Linear Algebra and Its Applications

Sixth Edition, Global Edition

Chapter 2
Matrix Algebra

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Section 2.1: Matrix Operations

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Matrix Operations (1 of 2)
• If A is an m  n matrix—that is, a matrix with m rows and
n columns—then the scalar entry in the ith row and jth
column of A is denoted by aij and is called the (i, j)-entry
of A. See the figure below.
• Each column of A is a list of m real numbers, which
identifies a vector in 𝑅𝑚

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Matrix Operations (2 of 2)
• The columns are denoted by a1 , , a n , and the matrix A
is written as A = a1 a 2 an 

• The number aij is the ith entry (from the top) of the jth
column vector a j .
• The diagonal entries in an m  n matrix A =  aij  are
a11 , a22 , a33 , , and they form the main diagonal of A.
• A diagonal matrix is an n  n matrix whose nondiagonal
entries are zero.
• An example is the n  n identity matrix, I n .
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Sums and Scalar Multiples (1 of 5)
• An m  n matrix whose entries are all zero is a zero
matrix and is written as 0.
• Two matrices are equal if they have the same size (i.e.,
the same number of rows and the same number of
columns) and if their corresponding columns are equal,
which amounts to saying that their corresponding entries
are equal.
• If A and B are m  n matrices, then the sum A+B is the
m  n matrix whose columns are the sums of the
corresponding columns in A and B.

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Sums and Scalar Multiples (2 of 5)
• Since vector addition of the columns is done entrywise,
each entry in A+B is the sum of the corresponding entries
in A and B.
• The sum A + B is defined only when A and B are the same
size.

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Sums and Scalar Multiples (3 of 5)
 4 0 5  1 1 1
• Example 1: Let A=  ,B =   ,
 −1 3 2  3 5 7 
 2 −3
and C =   . Find A + B and A + C.
0 1

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Sums and Scalar Multiples (4 of 5)
 5 1 6
• Solution: A + B =   but A + C is not defined
2 8 9
because A and C have different sizes.
• If r is a scalar and A is a matrix, then the scalar multiple
rA is the matrix whose columns are r times the
corresponding columns in A.

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Sums and Scalar Multiples (5 of 5)
• Theorem 1: Let A, B, and C be matrices of the same size, and let r
and s be scalars.

a. A+ B = B + A
b. ( A + B) + C = A + ( B + C )
c. A+0 = A
d. r ( A + B ) = rA + rB
e. (r + s ) A = rA + sA
f. r ( sA) = (rs ) A

• Each quantity in Theorem 1 is verified by showing that the matrix on

the left side has the same size as the matrix on the right and that
corresponding columns are equal.

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Matrix Multiplication (1 of 7)
• When a matrix B multiplies a vector x, it transforms x into
the vector Bx.
• If this vector is then multiplied in turn by a matrix A, the
resulting vector is resulting vector is A ( Bx ) .
See the Fig. below.

• Thus A ( Bx ) is produced from x by a composition of

mappings—the linear transformations.
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Matrix Multiplication (2 of 7)
• Our goal is to represent this composite mapping as
multiplication by a single matrix, denoted by AB, so that
A( Bx) = (AB )x . See the figure below.

• If A is 𝑚 × 𝑛, 𝐵 is 𝑛 × 𝑝, and 𝐱 is in 𝑅𝑝 denote the columns

of B by b1 , , b p and the entries in x by x1 , , xp .

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Matrix Multiplication (3 of 7)
• Then
Bx = x1b1 + ... + x p b p
• By the linearity of multiplication by A,
A( Bx) = A( x1b1 ) + ... + A( x p b p )
= x1 Ab1 + ... + x p Ab p
• The vector A ( Bx ) is a linear combination of the vectors
Ab1 , , Ab p , using the entries in x as weights.
• In matrix notation, this linear combination is written as
A( Bx) =  Ab1 Ab 2 Ab p  x
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Matrix Multiplication (4 of 7)
• Thus multiplication by transforms x into A ( Bx ) .
 Ab1 Ab 2 Ab p 

• Definition: If A is an m  n matrix, and if B is an n  p

matrix with columns b1 , , b p , then the product AB is the
m  p matrix whose columns are Ab1 , , Ab p .

• That is, AB = A b1 b 2 b p  =  Ab1 Ab 2 Ab p 

• Multiplication of matrices corresponds to composition

of linear transformations.

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Matrix Multiplication (5 of 7)

• Example 2: Compute AB, where

 2 3 4 3 6
A=  and B=  .
 1 −5  1 −2 3
• Solution: Write B = b1 b 2 b3  and compute :

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Matrix Multiplication (6 of 7)
 2 3  4   2 3   3  2 3  6 
Ab1 =    Ab 2 =    −2  Ab 3 =    3
 1 −5  1  1 −5    1 −5  
, ,
 11  0  21
=  =  = 
 −1 13  −9 

 11 0 21
• Then AB = Ab1 b 2 b3  =  
 −1 13 −9 

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Matrix Multiplication (7 of 7)
• Each column of AB is a linear combination of the columns
of A using weights from the corresponding column of B.
• Row—column rule for computing AB
• If a product AB is defined, then the entry in row i and
column j of AB is the sum of the products of corresponding
entries from row i of A and column j of B.
• If ( AB ) denotes the (i, j)-entry in AB, and if A is an m  n
ij

matrix, then
( AB)ij = ai1b1 j + ... + ainbnj .

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Properties of Matrix Multiplication (1 of 4)
• Theorem 2: Let A be an m  n matrix, and let B and C
have sizes for which the indicated sums and products are
defined.
a. A( BC ) = ( AB)C ( associative law of multiplication )
b. A( B + C ) = AB + AC ( left distributive law )
c. ( B + C ) A = BA + CA ( right distributive law )
d. r ( AB) = (rA) B = A(rB) for any scalar r
e. I m A = A = AI n ( )

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Properties of Matrix Multiplication (2 of 4)
• Proof: Property (a) follows from the fact that matrix
multiplication corresponds to composition of linear
transformations (which are functions), and it is known that
the composition of functions is associative.
• Let C = c1 c p 

• By the definition of matrix multiplication,

BC =  Bc1 Bc p 
A( BC ) =  A( Bc1 ) A( Bc p ) 

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Properties of Matrix Multiplication (3 of 4)
• The definition of AB makes A( Bx) = ( AB)x for all x, so

A( BC ) = ( AB)c1 ( AB)c p  = ( AB)C

• The left-to-right order in products is critical because AB and
BA are usually not the same.
• Because the columns of AB are linear combinations of the
columns of A, whereas the columns of BA are constructed
from the columns of B.
• The position of the factors in the product AB is emphasized
by saying that A is right-multiplied by B or that B is left-
multiplied by A.
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Properties of Matrix Multiplication (4 of 4)
• If AB = BA, we say that A and B commute with one
another.
• Warnings:
1. In general, AB  BA.
2. The cancellation laws do not hold for matrix
multiplication. That is, if AB = AC, then it is not true in
general that B = C.
3. If a product AB is the zero matrix, you cannot conclude
in general that either A = 0 or B = 0.

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Powers of a Matrix
• If A is an n  n matrix and if k is a positive integer, then
Ak denotes the product of k copies of A:
Ak = A A
k

• If A is nonzero and if x is in 𝑅𝑛 , then 𝐴𝑘 x is the result of

left-multiplying x by A repeatedly k times.
• If k = 0, then A0 x should be x itself.
• Thus A0 is interpreted as the identity matrix.

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The Transpose of a Matrix (1 of 2)
• Given an m  n matrix A, the transpose of A is the n  m
matrix, denoted by AT , whose columns are formed from
the corresponding rows of A.
T
1 2 3 1 4 7 
4 5 6 = 2 5 8 
   
7 8 9   3 6 9 

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The Transpose of a Matrix (2 of 2)
Theorem 3: Let A and B denote matrices whose sizes are
appropriate for the following sums and products.
a. ( AT )T = A
b. ( A + B )T = AT + BT
c. For any scalar r , (rA)T = rAT
d. ( AB)T = BT AT
The transpose of a product of matrices equals the product
of their transposes in the reverse order.

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