of LANs over long distances – is that the
Internet?

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Summary
● LANs
● Ethernet as standard for local networks
● 10G-Ethernet also possible for use in MANs
● WANs
● SDH/Sonet as standard for wide area networks
● 10G-Ethernet as access technology to the core network
● Integration of DWDM – transmission on 160 wavelengths in parallel dramatically
increases the capacity
● Also possible: SDH with 40 Gbps, DWDM with 4096 channels – 164 Tbps!
● Dream of “all optical network”: switch/route data streams with optical
components (think of a prism)

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