Development and

Impact of Software
Solutions - Notes

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Contents
• Social & Ethical Issues ........................................................................................................... 3
➢ The Impact of Software ..................................................................................................... 3
o Public issues, including: ................................................................................................. 3
➢ Rights and Responsibilities of Software Developers ........................................................... 4
➢ Software Piracy and Copyright .......................................................................................... 5
➢ Use of Networks ............................................................................................................... 6
➢ The Software Market ........................................................................................................ 7
o Maintaining market position ......................................................................................... 7
o The Effect on the Marketplace ....................................................................................... 7
o Impact of New Developers & Software Products ............................................................. 7
➢ Legal Implications ............................................................................................................. 7
o National Legal Action Resulting from Software Development ......................................... 7
o International Legal Action Resulting from Software Development .................................. 7
• Application of Software Development Approaches ................................................................ 8
➢ Software Development Approaches .................................................................................. 8
o Approaches Used in Commercial Systems ....................................................................... 8
o Application of CASE TOOLS .......................................................................................... 11
o Methods of Implementation ........................................................................................ 11
o Employment Trends in Software Development ............................................................. 13
o Trends in Software Development ................................................................................. 14

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• Social & Ethical Issues
➢ The Impact of Software
o Public issues, including:
❖ The Year 2000 Problem
▪ Early computers had limited memory & RAM was expensive.
To save memory, programmers developing operating
systems reduced the storage of dates to a 2-digit integer
reducing storage needs by half. As the year 2000
approached, there was great concern about what would
happen to software that governments, banks & large
businesses depended on. Large amounts of money were
spent on changing the dates to a 4-digit format.
❖ Computer Viruses
▪ A virus is a program that alters the functionality of a
computer without the permission of the user. Viruses are a
far larger issue than the Y2k bug due to their persistent &
developing nature. Both software developers & end user
have a responsibility to combat viruses. Install & maintain a
reliable AV program that is kept up to date with the latest
patches.
❖ Reliance on Software
▪ As shown by the Y2k bug, programmers need to consider all
aspects of the software they develop particularly the needs
in the future. Software reliability becomes crucial when
society relies heavily on software for many of its basic
services.
▪ Many day to day aspects of our lives rely on software in
order to operate.
▪ Examples include:
- Motorised transport
- Electricity supply
- Operation of government authorities
❖ Social Networking
▪ A social network is simply a group of people who associate
with each other. Often, we have a variety of social networks
based on some common association. For instance, we have
social networks built around family, another for friends, one
for work & maybe some for special interests such as sports
or hobbies.

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 ❖ Cyber Security
▪ The online world of the internet includes a variety of
different dangers & security issues. All internet connected
devices have risks, this includes laptops, mobile phones &
even game consoles. Cyber safety is about minimising the
risk of such dangers, particularly for children. Although
security software & firewalls can assist in this regard, many
online issues are unable to be dealt with using software
alone. Cyber safety is about protecting yourself when
online. To be cyber safe means observing recommended
practices & procedures to protect your personal information
when using the internet.

➢ Rights and Responsibilities of Software Developers

Issue Right Responsibility

Protection of their products
Acknowledge the authors and
Authorship against theft and modification
sources used in development.
without permission.
Check the product works with the
Protection of their product against hardware & operating system they
operating system problems & other specify.
Reliability
hardware & programs which may Ensure the product has no runtime
make their product unusable. errors when installed & run as
directed.
Use thorough testing procedures &
Codes to ensure that others develop error checking code.
Quality programs that follow the same high
standard. Meet the user’s expectations as
much as possible.
Provide troubleshooting manuals &
online help.
Not to be harassed with trivial Provide customer support.
Response to problems that could have been
Quick response to major or critical
Problems solved by reading the
documentation. problems.
Make ‘bug fixes’ freely available to
users.
Adhere the standards set by the
All developers follow same ethical
Code of Conduct members of the organisation to
standard.
which they belong.
Protection of their products Ensure that they do not distribute
Viruses with users, by users using viruses with their products or as
updated anti-virus solutions. part of their customer care (email).

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 ➢ Software Piracy and Copyright
Concept Meaning
Software piracy is the theft of computer programs. This could involve copying
Software
the program or using a product that is installed illegally on a machine without
Piracy
the developer’s permission.
Intellectual property is personal ownership of the creative ideas that develop
Intellectual
from an individual’s mind or intellect. It could include patents, trademarks,
Property
designs, trade secrets & confidential business information.
Plagiarism is the theft of the ideas & expressions of another person. Often
code in a project is accumulated from a range of other sources. If the code or
Plagiarism design is the work of any other developer, then it must be acknowledged.
Writing software using the code developed by others is plagiarism when the
code is now acknowledged as coming from another source.
Shareware is software that is distributed for trial use before purchase. Copies
can be made & distributed by users, but modifications are not allowed. If the
Shareware
user wishes to continue using the software after the trial period, the
shareware cost must be paid.
Freeware can be copied & distributed freely & no license fee needs to be paid
Freeware
however the product can’t be sold or modified & is covered by copyright.
Public domain software is programs that are freely available for copying &
Public Domain modification. The copyright owner has surrendered copyright, or the product
is no longer covered by copyright.
Purchasing a media that contains computer software doesn’t mean that you
Ownership
own the software. The software distribution medium is your property
Versus
however you have only been sold the right to use the software under certain
Licensing
conditions (i.e. you have purchased the license).
Copyright is the legal protection of computer programs against illegal copying.
Copyright The Copyright Act 1968 & a series of court decisions govern copyright in
Laws Australia. The creator of the program owns copyright ; this could include any
other people associated with the development of the program.
Reverse engineering is the process of reading source code & translating it into
an algorithm. The algorithm can be modified & recoded in the same or another
Reverse
programming language. Reverse engineering is level when the program is
Engineering
owned by the developer carrying out the reverse engineering however it is
illegal if someone else does it.
Decompilation is the process of translating object code (machine code) that
Decompilation can more easily be studied by the programmer. It is legal if the developer
owns the program but is not if they don’t.
License conditions determine what can be done with software. Many
developers include a compulsory reading & acceptance of the EULA before
Licence
installing can continue. Users no excuse for failure to understand the
Conditions
developer’s wishes. Types of licenses: public domain, GPL, Shareware & Site
licences.
Software developers have recognised the increasing popularity of networked
computers. Programs are now available for network use. They could be either
centralised software (in which software is available as a single copy on a
Network Use
central server) or distributed software (which is available on individual
machines). Regardless, each machine on the network or using the software
requires a separate license.

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 o There are many current day events that effect the issues of piracy and
copyright:
❖ In Indonesia in 2005 to prevent the use of pirated software which
was a major problem. To overcome this issues Microsoft charged
people in Indonesia about $1.50AU to legally own the software and
reduce the rates of piracy in the country.
o There are three types of EULA agreements:
❖ Single Use Licences – allow the purchaser to install one copy of the
software on one computer only.
❖ Multi-Use Licences – provide one copy of the software to be
distributed on a specified number of machines.
❖ Network Licences – provide the use of the software across a
network with a specific number of computers.
o Various national perspectives to software piracy and copyright laws
❖ It has been estimated that 30-40% of all software worldwide has
been illegally copied.
❖ US$11 billion is lost each year due to pirated software, about
AU$290 million in Australia alone.
o The relationship between copyright laws and software license agreements
❖ Copyright does not require any formal registration for it to apply, it
is granted automatically.
❖ Software licence agreements are used to create a binding contract
between the purchaser and the software developer, they often
contain clauses relating specifically to copyright.

➢ Use of Networks
o The widespread use of networks, including the internet, has revolutionised
the development of software. The ability to collaborate & share resources
greatly improves productivity. Although network speeds continue to
improve, they still provide a bottleneck for network-based software.
Changes to the user interface in terms of how data is entered & retrieved
across the network can greatly improve response times. In addition, security
& privacy concerns must be addressed when data is transferred across the
public & insecure networks.

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 ➢ The Software Market
o Maintaining market position
❖ For software companies to maintain market position they must
consider many social and ethical issues when developing their
marketing techniques.

Marketing Techniques Description Methods

The expectations of consumers must
Product
be realised in the actual product.
The product must be sold in the Shop Fronts
Place correct place in order to reach the Industry Specific Distributors
intended audience. Direct Sales
Determining the cost of the
Cost-Plus Pricing
product and adding a margin.
Price Determining what the
Consumer-Based Pricing consumer wants and how
much they want to pay for it.
Ways of persuading people to buy Advertising
Promotion
products and services. Word of Mouth

o The Effect on the Marketplace

❖ A product’s effect on the marketplace is determined by:
▪ Whether the product is innovative or well established.
▪ Whether the product is challenging market leaders.
▪ Whether the product follows market leaders, attempting to
obtain a portion of their share.
▪ Whether the product focuses on niche, specialised areas of
the market.

o Impact of New Developers & Software Products

❖ Although there are companies & products which dominate existing
software markets there is still room for new players. Often new
developers emerge due to inventiveness. That is, they invent new a
software product that break new ground. Google is a prominent
example of companies which began with a bright idea. Google was a
Stanford University research project. By 2004, Google was handling
some 85% of worldwide search requests.

➢ Legal Implications
o National Legal Action Resulting from Software Development
❖ RACV vs. Unisys
❖ NSW Tcard System

o International Legal Action Resulting from Software Development

❖ Microsoft vs. Apple Computer (GUI)
❖ Napster vs. Metallica (& RIAA)

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• Application of Software Development Approaches
➢ Software Development Approaches
o Approaches Used in Commercial Systems
❖ Commercial software development falls into two categories:
▪ Off the shelf or retail programs (e.g. Microsoft Office) are
sold & distributed to any user who wishes to use them.
Sometimes referred to as COTS & in many cases can be
customised to suit the need or an organisation (e.g. Google
Apps for the DET).
▪ Custom programs are commissioned by a particular
organisation or individual & are written specifically to suit
the defined needs to those requiring the program.
❖ Structured Approach
▪ The structured approach follows the software development
cycle. It considers the program on a whole and takes logical
steps to arrive at the end product. The process is time
consuming and costly and necessary and suitable to tackle a
large program.
▪ Because the process is long a complex often a team of
people is required to tackle the problem. Some of the
people include system analyst, designers including software
engineers, programmers, graphic designers and consultants,
managers, trainers and users. The software analyst is the
person who is generally given control of the management of
the project and is the first level of communication between
the management and development team.
❖ Agile Approach
▪ It placed emphasis on the team developing the system
rather than following predefined structured development
processes. Agile methods remove the need for detailed
requirements & complex design documentation. Agile
methods are particularly well suited to web-based software
development & other software applications that are
modified regularly such that they evolve & are updated over
time.
❖ Prototyping
▪ It involves building a working model that is then evaluated
by users. The model is then usually modified & evaluated
further until it becomes a solution. It only involves a small
team of programmers & one or more users. The prototyping
approach is particularly useful in the development of
interactive systems & AI but not as much where complex &
large mathematical calculations are required.
▪ There are two types of prototyping used. Information
gathering prototypes are developed to gain information that
can be used in another program. The prototype is never

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 intended to become the fully working solution. They are
often developed in 5GL languages & use reusable code
modules that require only linking to operate.
▪ Evolutionary prototyping becomes the full working program.
The prototype is the first step in the development of the
final product to be shown before the full program is
produced.
▪ Prototyping focuses largely on the UI including menus,
windows & IO processes. There is a great amount of user
involvement in the development process & there is reduced
amounts of documentation compared to the structure
approach, this means that the system is harder to maintain.
❖ Structured Approach
▪ The structured approach follows the software development
cycle. It considers the program on a whole and takes logical
steps to arrive at the end product. The process is time
consuming and costly and necessary and suitable to tackle a
large program.
▪ Because the process is long a complex often a team of
people is required to tackle the problem. Some of the
people include system analyst, designers including software
engineers, programmers, graphic designers and consultants,
managers, trainers and users. The software analyst is the
person who is generally given control of the management of
the project and is the first level of communication between
the management and development team.

Steps Explanation
Understand & define the problem. This is important so you know what you are
Defining the
solving. It is much easier & cheaper to fix mistakes here than in any other stage of
Problem
development.
Involves further understanding of the needs of the users & a choice of a method or
methods to solve the problem. Data needs to be collected to provide the basis for
Planning the decisions. Planning involves designing algorithms, planning a UI, data & program
Solution structures needed, scheduling the project, choosing a programming language. As
well, dataflow diagrams, IPO charts, Gantt charts, screen designs & storyboards are
all likely tools that will be used there.
Requires the full involvement of the team. A large & complex project is usually
Building the broken down into modules, you allow for greater efficiency, easier debugging, less
Solution contamination of the whole project there is badly written code & you can refuse the
modules that you create.
A continuous part of the development cycle. Involves using real data & may include
Checking the
beta testers. This is to make sure that the program meets the needs & requirements
Solution
determined in the defining stage. If the project is approved, it can be implemented.
Sometimes it is necessary to make modifications after a program has been
Modifying implemented so that it works more effectively. The program may need to be
the solution updated to keep abreast of hardware or software changes or may need to be
expanded to cover new tasks.

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 ❖ RAD
▪ The rapid applications software development is any method
of software design that uses tools to quickly generate a
program for a user. It uses existing modules & may reuse
code, CASE tools & templates. The developer is involved
directly with the user.
❖ End User Development Approach
▪ It is where the user adapts existing software tools to suit
their needs or to obtain the solution to a problem. EUD is
very informal & used for very small solutions. It is usually
created in a 4GL programming environment such as in a
spreadsheet or database.
❖ Combinations of Any of The Above
▪ Using combinations of any of the five approaches can make
it easier to develop a program. If different parts require
different approaches, then using the right approach for each
part will make the process more effective.

Types of
Advantages Disadvantages
Approaches
Costly
Thoroughly tested
Structured
Should meet the exact requirements of Time consuming
Approach
users
Uses a range of experts Requires a range of different skills
You can better adapt to change and Demands more time and energy
respond faster from everyone
Agile You can detect and fix issues and
Approach defects faster Product lacks overall design
You don't have to worry about
premature optimization
Relatively fast development
Many be difficult to implement as a
Prototyping Models a larger project, thus allows full working program
easier modification and visualisation of
the end product
Many not meet exact program
Fast development
requirements
RAD Relatively cheap Many involve copyright and
intellectual property of others.
Uses considerable amount of existing
(Developers must be careful not to
reusable code
break laws)
End User Should meet exact user requirements
Limited to simple project and
Development Quick and cheap limitations of application programs
Approach

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 o Application of CASE TOOLS
❖ Software development teams often use a CASE approach to their
works. CASE tools allow the software developer to track bugs, data
model, generate documentation, reverse engineer & simulation
tools. CASE tools help the maintenance team to interact with the
development team.
❖ Software Version Control
▪ When developing a full product, there will be many versions
such as for different hardware, operating systems. The
number of versions leads to the need for version control
CASE tools can be used to take over this process. CASE tools
allow for strict control over the versioning process.
❖ Test Data Generation
▪ CASE tools can be used to generate test data for complex
programs. This can avoid time consuming manual testing or
the generation of large test data tables by a slower input
method.
❖ Production of Documentation
▪ There are a number of CASE tools available to help the
documentation process with facilities such as word
processors & drawing tools. Others can produce Gantt
charts, calendars, & other project management tools.
❖ Data Dictionary
▪ CASE tools can collect & track data types through multiple
modules & develop concise descriptions of each data type in
a program. This can be a major time advantage.

o Methods of Implementation
❖ Direct Cut Over

Description Diagram Advantages Disadvantages

Reduced implementation
Data transfer from old to new has to
costs compared to other
be done very quickly.
methods.
The new
Testing of new program in operation
program
leaves no fall back to old program if
immediately
Less pressure on users there are problems.
replaces the
only one program is in User stress as training needs to be
old program.
place. done before the new program is in
place while old program is still
operating.

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 ❖ Parallel

Description Diagram Advantages Disadvantages

Two programs can be
User stress as both old & new
compared & any problems can
programs have to be operated
be fixed to take account of
for conversion time.
differences.
The old and
Confusion between programs
the new work
if close records are not kept.
together over
a period of Testing & fixing of problems in If there are large changes in
new program is simpler as old operating procedures between
time.
program is still available for use the old & new program there
in an emergency. can be problems for users.
More expensive than other
methods due to dual costs.

❖ Phased

Description Diagram Advantages Disadvantages

Difficult for users to
One or more tasks of Each task can be separate the old &
the new program are individually tested as the new programs &
gradually it is implemented. operate different
implemented until tasks in each system.
the new program Training users is Longer time frame
takes over all tasks of simpler as only one leads to high
the old program. new task has to be implementation
learnt. costs.

❖ Pilot

Description Diagram Advantages Disadvantages

One section of the Risk is confined to one section Large organisations
organisation uses the of an organisation. usually use this
new program & all other Testing & fixing of problems in method particularly
sections continue with the new program is simpler as throughout
the old program until a the old program is still available multiple sites doing
decision is made to put for use in other parts of the the same thing such
the new program into organisation. as one bank
place across the whole amount a series of
system. branches.

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o Employment Trends in Software Development
❖ Outsourcing
▪ Outsourcing: the process where a company needing
software services hires an outside organisation to handle all
or part of these services.
▪ This could include department, implementation, &
maintenance. Outsourcing is an effective use of scare
technological assets & cost savings due to economies of
scale however some outsourcing companies may not
understand the ethos of the company employing it & the
organisation may feel as if it is losing control of the system.
❖ Popular Approaches
▪ Increasing facilities for EUD.
▪ The availability of editors to allow non-programmers to
generate simple programs such as WYSIWYG editors.
▪ Greater distribution of code libraries.
▪ Authoring languages that guide the developer through the
steps of creating programs including mark-up languages.
▪ Increasing use of multimedia in programs.
❖ Popular Languages
▪ 4GL & 5GL languages are increasingly becoming human
centred to allow non-programmers to develop customised
software. SGL is a very powerful language but is limited to
the domain of databases. It can be used to someone who is
relatively inexperienced to create powerful database
structures.
▪ Most of the popular languages have the same basic
capabilities such as syntax, constants, variables, &
operators.
❖ Employment Trends
▪ Technology has been a growth area in employment over
the last decade & there are still large numbers of jobs in the
field despite a recent slowdown. There are increasingly high
educational requirements for those entering the industry.
❖ Contract Programmers
▪ The nature of employment in the software development
area is changing. Many positions of employment are short-
term contracts to write particular software products. It is
common for analysts & programmers to change employer
often as they seek new contracts. Contracts can be with
companies that are writing software for their own, internal
use or with software development companies who are
writing software for external customers.

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o Trends in Software Development
❖ Environment in which Developers Work
▪ Networks of computers, & in particular the Internet, have
created a new & growing environment for software
development. Developers from across the globe can
collaborate on software projects. Many popular open source
projects have contributors from a wide range of countries.
Often these developers never meet in person & may not
even speak the same language. Managing & combining the
contributions from a wide variety of contributors would be
impossible without suitable CASE tools.
❖ Changing Nature of Applications
▪ Recently the nature of software applications has undergone
rapid change. In the recent past most software developers
where writing applications for desktop computers or for
servers. The recent changes are largely due to the
widespread public acceptance & use of the internet &
mobile devices. Software developers need to continually
update their skills to take account of public demand for
internet connected software applications.

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 Software
Development Cycle
Notes

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Contents
• Defining & Understanding the Problem ............................................................................... 19
➢ Defining the Problem ...................................................................................................... 19
o Identifying the Problem ............................................................................................... 19
o Determining the Feasibility of the Solution ................................................................... 19
➢ Design Specifications....................................................................................................... 20
o Data Types .................................................................................................................. 20
o Data Structures ........................................................................................................... 20
o Data Validation ........................................................................................................... 20
o Algorithms .................................................................................................................. 21
o The User’s Perspective ................................................................................................. 21
➢ System Documentation ................................................................................................... 22
o Quality Assurance ....................................................................................................... 22
o Modelling ................................................................................................................... 22
➢ Communication Issues Between Client & Developer ........................................................ 25
o The Need to Empower the User .................................................................................... 25
o The Need to Acknowledge the User’s Perspective ......................................................... 25
o Enabling & Accepting Feedback ................................................................................... 25
• Planning & Designing Software Solutions ............................................................................ 26
➢ Standard Algorithms ....................................................................................................... 26
o Finding Maximum & Minimum Values in Arrays ........................................................... 26
o Processing Strings ....................................................................................................... 26
o Generating a Set of Unique Random Numbers.............................................................. 27
o Processing of Sequential Files ...................................................................................... 27
o Processing of Relative Files .......................................................................................... 28
o Searches & Sorts.......................................................................................................... 28
➢ Custom-Designed Logic Used in Software Solutions ......................................................... 30
o Requirements to Generate These ................................................................................. 30
o Customised Off-the-Shelf Packages .............................................................................. 30
➢ Records .......................................................................................................................... 31
o Using Records ............................................................................................................. 31
o Nested Records ........................................................................................................... 31
o Examples using Records............................................................................................... 31
➢ Database Terminology .................................................................................................... 32
➢ OOP Terminology............................................................................................................ 32

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 ➢ Collections ...................................................................................................................... 33
➢ Defining the Function ...................................................................................................... 33
➢ Standard Modules Used in Software Solutions ................................................................. 34
o Requirements for Generating a Module or Subroutine for Re-use.................................. 34
o Issues associated with Reusable Modules or Subroutines.............................................. 34
➢ Documentation of the overall software solution .............................................................. 34
o Tools for Representing a Complex Software Solution .................................................... 34
➢ Interface Design in Software Solutions ............................................................................ 35
➢ Factors to Be Considered When Selecting the Technology ................................................ 35
• Implementation of Software Solution ................................................................................. 36
➢ Implementation of the Design Using an Appropriate Language ........................................ 36
o The Design of Individual Screens .................................................................................. 36
➢ Language Syntax Required for Software Solutions ........................................................... 37
o BNF ............................................................................................................................. 39
o EBNF ........................................................................................................................... 39
➢ Translational to Machine Code from Source Code ............................................................ 40
o Translation Methods ................................................................................................... 40
o Steps in Translation Methods....................................................................................... 41
➢ The Role of Machine Code in the Execution of a Program ................................................. 42
o Machine Code & CPU Operation .................................................................................. 42
➢ Techniques Used in Developing Well-Written Code .......................................................... 43
o Structured Approach to Complex Solution .................................................................... 43
o The Process of Detecting & Correcting Errors ................................................................ 44
o Use of Software Debugging Tools ................................................................................ 44
➢ Documentation of a Software Solution ............................................................................ 45
o Forms of Documentation ............................................................................................. 45
o Use of Application Software to Assist in Documentation ............................................... 46
➢ Hardware Environment to Enable Implementation of The Software Solution .................... 46
o Minimum Configuration .............................................................................................. 46
o Possible Additional Hardware ...................................................................................... 46
o Appropriate Drivers or Extensions ................................................................................ 46
➢ Emerging Technologies.................................................................................................... 47
o Hardware.................................................................................................................... 47
o Software ..................................................................................................................... 47
o Their Effect on: ............................................................................................................ 47

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• Testing & Evaluating of Software Solutions ......................................................................... 48
➢ Testing the Software Solution ......................................................................................... 48
o Comparison of the Solution with the Original Design Specification ................................ 48
o Generating Relevant Test Data for Complex Solutions .................................................. 48
o Levels of Testing .......................................................................................................... 48
o The Use of Live Test Data to Test the Complete Solution ............................................... 48
➢ Reporting on the Testing Process..................................................................................... 49
o Documentation of the Test Data & the Output Produced .............................................. 49
o Communication with Consumers .................................................................................. 49
➢ Evaluating the Software Solution..................................................................................... 49
o Benchmarking ............................................................................................................. 49
o Quality Assurance ....................................................................................................... 49
o Post Implementation Review ....................................................................................... 49
• Maintaining Software Solutions .......................................................................................... 50
➢ Modifying Code to Meet Changed Requirements ............................................................. 50
o Identification of the Reasons for Change in Code, Macros ............................................. 50
o Location of Section to be Altered ................................................................................. 50
o Determining Changes to be Made ................................................................................ 50
o Implementing & Testing Solution ................................................................................. 50
➢ Documenting Changes .................................................................................................... 50
o Source Code, Macro & Script Documentation ............................................................... 50
o Modification of Associated Hard Copy Documentation & Online Help ........................... 50
o Use of CASE Tools to Monitor Changes & Versions ........................................................ 50

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• Defining & Understanding the Problem
➢ Defining the Problem
o Identifying the Problem
❖ Needs
▪ It is the programmer’s job to determine how to solve a problem or
meet the need of a user. Requirements definition: clear statement
of the requirements of the system being developed.
❖ Objectives
▪ The short & long term aims & plans for the software being
developed.
❖ Boundaries
▪ The boundary is the limit to a system such as the scope of a
project. It is also important to consider any constraints.

o Determining the Feasibility of the Solution

❖ Is it Worth Solving?
▪ An investigation into the problem will allow the systems analyst to
decide if the problem can be solved or if an alternative route can
be taken.
❖ Technical
▪ What hardware and software are currently being used? Can this
hardware be used with the software to build a workable solution?
How much will it cost to upgrade hardware? Is the hardware
needed acquirable?
❖ Economic/Budgetary
▪ Is the solution to the problem affordable? A cost/benefit analysis
of the solution will be used to determine initial & recurring costs
as well as benefits to the consumer.
❖ Scheduling
▪ The time frame in which a solution must be developed. Is the
solution achievable within the set time frame?
❖ Operational
▪ Whether a solution will be useable by the target customers. Users
must be able to effectively operate the system. Costs of training
users must be factored into the cost/benefit study.
❖ Legal
▪ Does the software comply to legal standards? For example, does it
calculate GST correctly? Does it acknowledge other author’s their
code is used?
❖ Social & Ethical Considerations
▪ Will the new system impact on the jobs of current employees?
Will the software be open to misuse? Will features that provide
wider accessibility need to be implemented?

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 ❖ Possible Alternatives
▪ Once determining feasibility, a decision must be made as to
whether the solution is to be implemented. If it is not feasible, the
software developer may choose to explore alternative solutions to
the problem.

➢ Design Specifications
o Data Types

Data Type Characteristics Examples

Integer Positive or negative whole number -23475

Floating point Real or decimal number 45.994

Character Any letter, number, command, punctuation or symbol $^&*

String Sequence of characters with a single identity Hello World!

Boolean Variable with one of two possible outputs True or False

o Data Structures

Data Structure Characteristics

Array Variables of the same type stored in sequential memory locations

One- Dimensional Array Data of the same type accessed by index

Multi-Dimensional Array Data of the same type accessed by co-ordinate

Record Set of related fields storing data of different types

Array of Records Set of related records stored as one entity

Set of related data items of various types stored as one entity (e.g.
File
Sequential & Relative Files).

o Data Validation
❖ This involves the checking of data to see if it is the correct type and
meets any restrictions imposed by the program. There are two types
of checks:
Validation Methods Description
Reasonableness To check the input against the data type
Check
To check the input data against the boundaries of the data type. The
Range Check
makes sure no limitations of calculations, output etc. are exceeded

Page 20 of 66
o Algorithms

Binary Selection Multi-Way Selection

Pre-Test Loop Post-Test Loop

o The User’s Perspective

❖ The important aspects to the user must be considered in the design
specification. These include:
▪ The Appearance of the Program & the Ease of Use: the user
interface must be ‘user friendly’ containing drop down menus,
clickable icons and keyboard shortcuts. The interface must be
intuitive and have simple navigation
▪ The Programs Functionality: this refers to the programs ability to
carry out the required tasks. This should be designed such that the
tasks are carried out in the easiest and simplest way
▪ The Programs Scope: this refers to the boundaries of the program
and the range of tasks carried out. The users would want to know
if future needs and any maintenance requirements can be done so
in an easy and convenient way.

Page 21 of 66
 ➢ System Documentation
o Quality Assurance
❖ Efficiency
❖ Integrity
❖ Reliability
❖ Usability
❖ Accuracy
❖ Maintainability
❖ Testability
❖ Re-usability

o Modelling
❖ IPO Charts
▪ An IPO chart describes the system in terms of its input data,
output data & the processes that are performed on the inputs
transfer them into the outputs.

Input Process Output

Number of elements Creation of an empty array with Empty array with entered number
entered number of elements of elements

❖ Context Diagrams
▪ Context Diagrams are used to represent entire information
systems. This system shown as a single process along with the
input & output (external entities) to the system.

Names Symbols Description

Circles are used to represent processes. Processes are actions taking
place to transform inputs to outputs. In a context diagram, a system
Process
is represented by a single, labelled circle. In a data flow diagram,
multiple circles represent multiple processes within the system.
Curved lines represent data flows between processes, data stores &
Data Flow external entities. Data flows should be named to identify the piece
of data.
Boxes are used to represent external entities. These are any item,
External person or organisation sitting outside the systems that provide data
Entity to the system or receives data from the system.

The below is only used for Data Flow Diagrams

An open-ended rectangle is used to represent a data store. Data
Data Store stores include electronic or non-computer-based stores of data.
They should be named with a logical name.

Page 22 of 66
 ❖ Data Flow Diagrams
▪ Data flow diagrams represent the flow of data into & out of the
system in terms of the processes used. A data flow diagram
provides more detail at a lower level a context diagram. Contains
processes, data flows, external entities, & data stores.
❖ Storyboard
▪ Storyboards give a general overview of a program. They are used
to document the screens used in a system & the flow between
them. They are suited to applications with a large number of
screens of information which link to other screens. Storyboards
can also be useful in planning the flow of information between
modules.
❖ Data Dictionary
▪ Data dictionaries are a set of information describing the contents,
format, and structure of a database and the relationship between
its elements, used to control access to and manipulation of the
database.

Field Name Data Field Size Description Examples

Type
AmountInWords String 255 Returns the currency Six thousand, two hundred
amount in words and fifty and forty-five
cents.
Amount Floating 4 Input parameter. 6250.45
Point
TempDigit Integer 2 Stores each digit as it is 6
extracts from Amount.
DigitWord(19) Array 10*20 The word associated DigitWord(5)=”five”
(String) with each digit.

❖ Desk Check
Position Pointer [elements] Point + 1 [elements] Flag Array

1 0 [4, -35, 37, -3, 24, 17]

1 4 -35 1 [-35, 4, 37, -3, 24, 17]

2 0 [-35, 4, 37, -3, 24, 17]

3 37 -3 1 [-35, 4, -3, 37, 24, 17]

4 37 24 1 [-35, 4, -3, 24, 37, 17]

5 37 17 1 [-35, 4, -3, 24, 17, 37]

1 0 [-35, 4, -3, 24, 17, 37]

2 4 -3 1 [-35, -3, 4, 24, 17, 37]

3 0 [-35, 3, 4, 24, 17, 37]

4 24 17 1 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

5 0 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

1 0 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

2 0 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

3 0 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

4 0 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

5 0 [-35, 3, 4, 17, 24, 37]

Page 23 of 66
 ❖ Structure Charts
▪ Structure charts are charts which shows the breakdown of a
system to its lowest manageable levels. They are used in
structured programming to arrange program modules into a tree.

Name Symbol Description

A rectangle represents a module.
Module

The arrow shoes the passing of a parameter.

Parameter (Data
Movement)

A filled arrow indicates a control parameter.

Control
Parameter (Flag)

A diamond indicates that a decision has to be

made as to which module is executed.
Decision

A circular arrow indicates repetition.

Repetition

❖ System Flowcharts
▪ System flowcharts are a diagrammatic way of representing both
the flow of data & logic through an information system.

Name Symbol Description

The symbol denoting the beginning & the end of the flow chart.
Start &
End

This symbol shows that the user performs a task. (Note: In many
Process flow charts steps & actions are interchangeable).

This symbol represents a point where a decision is made.

Decision

This symbol means that the user performs an action. (Note: In

Action many flow charts steps & actions are interchangeable).

Flow Line A line that connects the various symbols in an order way.

Page 24 of 66
➢ Communication Issues Between Client & Developer
o The Need to Empower the User
❖ The user needs to be consulted on a regular basis so that the user feels
‘in control’ of the software development. Ideas from the user should
be included in the software, or where ideas have been left out,
reasoning for this should be explained to the user. Further users should
be provided with a choice of functional option within the final product.
Satisfaction with the end design is decided by the user.

o The Need to Acknowledge the User’s Perspective

❖ The user does not need to know the technical information about the
software; however, they will be the ones using the software.
Therefore, specific requirements set by the users that will make the
program function better for them should be taken into consideration

o Enabling & Accepting Feedback

❖ Feedback should be encouraged, as it is cheaper and easier to solve
problems early on in the development cycle. Prototypes are effective
ways of noting user reaction and help clarify development needs.

Page 25 of 66
• Planning & Designing Software Solutions
➢ Standard Algorithms
o Finding Maximum & Minimum Values in Arrays

o Processing Strings
❖ Extracting
The original string is not altered in the process, instead
a second string is created using a section of the
original.

❖ Inserting
▪ A new string is inserted into a specific place in the original string.

❖ Deleting
▪ Removing a section of a string.

Page 26 of 66
o Generating a Set of Unique Random Numbers
❖ Many games utilise random numbers in a variety of ways. Obvious
examples include shuffling cards, rolling dice & selecting lotto number,
however they are also used in various less obvious ways such as
moving background characters or creating realistic water or cloud
movement.
❖ Let us work through the process of creating & refining a function which
will generate a set of unique random integers. The function will accept
three parameters namely, the minimum value & the maximum value to
be generated, & the number of unique values to generate. The
function will return an array containing the generated random integer
values. For instance, the call randomArray(3, 6, 2) would return an
array containing 2 different numbers from the set of possible numbers
3, 4, 5, 6.
❖ Our first attempt uses the following logic:
1. Generate a random number, say r.
2. Search through the array of random numbers already
generated looking for r.
3. If we find r in the array,
then go back to step 1 to
try again.
4. If we don’t find r then
add r to the array of
random numbers.
5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 above
until we have the
required number of
random numbers.

o Processing of Sequential Files

❖ Sentinel Value
▪ A sentinel value is a special value that is used to terminate a loop.
The sentinel value typically is chosen so as to not be a legitimate
data value that the loop will encounter and attempt to perform
with. For example, in a loop algorithm that computes non-
negative integers, the value "-1" can be set as the sentinel value as
the computation will never encounter that value as a legitimate
processing output.
▪ Also referred to as a flag value or a signal value.
❖ Priming Read
▪ It is the input operation that takes place just before an input
validation loop. The purpose of the priming read is to get the first
input value.
❖ Open for Input, Output or Append
❖ Close
❖ Appending Records

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o Processing of Relative Files
❖ Open for Relative Access
❖ Defining a Key Field for a Relative File
❖ Retrieving, Writing & Updating a Record in a Relative File

o Searches & Sorts

❖ Linear Search

❖ Binary Search

❖ Bubble Sort

Page 28 of 66
 ❖ Insertion Sort

❖ Selection Sort

Searches & Sorts Properties

Simplest searching algorithm.
Highly inefficient, especially with large arrays.
Linear Search Array can be sorted or unsorted.
Compare search item with every other item in the array until either the
item is found, or the end of the list is reached.
Very efficient search even with large arrays as the array is already sorted.
Binary Search Continually cuts the array in half until the item is found or it is determined
the item is not in the list.
Each element is compared with the element next to it and if they are out of
Bubble Sort order they are swapped.
Elements end up “bubbling” towards their correct location in the array.
Scanning forward until an out of place item is found and then scan
Insertion Sort
backward until you find its correct location and insert it there.
Scanning through the array to find the largest unsorted item and then
Selection Sort
selecting it and swapping it with the item in its correct position.

Page 29 of 66
➢ Custom-Designed Logic Used in Software Solutions
o Requirements to Generate These
❖ Identification of Inputs, Processes & Outputs
▪ Software developer must describe the data, its format and its
method of input or output.
▪ IPO diagrams are useful to show the relationship between inputs,
the processes carried out and the outputs
❖ Representation as an Algorithm
▪ Algorithms clearly describe the steps involved in solving a
problem.
▪ Writing one helps understand the logic of a problem.

❖ Definition of Required Data Structures

▪ Along with algorithms, programmers must also determine the
most appropriate data structures for solving a problem.
▪ A data dictionary may be used to determine all the information
that is to be stored and determine a suitable data type.
❖ Use of Data Structures
▪ Multidimensional Arrays
- Useful for storing values which are logically stored in a grid
or table.
▪ Arrays of Records
- Useful for storing a variety of different data types for a
number of items.
▪ Files (Sequential & Relative)
- A collection of data stored in a logical manner, usually on
secondary storage devices.
- Sequential files must be read or written to from start to
finish in a linear fashion (e.g. data tape).
- Relative/random files allow access of different parts of the
file in a non-sequential manner (e.g. hard drive).
❖ Use of Random Numbers
▪ Often used to allow access to unpredictable data.
▪ Usually generated as rational numbers between 0 & 1.
❖ Thorough Testing
▪ Testing must be completed at each stage of the development
cycle.
▪ If a mistake is carried through the software development cycle, it
becomes increasingly expensive to fix.

o Customised Off-the-Shelf Packages

❖ Identifying an Appropriate Package
❖ Identifying the Changes That Need to be Made
❖ Identifying How the Changes Are to be Made

Page 30 of 66
➢ Records
o It involves concepts that are similar to those found in DBMS & OOP.
o We can declare a record of two data types like this:

o Using Records
❖ To specify a record, we define a class (template) that shows how the
record is structured.

o Nested Records

o Examples using Records

Page 31 of 66
 o Function that calculates the value of some shares for a company

o Function that calculates the brokerage when shares are traded

➢ Database Terminology
o The term ‘records’& ‘field’ are from dB terminology.
o A collection of records is a Table.
o A DBMS maintains tables.
o For example, a library uses a database to hold data about its books such as
‘title’, ‘author’, ‘number of pages’ & & so on.
o Each books data would encapsulated in a database ‘record’.

➢ OOP Terminology
o In OOP (Object-Oriented Programming) the various separate pieces of data
are collected into an ‘object’ & are called members or attributes.
o In OOP, functions as well as data can be encapsulated inside objects.
o So, each object is a collection of some data, representing information; and
functions, representing certain behaviour.
o Whereas, we use the ‘record’ in our algorithm description syntax, OOP the
term ‘object’.
o In OOP a ‘class’ is used as a template of what data & behaviour a packet
type of object can hold.

Page 32 of 66
➢ Collections
o A collection refers to the storage & management of several or many
records.
o A DBMS hold a collection of records in a table & provides several standard
routines for managing the records;
❖ Adding new records
❖ Searching & retrieving records, &
❖ Changing the values stored in records
o In OOP, specific objects defined in ‘container classes’ do the same king of
work.

➢ Defining the Function

o The function below takes the data as arguments (the name of each
company, the number of shares held & the price of each share), creates a
new Stock record with it & inserts the record into the next available cell in
the array.
o The next available call can be determined by the value of ‘numRecords’
variable.

Page 33 of 66
➢ Standard Modules Used in Software Solutions
o Requirements for Generating a Module or Subroutine for Re-use
❖ Identification of Appropriate Modules or Subroutine
▪ Best to only use modules or libraries that are necessary to perform
the required task.
▪ Using unnecessary/redundant libraries is a waste of resources.
❖ Appropriate Testing Using Drivers
▪ Best to only use modules or libraries that are necessary to perform
the required task.
▪ Using unnecessary/redundant libraries is a waste of resources.
❖ Thorough Documentation of The Routine:
▪ Author
▪ Date
▪ Purpose
▪ Order & Nature of Parameters to Be Passed

o Issues associated with Reusable Modules or Subroutines

❖ Identifying Appropriate Modules or Subroutines
❖ Considering Local & Global Variables
▪ Local variables can only be used within their own
module/subprogram.
▪ Global variables can be accessed throughout the whole program.
❖ Appropriately Using Parameters (arguments)
▪ Parameters are data items which can be passed to and from
subprograms.

➢ Documentation of the overall software solution

o Tools for Representing a Complex Software Solution
❖ Algorithms
▪ Provide a detailed description of the logic carried out in a
program.
▪ Do not indicate data manipulation.
❖ Data Flow Diagrams
▪ Useful for tracking the movement of data through a system.
▪ Graphically show the processing which occurs in a system and
indicate where data is stored.
❖ Structure Charts
▪ Method of representing the elements of a system in a hierarchical
form.
▪ Modules represented by boxes with data and controls past
between modules.
❖ System Flowcharts
▪ Graphical means of representing the logic of a computer system.
▪ Also demonstrate the source and destination of data which is used
by the system.

Page 34 of 66
 ❖ Data Dictionaries
- Helps the programmer understand the data that will be
used in a particular program.
- Includes the names, data types and descriptions of the data
items used.

➢ Interface Design in Software Solutions

o Menus
o Command Buttons
o Tool Bars
o Text Bars
o List Boxes
o Combination Boxes
o Check Boxes
o Option or Radio Buttons
o Scroll Bars
o Grids
o Labels
o Picture or Image Boxes

➢ Factors to Be Considered When Selecting the Technology

o Performance Requirements
o Benchmarking

Page 35 of 66
• Implementation of Software Solution
➢ Implementation of the Design Using an Appropriate Language
o The Design of Individual Screens
❖ Identification of Data Required
▪ Individual screens must display data.
▪ Good design will enhance the ability of the user to view or enter
data.
▪ Such screen layout techniques include:
- Appropriate use of graphics
- Positioning of text on the screen
- Alignment and justification
- Appropriate use of upper and lower case
- Colour of text and background
❖ Current Popular Approaches
▪ Early computer programs relied heavily on command line
interfaces.
▪ Graphic User Interfaces (GUIs) that use the following elements are
now usually used:
- Menus
- Windows
- Icons
- Scroll Bars
- Radio Buttons
- Dialogue Boxes
❖ Design of Help Screens
▪ Help screens should be simple, non-threatening and guide the
user in a positive manner.
▪ Context sensitive, procedural and conceptual help as well as tours
and tutorials can be used.
❖ Audience Identification
▪ Language should be clear and unambiguous.
▪ The program must use language appropriate for its target group.
❖ Consistency in Approach
▪ It is important to keep fonts, colours and placement consistent
throughout the program so that it is easier to use to for the user.

Page 36 of 66
 ➢ Language Syntax Required for Software Solutions

Symbol Meaning Examples

Language element defined
somewhere else (called non-
<digit>
<language element> terminal symbols). These may be:
<letter>
Pre-defined – given names
Individual Characters
Terminal symbols – each
Language Element character in a string of characters Display
is a terminal symbol
The vertical bar is placed
Alternative | Alternative between alternatives. There may A | B | C meaning A or B or C
be two or more of these.
Word::=<letter><letter><letter>
::= Represents ‘is defined as’.
Meaning Word is defined as 3
letters.
EBNF changed extended BNF to describe repetition elements in a language.
Letter = A | B | C | D | E
= Represents ‘is defined as’. Letter is defined as A or B or C
or D or E
Word = {<letter>}
Repeated elements enclosed in
{} braces. The loop may not be Word is defined as a repetition
carried out. of the predefined element
letter.
String = <letter>[+]<letter>

Optional elements in square String is defined as a letter

[]
brackets. element, an optional + meaning
it may be used or may not be
used & another letter element.
(<letter>)
Grouped elements in
() The repeated letters are part of
parentheses.
the one group.

Page 37 of 66
 Railroad Diagram
Interpretation EBNF Example
Example

Terminal Symbol for a reserved

BEGIN
word. BEGIN is a reserved word.

Terminal symbol for a literal. The

characters abc are written as they abc
appear. Quotes are used to enclose “(“
symbols used by the metalanguage.

Non-terminal symbol. Item is

<Item>
defined elsewhere.

“or” a choice between two

<Item1> | <Item2>
alternatives. Either Item1 or Item2.

“is defined as”. Item can take the

Item = a | b
value a or b.

Optional part, Item followed

<Item>[<Thing>]
optionally by a Thing.

Possible repetition. This is an Item

This = {<Item>}
repeated zero or more times.

Repetition. That is an Item repeated

That = <Item>{<Item>}
one or more times.

Grouping. A Foogle is an Item

followed by the reserved word FOO Foogle = (<Item>FOO) | BOO
or it is the reserved word BOO.

Page 38 of 66
Symbol Meaning Examples

Language element defined somewhere

else (called non-terminal symbols). Where word has previously
been defined as letters.
A fixed element can be represented by
either a circle or a rounded rectangle. A
fixed element can be either a symbol,
reserved word or a specific digit or
letter.
The path does from left to right & the
branch is optional. If the branch is used it
is followed until it again reached the
main lines. In this examples Number is
a predefined element. + is
affixed element. Addition
The main path must be followed if the
can be represented as
branch may not be followed backwards.
Number + Number.

o The use of metalanguage such as BNF to describe the syntax of a language

allows users to interpret definitions & check the legality of constructions.

o BNF
❖ Repetition is described through recursion. ::= stands for “is defined as”
& non-terminal elements are enclosed with <> brackets.

o EBNF
❖ Symbols similar to BNF with the addition of {} repetition, [] encloses
optional elements, () groups elements together.

o Railroad diagrams are also known as syntax diagrams or structure diagrams.

They are a method of graphically representing the syntax by tracing a one-
way path or railroad track from left to right. Branching it only permitted in
the direction of motion. Terminals are represented by circles or rounded
rectangles. Rectangles represent previously defined elements & repetition is
shown by a looping structure.

Page 39 of 66
 o Multi-Dimensional Arrays
❖ A multi-dimensional array is an array with more than one level or
dimension. For example, a 2D array, or two-dimensional array, is an
array of arrays, meaning it is a matrix of rows and columns (think of a
table). A 3D array adds another dimension, turning it into an array of
arrays of arrays.
o Arrays of Records
❖ A table is a data structure which is a collection of records. It is
commonly implemented as an array of records, ie: an array where each
of the individual elements is a record.

➢ Translational to Machine Code from Source Code

o Translation Methods

Translation Methods Description

Taking the source code and converting it into executable code that can
Compilation
be executed independently and without the need for a translator.
Each line of the source code is translated into machine code and
Interpretation executed immediately. An interpreter (translator) must be present on
the computer the code is to be executed on.

Translation
Advantages Disadvantages
Methods
Original source code is not available to Every time a change is made in
the users, so it is kept protected. the source code the whole
Source code can be executed faster. program has to be recompiled.
Compilation
An interpreter does not have to be
installed on the machine for the code to
be executed.
Faster to develop because you can test Interpreter must be installed on
Interpretation each line of code as you go. the user’s machine.
Slower to execute the code.

Page 40 of 66
o Steps in Translation Methods
❖ The translation process involves a series of stages before object code is
produced. These stages and the elements of them are outlined below.
▪ Lexical Analysis
- This is the first stage and involves the reading of
the code. The code is read character by character
according to the syntax rules of the programming
language. White space is omitted
- Other elements of the code are given tokens
according to the type of characters they are;
language elements, syntax, constants, operators,
variables
- Each statement is identified and separated for the
next stage of translation
▪ Syntactical analysis
- This stage arranges the tokens in a way which can
be understood by the processor
- Parsing (the use of a parse tree) creates a
hierarchy of each section (token) of the code so
that it can be interpreted in the same way each
time
- Type checking is then carried out. Each of the data
types in a statement are passed to the translator.
Each statement is checked to make sure the
operations being performed are valid according to
the data type. Error messages are returned to
confliction occurs
- Traversing then generates the code by moving
from the top left of the parse tree down from left
to right. Each token in the tree is subsequently
converted to machine code
▪ Code Generation
- If the processes of lexical analysis & syntactical
analysis have completed without error, then the
machine code can be generated. This stage
involves converting each token or series of tokens
into their respective machine code instructions.
Because we know that the tokens are correct &
are in the correct order, no errors will be found
during code generation.
- The code generator performs the task of
conversion from tokens to object code, the code
that is executable by the computer. The generator
traverses the parse tree according to a set of strict
rules, creating appropriate machine code
whenever it gathers sufficient tokens to form a
machine command. It continues through the tree

Page 41 of 66
 in this manner until all instructions have been
coded.
- The code generator is also governed by the syntax
rules used to write the source code. The code
generator used for this example starts at the top
left of the tree and moves downwards and to the
right around the tree. As it moves around the tree,
it chooses tokens from the ends of the branches,
moving left to right around the tree. This process
is known as traversing the tree.

➢ The Role of Machine Code in the Execution of a Program

o Machine Code & CPU Operation
❖ Instruction format
▪ Machine instructions need to convey a number of pieces of
information to the processor. This means that the way in which
the bits of the instruction are arranged is important. The first
few bits are used to ‘tell’ the CPU the type of instruction to be
carried out. These first bits are represented by the most
significant bits of the first instruction byte.
❖ Use of Registers & Accumulators
▪ Registers are temporary storage locations that can hold one
instruction.
▪ The accumulator is one of these registers.
❖ Use of Program Counter & Instruction Register
▪ The program counter is a register that stores the address of the
next executable instruction. It is automatically incremented
when an instruction is executed.
▪ The instruction register is the part of a CPU's control unit that
holds the instruction currently being executed or decoded. In
simple processors, each instruction to be executed is loaded into
the instruction register, which holds it while it is decoded,
prepared and ultimately executed, which can take several steps.
❖ Fetch-Execute Cycle
▪ The fetch-execute cycle involves the following steps:

The instruction is retrieved from the main memory.

Fetch The program counter register stores the memory address of the next
instruction to be carried out.
The type of instruction to be carried out needs to be decoded.
The Opcode is a set of binary digits which tell the CPU what process to
Decode
carry out.
The two Operands are the data which needs to be processed.
Execute This stage carries out the instructions.
The stores the result of the instruction carried out in the accumulator.
Store
The data in the accumulator is then copied to the RAM or registers.

Page 42 of 66
 ❖ Addresses of called routines
▪ Commands to be executed are stored with the operation code in
the computer's RAM.
▪ Each memory address is accessed sequentially unless the
instruction is to jump to another part of the program.
❖ Linking, including the use of DLL’s
▪ Linking allows a machine code program to combine with other
machine code programs.
▪ Dynamic link libraries (DLLs) are collections of programs in
machine code which can be accessed by other programs to
perform specific tasks.

➢ Techniques Used in Developing Well-Written Code

o Structured Approach to Complex Solution
❖ One Logical Task Per Subroutine
▪ Coding a subroutine that performs only one task but performs it
efficiently.
▪ Allows it to be low maintenance and reusable.
❖ Stubs
▪ Dummy procedures/modules that supply either/both:
- Some data to allow the calling module to continue working.
- An output statement indicating the stub modules has been
called correctly.
❖ Flags
▪ Boolean variable that indicates that an event has occurred.
❖ Isolation of Errors
▪ Errors can often be located by:
- Using debugging output statements.
- Commenting out sections of code to determine which part
is causing the error.
- Setting break points to exit the program if a certain event
occurs.
❖ Debugging Output Statements
▪ Debugging output statements, such as variable traces, are used
to print the value of a variable at a certain point of the code to
test if the algorithm is operating correctly.
❖ Elegance of Solution
▪ Being able to solve a problem with the minimum amount of
code. It often requires lateral thinking so that unnecessary steps
can be skipped.
❖ Writing for Subsequent Maintenance
▪ Taking the source code and converting it into executable code
that can be executed independently and without the need for a
translator.

Page 43 of 66
o The Process of Detecting & Correcting Errors
❖ Syntax errors
▪ Easily corrected errors in the coding of the solution.
▪ Occur when you do not follow the syntax rules of a language
correctly.
❖ Logic Errors
▪ When a program performs an incorrect action or gives out the
wrong output due to flawed logic.
▪ Must be corrected by testing and debugging through use of
good test data.
❖ Peer Checking
▪ When programmers not involved with the original design are
asked to check the logic of an algorithm or program.
❖ Desk Checking
▪ Stepping through the code of a program on paper with pre-
determined test data to ensure that the desirable output is
achieved.
❖ Use of Expected Output
▪ Inputting the expected variable value manually to test whether
the program manipulates that data correctly.
❖ Runtime Errors, including:
▪ Occur as the object code is being executed. Usually due to an
error in the program's logic.
▪ Arithmetic Overflow
- Occurs when a result cannot be stored in the nominated
memory location due to incorrect use of data types and
structures.
▪ Division by Zero
- Occurs when an undefined arithmetic operation is carried
out – usually when the program attempts to divide a
number by zero.
▪ Accessing Inappropriate Memory Locations
- Occurs if inappropriate memory locations are accessed.

o Use of Software Debugging Tools

❖ Use of Breakpoints
▪ Stopping the execution of code at certain points so that the
value of variables at that point can be observed.
❖ Resetting Variable Contents
▪ The values of a variable can be changed as the program is
executed to determine if the processes being carried out are
accurate.
❖ Program Traces
▪ As the program is run, the actual line of code being executed is
displayed on screen. Variable values can also be viewed.

Page 44 of 66
 ❖ Single Line Stepping
▪ Stepping through the code one line at a time to see how the
program operates and manipulates variables.

➢ Documentation of a Software Solution

o Forms of Documentation
❖ Process Diary
▪ Design or specification documentation used to describe the
development process.
▪ Includes:
- Screen layout designs
- Data and processing specifications
- Descriptions of input and output
- Also known as a logbook.
❖ User Documentation
▪ Documentation that helps people work/use the products.
▪ Often include screenshots, step-by-step instructions, contents,
index, etc.
▪ Examples of user documentation include:
- User manual
- Installation guide
- Tutorials
- Online help
❖ Self-Documentation of The Code
▪ Commenting of the code makes it easier to understand the
processes involved for both the original developer and any other
developers who wish to maintain the code in the future.
❖ Technical Documentation
▪ Needed by programmers and developers to allow the program
to be modified.
▪ Source code
- The actual programming code that makes up a program.
- Should be well commented to explain any obscure areas
of the code.
- Code should be indented to make it easier to read.
- Meaningful variable names should be used.
▪ Algorithms
- Used to provide a clear description of the steps carried out
to solve a problem.
- Simplifies any program code so it can be understood.
- Common methods of algorithm description include:
Pseudocode
Flowcharts
▪ Data Dictionary
- Used to describe the nature and form of any input data.

Page 45 of 66
 ▪Systems Documentation
- Provides a description of the operating system, including
the use of subprograms and any special features of the
code.
❖ Documentation for Subsequent Maintenance of the Source
- Technical documentation should assist programmers in
modifying the code in the future.
- Changes made during maintenance should be
documented for future reference.

o Use of Application Software to Assist in Documentation

❖ CASE tools that help generate user and technical documentation exist
to make the job of the programmer easier.

➢ Hardware Environment to Enable Implementation of The Software

Solution
o Minimum Configuration
❖ Commercial software often specifies the minimum hardware
configuration needed to run.
❖ Includes aspects such as:
▪ CPU type/speed
▪ Amount of hard drive storage
▪ Amount of RAM
▪ Operating system version

o Possible Additional Hardware

❖ If a program is too complex for a system, additional hardware may
need to be purchased or current hardware upgraded.

o Appropriate Drivers or Extensions

❖ Drivers provide a means of accessing input or output hardware
devices.
❖ Extensions enable a program to interact with other programs.

Page 46 of 66
➢ Emerging Technologies
o Hardware
❖ Quantum Computers – Will vastly increase the speed at which
computers can operate.
❖ Nanotechnology – Will allow for the sizes of computers to decrease so
they can be embedded in more places.
❖ Holographic Storage – Expand storage devices to a three-dimensional
level to increase the amount of data that can be stored greatly.

o Software
❖ Java – Allows for the development of cross-platform applications.
Becoming increasingly popular as a programming language.
❖ Dylan – A programming language which extends upon other object-
oriented languages by introducing new data structures such as dynamic
inheritance and parametric polymorphism.

o Their Effect on:

❖ Human Environment
- As new technologies emerge, may people strive to
incorporate them into their lives.
- Most technological items are designed to assist humans in
particular tasks.
- There can be both positive and negative effects due to
technological advance, these should be determined before
a technology is accepted by society.
❖ Development Process
- Software is becoming increasingly cross-platform as the
line between PCs, PDAs, mobile phones, etc. becomes
blurred.
- CASE tools as well as Visual IDEs are assisting
programmers to develop applications more quickly and
more easily.

Page 47 of 66
• Testing & Evaluating of Software Solutions
➢ Testing the Software Solution
o Comparison of the Solution with the Original Design Specification
❖ The solution must meet the original objectives.
❖ Developers must constantly check that the original specifications are
being met.

o Generating Relevant Test Data for Complex Solutions

❖ Test data that will ensure the correct functioning of the algorithm must
be generated.
❖ This often involves data which tests boundary conditions for various
methods.
❖ Sometimes not all procedures can be tested, but developers should
strive for as much testing as possible.

o Levels of Testing
❖ Unit or Module
▪ It is often possible to test a small section of the program by
entering inputs and observing outputs for that module.
▪ If the workings of the module are known it is called white box
testing, but if it is unknown it is called black box testing.
❖ Program
▪ When a program is tested in its entirety, usually by the
developers. This is known as alpha testing.
▪ Often focuses on testing user interfaces and the interaction of
separate modules.
❖ System
▪ Testing the software in a variety of hardware/operating system
environments.
▪ Usually testing is performed by users, this is known as beta
testing.

o The Use of Live Test Data to Test the Complete Solution

❖ Larger File Sizes
▪ Larger file sizes for data structures allows the program to be
tested under heavier, real-world loads.
❖ Mix of Transaction Types
▪ Different transaction types are used in order to test a range of
modules.
❖ Response Times
▪ Response times should be kept to a minimum.
▪ Any response times greater than 1 second should have onscreen
feedback for the user.
❖ Volume Data
▪ Large amounts of data should be used.
▪ Large volumes of transactions should be tested.
❖ Interfaces Between Modules
▪ Every interface that links between modules must be tested.

Page 48 of 66
 ▪This includes screens that interface between other applications
and hardware.
❖ Comparison with Program Test Data
▪ The program should be compared with generated expected
output to ensure that the correct outputs are being obtained.

➢ Reporting on the Testing Process

o Documentation of the Test Data & the Output Produced
❖ Use of CASE Tools
▪ Generating test data
▪ Testing user interface designs
▪ Volume testing

o Communication with Consumers

❖ Test Results
▪ It is important to communicate any test results to developers
and customers.
❖ Comparison with Original Design Specifications
▪ Test results must be compared to the original design
specifications to ensure that the final solution meets the criteria.

➢ Evaluating the Software Solution

o Benchmarking
❖ Comparing the performance of the product with competitor’s
products.

o Quality Assurance
❖ Checking how well a solution complies to the user’s expectations,
includes:
▪ Correctness
▪ Efficiency
▪ Flexibility
▪ Integrity
▪ Interoperability
▪ Maintainability/ Modifiability
▪ Portability Reliability
▪ Reusability
▪ Useability
▪ Validity

o Post Implementation Review

❖ Facilitation of open discussion & evaluation with the client
❖ Client sign of process

Page 49 of 66
• Maintaining Software Solutions
➢ Modifying Code to Meet Changed Requirements
o Identification of the Reasons for Change in Code, Macros
❖ Bug fixes
❖ New hardware
❖ New software purchases
❖ Suggested improvements
o Location of Section to be Altered
❖ Models are used to assist finding the section that needs alteration.
❖ A thorough understanding of the original source code is required.
o Determining Changes to be Made
❖ Once the required module is located, IPO charts and algorithms are used
to determine what to modify.
❖ Effect of the changes on other modules must be considered.
o Implementing & Testing Solution
❖ Once the changes have been determined, they must be made in the
source code.
❖ Code must then be recompiled, tested and distributed.
❖ Distribution may be through:
▪ Direct change on the user’s system
▪ Remote change via telecommunication link
▪ User applied patches

➢ Documenting Changes
o Source Code, Macro & Script Documentation
❖ Includes comments and intrinsic documentation.
❖ Improves the maintainability for future changes.
o Modification of Associated Hard Copy Documentation & Online Help
❖ Hard copy documentation may need to be reproduced or a “release
note” may need to be added to outline any changes.
❖ Online documentation would need to be updated if any of the
procedures within the program change.
o Use of CASE Tools to Monitor Changes & Versions
❖ Versioning CASE tools such as CVS can monitor changes in source code
and maintain a log of changes so programmers can see how and why
programs have been modified.

Page 50 of 66
 Developing a
Solution Package -
Notes

Page 51 of 66
Contents
• Designing & Developing a Software Solution to a Problem ................................................... 53
➢ Defining the Problem ...................................................................................................... 53
➢ Understanding ................................................................................................................ 53
➢ Planning & Designing ...................................................................................................... 53
➢ Implementing ................................................................................................................. 53
➢ Testing & Evaluating ....................................................................................................... 53
➢ Maintenance .................................................................................................................. 53
• Whole Project Issues........................................................................................................... 54
➢ Project Management Techniques .................................................................................... 54

Page 52 of 66
• Designing & Developing a Software Solution to a Problem
➢ Defining the Problem
o Identification of the problem
o Idea generation
o Communication with others involved in the proposed system

➢ Understanding
o Interface design
o Communication with others involved in the proposed system
o Representing the system using diagrams
o Selection of appropriate data structures
o Applying project management techniques
o Consideration of all social and ethical issues

➢ Planning & Designing

o Interface design
o Selection of software environment
o Identification of appropriate hardware
o Selection of appropriate data structures
o Production of a data dictionary
o Definition of required validation processes
o Definition of files – record layout and creation
o Algorithm design
o Inclusion of standard or common routines
o Use of software to document design
o Identification of appropriate test data
o Enabling and incorporating feedback from users at regular intervals
o Consideration of all social and ethical issues
o Applying project management techniques

➢ Implementing
o Production and maintenance of data dictionary
o Inclusion of standard or common routines
o Use of software to document design
o Translating the solution into code
o Creating online help
o Program testing
o Reporting on the status of the system at regular intervals
o Applying project management techniques
o Enabling and incorporating feedback from users at regular intervals
o Completing all user documentation for the project
o Consideration of all social and ethical issues
o Completing full program and systems testing

➢ Testing & Evaluating

➢ Maintenance
o Modifying the project to ensure an improved solution

Page 53 of 66
• Whole Project Issues
➢ Project Management Techniques
o Project management techniques are applied to the development of a
solution package.
o Project teams are multi-disciplinary, and outsourcing is employed as
required.
o Defining the problem consists of identifying the problem, ideas generation
and communication with others involved in the proposed system.
o Understanding the problem consists of interface design, communication
with others involved in the proposed system, representing the system using
diagrams, selection of appropriate data structures and consideration of all
social and ethical issues.
o Consideration of all social and ethical issues includes ease of use,
accessibility of technical language, copyright and ergonomics.
o Planning and design consists of interface design, selection of software
environment, identification of appropriate hardware, selection of
appropriate data structures, production of a data dictionary, definition of
required validation processes, definition of files, algorithm design, inclusion
of standard or common routines, use of software to document design,
identification of appropriate test data, enabling and incorporating feedback
from users and applying project management techniques.
o The final stage in developing a solution package is to implement the
solution. This is a two-stage process consisting of implementation and
maintenance.
o Implementation consists of production and maintenance of the data
dictionary, translating the solution into code, creating online help, program
testing and completing all user documentation for the project.
o Maintenance consists of modifying the project to ensure an improved
solution.
o Project management techniques are applied throughout the development of
a solution package.
o Testing of the solution should be carried out at regular intervals—test early
and test often.

Page 54 of 66
The Interrelationship
Between Software &
Hardware - Notes

Page 55 of 66
Contents
• Representation of Data Within the Computer ............................................................................ 57
➢ Character Representation ........................................................................................................ 57
o ASCII vs Unicode ....................................................................................................................... 57
➢ Representation of Data Using Different Number Systems ..................................................... 57
o Binary ........................................................................................................................................ 57
o Hexadecimal ............................................................................................................................. 57
o Decimal ..................................................................................................................................... 57
➢ Integer Representation ............................................................................................................ 58
o Sign & Modulus ........................................................................................................................ 58
o 1’s Complement ........................................................................................................................ 58
o 2’s Complement ........................................................................................................................ 58
➢ Floating Point/Real Representation ........................................................................................ 58
o Fixed-Point ................................................................................................................................ 58
o Floating-Point ........................................................................................................................... 58
➢ Binary Arithmetic ..................................................................................................................... 60
o Addition .................................................................................................................................... 60
o Subtraction ............................................................................................................................... 60
o Multiplication ........................................................................................................................... 60
o Division ..................................................................................................................................... 60
• Electronic Circuits to Perform Standard Software Operations ................................................... 61
➢ Logic Gates ................................................................................................................................ 61
➢ Truth Tables .............................................................................................................................. 61
➢ Specialty Circuits ...................................................................................................................... 62
o Half Adder ................................................................................................................................. 62
o Full Adder .................................................................................................................................. 62
o Flip-Flops ................................................................................................................................... 63
• Programming of Hardware Devices ............................................................................................. 64
➢ The Data Stream ....................................................................................................................... 64
o Format of the Data Stream ...................................................................................................... 64
o Use of Control Characters ........................................................................................................ 65
o Error Detection & Correction.................................................................................................... 65
o Clock .......................................................................................................................................... 66
o Use of Hardware Specifications to Describe the Format of the Data Stream ........................ 66

Page 56 of 66
• Representation of Data Within the Computer
➢ A computer can only process binary data (0 or 1). Humans work in decimal numbers
& hence we need to convert decimal to binary & vice-versa. There are limitations on
representation of data which the programmer needs to determine.
➢ The range of acceptable integers (16, 32 or 64 bits)
➢ Maximum size of a real number & how many decimal places that can be used.
➢ The disk space that can be used.
➢ The amount of RAM available for data storage.

➢ Character Representation
o ASCII vs Unicode
❖ ASCII: American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

ASCII Unicode Extended ASCII

American Standard Code for
Universal Character Set
Information Interchange
Is a character system
7 bits per character 16, 24, or 36 bits per character
where the first 128
Between 65536 & 4,294,967,296 characters are
128 different characters characters depending on the system exactly the same as
ASCII
ASCII
All English letters, numbers, Contains all major languages, symbols,
& symbols hieroglyphics, etc.

➢ Representation of Data Using Different Number Systems

o Binary
o Hexadecimal
❖ A number system that uses 16 as its base. Because it requires 16
symbols, the letters A-F are used as digits to represent the decimal
numbers 10-15.

o Decimal

Page 57 of 66
➢ Integer Representation
o Sign & Modulus
❖ Sign & Modulus: this method uses the left-most bit to represent the
sign (0 = +, 1 = -). The remaining bits give the modulus or magnitude
of the number.
❖ Only exists when: -127 > x > 127
❖ Represents + & - numbers.

Sign Modulus
+ 0 1111111 + 127
+ 0 1111000 + 120
+ 0 0011110 + 62
+ 0 0000000
- 1 0000000
- 1 0011111 - 62
- 1 1111111 - 127

o 1’s Complement
❖ One’s Complement: depicts negative numbers by replacing all the
ones in the positive form with zero’s & all the zero’s with ones.

o 2’s Complement
❖ Two’s Complement: represents a negative number by adding 1 to
the one’s complement of the number.

➢ Floating Point/Real Representation

o Fixed-Point
❖ Fixed-point refers to the position of the decimal point. When using
fixed-point numbers, the decimal point remains in the same position
for all numbers. For example, a fixed-point system using 16 bits may
have 8 bits for the whole number part & 8 bits for the fractional
part. The problem with such a system is that very large numbers and
very small numbers cannot be represented.

o Floating-Point
❖ Floating-point numbers can be thought of as generalised fixed-point
numbers. The position of the decimal point is encoded within the
format. In this way, the decimal point can be placed in a different
position within the number. Essentially, the number is stored using
scientific notation.

Page 58 of 66
 ▪ IEEE 754 Single Precision
- Used to represent fractional values.
- This standard requires 32 bits, the first bit is the sign
bit, the next eight bits are used to store the
exponent & the final 23 bits are the fractional part.

Where:

▪ Sign (0 or 1)
▪ E – Excess 127
𝒗 = (−𝟏)𝒔 × 𝟐(𝑬−𝟏𝟐𝟕) × (𝟏 + 𝑭) ▪ N – Decimal number to be
represented using Excess 127

USED TO PROVE ANSWER!!!

▪ IEEE 754 Double Precision

- This standard uses 64 bits to represent each
number. A sign bit, 11 bits for the exponent & 52
bits for the mantissa.

▪ Excess 127 / Biased 127

- Used to represent + & - decimals.
- Better version of sign & modulus because + & - 0 are
do not exist.
Where:

N = E - 127 ▪ E – Excess 127

▪ N – Decimal number to be
represented using Excess 127
Excess 127 Decimal
11111111 128 E = 63 + 127
10111110 63 = 190
01111111 0
01001100 -57 E = -51 + 127
00000000 -127 = 76

Page 59 of 66
➢ Binary Arithmetic
o Addition
❖ Addition is the basis of all arithmetic operations inside the computer
& is carried out by the special ALU. The rules are simple:
▪ 0+0=0
▪ 0+1=1
▪ 1+0=1
▪ 1 + 1 = 10 (i.e. carry the 1)

o Subtraction
❖ Subtraction is too hard for computers to perform so instead they
“add negatives”. Essentially, they add the first number to the two’s
complement of the second number.
❖ Rules:
▪ 1-0=1
▪ 1-1=0
▪ 0-0=0
▪ 0 - 1 = 1 (with 1 being borrowed from the next higher bit
position)

o Multiplication
❖ The multiplication of two binary numbers is performed using
addition. Each successive bit of the multiplier is looked at. If it is a 1,
then the multiplicand is written down. If it is a 0 then all zeros are
written down. The numbers in successive lines are shifted one place
to the left of the previous number & then they are all added
together.

o Division
❖ Division of binary numbers can be carried out using long division.
This process involves:
▪ Subtracting the divisor
▪ Shifting the next digit into the remainder until the divider can
be subtracted again.
Binary can’t be expressed in
▪ Repeat above.
negative numbers.

Page 60 of 66
• Electronic Circuits to Perform Standard Software Operations
➢ Logic Gates
o Logic gates are hardware circuits that produce a 1 or a 0 output if the input
requirements are satisfied. Logic gates are usually implemented in the
computer using IC’s.

𝑨.0=0 𝑨+𝟎= 𝑨 De Morgan ∘ - means denied

̅=0
𝑨 .𝑨 ̅=1
𝑨+𝑨 Theorem MAKE
𝑨 .𝑨 = 𝑨 𝑨+ 𝑨= 𝑨 ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 = 𝑨̅+𝑩̅ EQUATIONS
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅x𝑩̅ EVEN
𝑨 .𝟏 = 𝑨 𝑨+𝟏=𝟏 𝑨 + 𝑩= 𝑨

➢ Truth Tables
Name Logic Gate Equation Truth Table
A Z
INVERTER ̅
Z=𝑨 0 1
1 0
A B Z
0 0 0
𝒁 = 𝑨 .𝑩
AND 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Z
0 0 0
NAND
𝒁 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨 .𝑩 0 1 1
(not AND)
1 0 1
1 1 1
A B Z
0 0 0
XOR 𝒛=𝑨⊕𝑩
̅B
̅ +𝑨 0 1 1
(exclusive OR) = A𝑩
1 0 1
1 1 0
A B Z
0 0 1
XNOR 𝒁 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨⊕ 𝑩
̅ .𝑩̅ 0 1 0
(not exclusive OR) = AB + 𝑨
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Z
0 0 0
𝒁 = 𝑨+𝑩
OR 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

NOR A B Z
𝒁 = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑨+ 𝑩
(not OR) 0 0 1

Page 61 of 66
 0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

➢ Specialty Circuits
o All circuits within the computer are made from a combination of the basic
logic gates. Circuits can be designed to perform addition, subtraction &
comparisons. Combination circuits produce instant results as determined by
a combination of logic gates. Sequential circuits contain memory cells as
well as logic gates.

o Half Adder
❖ A half adder is a combinational circuit that performs the addition of
2 bits.
❖ Only adds single bits.
❖ Doesn’t take carry from previous sum.
❖ The half adder is made by combining AND & XOR gates.

A B S C
0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1

o Full Adder
❖ A full adder is a combinational circuit that can be used to add 3
binary digits. It consists of three inputs & two outputs.
❖ A full adder can be implemented by combining two half adders.

A B Ci S Co
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0
1 0 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1

Page 62 of 66
o Flip-Flops
❖ A flip-flop is a circuit that can store a binary value as long as power is
supplied to the circuit. A flip-flop can store the binary values 1 & 0.
When a value has been set, the flip-flop remains in this state until it
is told to change states.
❖ A flip-flop has two inputs, set (S) & reset (R) &has two outputs, Q &
NOT Q.
❖ Latch Component
▪ A latch is a circuit that is able to store a binary digit. In the
same way that a latch is used to lock a gate, a latch circuit is
used to lock a binary digit within a circuit. For a particular
state, either 0 or 1, to be
maintained within a circuit
requires feedback. Feedback is
provided by connecting the
outputs of two logic gates to
each other’s inputs.
▪ If the set input is 1 & the reset
input is 0, gate 2 (bottom) will have an output of 1. But if
either of the NOR inputs are 1, then the output has to be 0
regardless of the other input.

Page 63 of 66
• Programming of Hardware Devices
➢ The Data Stream
o Format of the Data Stream
❖ Header Information
▪ The information preceding the data is known as the header.
For communication with hardware devices within the
computer system or connected directly to one of its ports, the
header is often just a single start bit. This bit signals to the
receiving device that a new data packet is commencing.
Headers often contain error-checking data such as parity bits or
cyclic redundancy check characters.
❖ Data Block
▪ The actual data being sent. This is the stream of data that is
used by the receiving device. Often control characters are
included within this data stream. For example, a modem
requires control sequences to activate its internal function,
such as instructions to go off-hook or dial a number.
❖ Trailer Information
▪ The information following the data is known as the trailer.
Trailer information includes error checking bits & stop bits.
There are various error checking techniques that can be used,
often a simple parity bit is used. A stop bit often used to
indicate the end of the data packet. Data for error checking
may be included in the trailer. (CRC, hash etc).

Data Stream Sections Properties

Destination Address
Source Address
Type of Packet
Header Sequence Number
TTL (time to leave)
➢ Destroyed if it doesn’t reach the
destination in 15 hops (15 jumps between
routers).
Control
Payload/Data ➢ Gives authority & permission to change
Data
Used for data collection
➢ Parity Bit (least efficient)
Trailer
➢ Check Sum (better efficiency)
➢ CRC - Cycle Redundancy (most efficient)

Header Payload/Data Trailer

Page 64 of 66
o Use of Control Characters
❖ Control characters permit the checking & correct reassembling of a
message. A packet contains control characters to enable correct
interpretation of the packet.

o Error Detection & Correction

❖ Parity Bit
▪ Even Parity
- When the number of 1’s is even . Then parity bit is 0.

▪ Odd Parity
- When the number of 1’s is odd . Then parity bit is 1.

Vinay Sends A Venkat

(10100000101)

START & STOP can never be 0.

Add a 0 to keep even.
Add a 1 to make it even.
▪ Used to check if the electromagnetic noise has affected the
result.
▪ When sending information:

- If the noise level is above the 1 level, then it recognises

it as 1.

If the byte is odd & the result

is even. It knows there is an
error from the parity bit. A 0
or 1 parity indicates its initial
number of 1’s.

Page 65 of 66
 ❖ Check Sum
▪ Checks number of 1’s before & after transmission.
▪ It is impossible for a 1 to change to a 0.
❖ CRC
▪ CRC is the remainder of the polynomial.
▪ If the remainder of f(x) is the same as the binary division then
there is no error.

o Clock
❖ Time for low & high are equal.
❖ It is a signal for when the signal needs to work.

o Use of Hardware Specifications to Describe the Format of the

Data Stream
❖ The input data stream will be structured according to the standards
or protocol followed by the hardware developer. Drive or extension
software such as DLL’s may be required to enable an operating
system to communicate with a particular hardware device.

o Packets
❖ A packet is a small unit of information used when data transfer
occurs on a network.
❖ A TCP?IP packet consists of control information & data which is also
known as payload.
❖ The IPv4 packet header contains he version of IP, Internet Header
Length, Quality of Service which describe the priority the packet
should have, length of the packet, identification tag which helps
reconstruct the packet, a flag defining if a packet can be fragmented
or not, Time to Live Data, protocol data. Header check sum, IP
address destination IP address.

Page 66 of 66